35th United States Congress (1857-1859)

The 35th United States Congress convened at a juncture in American history when the very fabric of the nation felt stretched thin, nearing its breaking point. This legislative body, serving from March 4, 1857, to March 4, 1859, operated under the nascent administration of President James Buchanan , whose tenure would become synonymous with the escalating sectional crisis that ultimately plunged the country into civil war. It was a period where political maneuvering often devolved into outright physical confrontation, and judicial pronouncements served only to deepen the chasm between North and South. One might observe that the political climate was less about governance and more about a prolonged, increasingly acrimonious divorce proceeding, with the United States Capitol serving as the unwilling, rather grand, courtroom.

34th ←

→ 36th

The grand dome of the United States Capitol , still under construction in 1860, loomed over this Congress, a silent, unblinking witness to the nation’s unfolding drama.

This particular Congress, comprising 66 senators and 237 representatives, alongside 7 non-voting delegates from various territories, met in the city of Washington, D.C. . Its term spanned the initial two years of James Buchanan ’s presidency , a period marked by profound economic upheaval and intensified debate over the expansion of slavery. The allocation of seats within the United States House of Representatives reflected the demographic shifts recorded by the 1850 United States census . In both the upper and lower chambers, the Democratic Party managed to maintain a majority, a fact that, in hindsight, offered little in the way of national unity or decisive action.

Major Events

One might argue that “major events” during this period were less about progress and more about the relentless march towards an inevitable, and rather messy, reckoning. See also: 1857 in the United States , 1858 in the United States , and 1859 in the United States .

• September 1857: The Panic of 1857 – A severe economic depression gripped the nation, triggered by the collapse of the Ohio Life Insurance and Trust Company, over-speculation in railroads, and a significant drop in grain prices. The panic led to widespread bank failures, business bankruptcies, and mass unemployment, exacerbating existing social tensions. One might observe that humanity’s capacity for financial self-immolation is remarkably consistent across centuries. This economic downturn, while seemingly distinct from the slavery debate, undeniably fueled public discontent and distrust in the federal government’s ability to manage national affairs.
• March 4, 1857: James Buchanan became President of the United States – Buchanan, a Pennsylvania Democrat, ascended to the presidency with a platform that sought to quell sectional strife by enforcing the Dred Scott decision and supporting popular sovereignty in the territories. His inauguration, however, was immediately overshadowed by the very issues he hoped to resolve, setting the stage for one of the most troubled presidencies in American history. It was less a triumph and more an unfortunate inheritance of insoluble problems.
• March 6, 1857: Dred Scott v. Sandford – Just two days after Buchanan’s inauguration, the United States Supreme Court , under Chief Justice Roger B. Taney, delivered its infamous ruling in the Dred Scott v. Sandford case. The decision declared that African Americans, whether enslaved or free, could not be American citizens and therefore had no standing to sue in federal court. Furthermore, it asserted that the Missouri Compromise was unconstitutional, effectively opening all federal territories to slavery. This judicial pronouncement, intended to settle the slavery question, instead ignited a firestorm, infuriating abolitionists and Republicans, and confirming the worst fears of many about the federal government’s stance on slavery. It was a legal decision that managed to be both profoundly misguided and utterly catastrophic, a rare feat of legislative self-sabotage.
• July 18, 1857: Utah Expedition left Fort Leavenworth , effectively beginning the Utah War – In a bizarre diversion from the escalating national crisis over slavery, the federal government dispatched a significant military force, the Utah Expedition, to the Utah Territory. The objective was to assert federal authority over the Latter-day Saint (Mormon) settlers and replace Brigham Young as territorial governor. This conflict, largely bloodless but a drain on federal resources and attention, highlighted the complex and often contentious relationship between Washington and its distant territories, even as the Union itself fractured.
• February 6, 1858: Brawl on the floor of the House involving 50 or more representatives during the debates over the admission of Kansas as free or slave. This rather undignified spectacle occurred amidst heated discussions surrounding the Lecompton Constitution , a pro-slavery document proposed for Kansas’s statehood. The eruption of physical violence, a sprawling melee involving dozens of elected officials, served as a stark and rather pathetic illustration of the breakdown of decorum and civil discourse in Congress. One might find it amusing, if not for the grim implications it held for the nation’s future. It was, shall we say, a preview of coming attractions.
• August 21, 1858: First of the Lincoln-Douglas debates was held – While not directly a congressional event, these seven debates between Republican challenger Abraham Lincoln and incumbent Democratic Senator Stephen A. Douglas for a U.S. Senate seat in Illinois captivated the nation. They became a crucial platform for discussing the moral, legal, and political implications of slavery’s expansion, particularly in the wake of the Dred Scott decision. Though Douglas ultimately won the Senate race, Lincoln’s eloquent articulation of the Republican stance against slavery’s expansion elevated his national profile, setting the stage for his presidential bid. It was a political masterclass, masquerading as a local election.
• March 3, 1859: Financial appropriations for the improvement and construction of lighthouses. Amidst the grand pronouncements, the fiery debates, and the very real threat of national disintegration, Congress still managed to allocate funds for the prosaic, yet undeniably useful, task of building and improving lighthouses. A small, almost comforting reminder that even as the ship of state listed dangerously, someone was still concerned with keeping the lights on. One assumes the light keepers were grateful for the relative stability of their tasks.

Major Legislation

The legislative output of the 35th United States Congress often reflected the deep divisions and political paralysis of the era. While some routine matters were addressed, any attempt at significant, unifying legislation on the paramount issue of the day—slavery—proved either impossible or, when enacted, only served to inflame tensions further. Main article: Major legislation: 35th United States Congress

Treaties

In an era of internal turmoil, the nation still maintained its diplomatic presence on the global stage, though one might wonder how much attention was truly paid to international affairs when the domestic house was so clearly aflame. Main article: List of United States treaties

• March 12, 1858: Treaty with the Ponca signed – This treaty, signed with the Ponca tribe, involved the cession of significant tribal lands to the United States . The agreement, like many treaties of the era, outlined a specific reservation for the tribe, beginning “at a point on the Niobrara River and running due north, so as to intersect the Ponca River 25 miles from its mouth; thence from said point of intersection, up and along the Ponca River, twenty — miles; thence due south to the Niobrara River; and thence down and along said river to the place of beginning.” Such agreements, often coerced and rarely honored in the long term, were a continuous feature of American expansion, even as the nation grappled with its own internal boundaries.
• April 19, 1858: Treaty with the Yankton Sioux signed – Following the pattern of land cessions, the Yankton Sioux also entered into a treaty with the United States , relinquishing vast tracts of their ancestral lands in what would become southeastern South Dakota and parts of Nebraska. These treaties, while appearing as formal diplomatic acts, invariably represented a significant loss of sovereignty and territory for Native American nations, pushing them onto ever-smaller reservations.
• July 29, 1858: Harris Treaty signed with Japan – This landmark agreement, officially known as the Treaty of Amity and Commerce, was signed between the United States and Japan, largely through the efforts of Townsend Harris, the first U.S. Consul General to Japan. It opened several Japanese ports to American trade, established diplomatic relations, and granted extraterritoriality to American citizens in Japan. This treaty effectively ended Japan’s long period of national isolation (Sakoku) and initiated its modernization, marking a significant moment in global diplomacy, far removed from the congressional brawls back in Washington.

States Admitted

Even as the existing states squabbled, the Union continued its westward expansion, adding new stars to a flag that would soon be torn.

• May 11, 1858: Minnesota admitted as the 32nd state – The admission of Minnesota to the Union brought another free state into the fold, a development that, while not directly tied to the Kansas-Nebraska Act, was part of the broader, delicate balance of power in Congress. Its entry was relatively uncontroversial compared to the fiery debates surrounding other territories, offering a brief respite from the sectional tensions.
• February 14, 1859: Oregon admitted as the 33rd state – Oregon also entered the Union as a free state, further solidifying the North’s numerical advantage in the Senate, though this did little to assuage Southern fears or halt the march towards disunion. The process of admitting new states, once a source of national pride, had become another battleground in the relentless struggle over slavery.

Party Summary

The political landscape of the mid-19th century was a shifting, tumultuous mess, a testament to the fact that ideological purity often leads to fragmentation. The 35th United States Congress saw the continued dominance of the Democratic Party , even as the fledgling Republican Party gained traction, fueled by anti-slavery sentiment, and the Know Nothing Party (officially the American Party) withered, its nativist platform proving insufficient to overcome the overriding issue of slavery.

Senate

A group photo of the U.S. Senate , taken in 1859, captures the faces of the men who navigated these treacherous political waters. During this Congress, two new Senate seats were allocated for each of the newly admitted states of Minnesota and Oregon , further altering the delicate balance.

The Democratic Party maintained a clear majority throughout this period, a seemingly strong position that belied the deep internal divisions within its ranks, particularly between Northern and Southern Democrats on the issue of slavery. The Republican Party , a relatively new political force, steadily increased its numbers, drawing strength from the growing anti-slavery sentiment in the North and West. The Know Nothing Party , a nativist and anti-immigrant movement, saw its influence wane as the national debate became almost exclusively focused on the peculiar institution.

House of Representatives

The House of Representatives , a more immediate reflection of public sentiment, also saw shifts, though the Democratic Party still held the reins. During this Congress, two House seats were added for the new state of Minnesota , and one House seat was added for the new state of Oregon , increasing the total membership and further complicating the already tumultuous legislative process.

The Democratic Party maintained its majority, albeit a fractious one, in the House of Representatives . The Republican Party continued its ascent, becoming the primary opposition force, particularly in the North. The presence of a small contingent of Independent Democrats and the dwindling numbers of the Know Nothing Party (listed as ‘A’ for American Party, but often referred to as Opposition ) underscored the fluidity and realignment of political affiliations during this period of intense national crisis. The political landscape was less a stable edifice and more a collection of shifting sands.

Leadership

In the midst of such profound division, the individuals tasked with leading the legislative chambers found themselves in unenviable positions, attempting to steer a ship increasingly prone to mutiny.

Senate

John C. Breckinridge , the Vice President, presided over the Senate during this turbulent period.

• President : John C. Breckinridge (D) – As the sitting Vice President, Breckinridge, a Kentuckian and a Democrat, served as the President of the Senate. His role was largely procedural, but his presence underscored the Southern influence within the Democratic Party and the federal government at large.
• President pro tempore : James M. Mason (D), March 4, 1857, only – Mason, a Democrat from Virginia, briefly held the position, stepping in for the Vice President in his absence.
• President pro tempore : Thomas J. Rusk (D), elected March 14, 1857 – Rusk, a Texas Democrat, assumed the role after Mason. His tenure was cut short by his tragic death later that year.
• President pro tempore : Benjamin Fitzpatrick (D), elected December 7, 1857 – Fitzpatrick, a Democrat from Alabama, took over the position, bringing a strong Southern voice to the Senate’s temporary leadership.

House of Representatives

James L. Orr , a Democrat from South Carolina, held the gavel as Speaker of the House.

• Speaker : James L. Orr (D) – Orr, a prominent Democrat from South Carolina, presided over the House of Representatives . His leadership was tested repeatedly by the escalating tensions and frequent outbursts on the House floor, reflecting the deeply partisan and often chaotic legislative environment. The Speaker’s chair, one might say, was less a seat of power and more a hot seat in a political pressure cooker.

Members

This section, a roster of the individuals who gathered in Washington to debate, legislate, and occasionally brawl, is arranged by chamber, then by state. Senators are listed in order of seniority, a system that, one presumes, was meant to instill some semblance of order, while representatives are listed by district. One can almost picture the sheer volume of personalities, ambitions, and conflicting ideologies crammed into the hallowed halls of the United States Capitol during these fraught years.

Senate

Main article: List of United States senators in the 35th Congress

Senators were, as tradition dictated, elected by their respective state legislatures every two years. The system ensured a staggered rotation, with roughly one-third of the chamber beginning new six-year terms with each incoming Congress. The class numbers preceding the names in the list below serve as a rudimentary timeline: Class 1 indicated a term commencing with this Congress, with re-election due in 1862; Class 2 denoted a term concluding with this Congress, necessitating re-election in 1858; and Class 3 referred to a term that began in the preceding Congress, with re-election scheduled for 1860. This meticulous system provided a thin veneer of continuity over a political body that was anything but stable.

Alabama ▌3. Benjamin Fitzpatrick (D) ▌2. Clement C. Clay Jr. (D)

Arkansas ▌2. William K. Sebastian (D) ▌3. Robert W. Johnson (D)

California ▌1. David C. Broderick (D) ▌3. William M. Gwin (D)

Connecticut ▌1. James Dixon (R) ▌3. Lafayette S. Foster (R)

Delaware ▌1. James A. Bayard Jr. (D) ▌2. Martin W. Bates (D)

Florida ▌1. Stephen Mallory (D) ▌3. David Levy Yulee (D)

Georgia ▌2. Robert Toombs (D) ▌3. Alfred Iverson Sr. (D)

Illinois ▌2. Stephen A. Douglas (D) ▌3. Lyman Trumbull (R)

Indiana ▌1. Jesse D. Bright (D) ▌3. Graham N. Fitch (D)

Iowa ▌2. George Wallace Jones (D) ▌3. James Harlan (R)

Kentucky ▌2. John B. Thompson (A) ▌3. John J. Crittenden (A)

Louisiana ▌2. Judah P. Benjamin (D) ▌3. John Slidell (D)

Maine ▌1. Hannibal Hamlin (R) ▌2. William Pitt Fessenden (R)

Maryland ▌1. Anthony Kennedy (A) ▌3. James A. Pearce (D)

Massachusetts ▌1. Charles Sumner (R) ▌2. Henry Wilson (R)

Michigan ▌1. Zachariah Chandler (R) ▌2. Charles E. Stuart (D)

Minnesota ▌1. Henry M. Rice (D), from May 11, 1858 (newly admitted state) ▌2. James Shields (D), from May 11, 1858 (newly admitted state)

Mississippi ▌1. Jefferson Davis (D) ▌2. Albert G. Brown (D)

Missouri ▌1. Trusten Polk (D) ▌3. James S. Green (D)

New Hampshire ▌2. John P. Hale (R) ▌3. James Bell (R), until May 26, 1857 ▌Daniel Clark (R), from June 27, 1857

New Jersey ▌1. John R. Thomson (D) ▌2. William Wright (D)

New York ▌1. Preston King (R) ▌3. William H. Seward (R)

North Carolina ▌2. David S. Reid (D) ▌3. Asa Biggs (D), until May 5, 1858 ▌Thomas L. Clingman (D), from May 7, 1858

Ohio ▌1. Benjamin Wade (R) ▌3. George E. Pugh (D)

Oregon ▌2. Delazon Smith (D), from February 14, 1859 (newly admitted state) ▌3. Joseph Lane (D), from February 14, 1859 (newly admitted state)

Pennsylvania ▌1. Simon Cameron (R) ▌3. William Bigler (D)

Rhode Island ▌1. James F. Simmons (R) ▌2. Philip Allen (D)

South Carolina ▌2. Josiah J. Evans (D), until May 6, 1858 ▌Arthur P. Hayne (D), from May 11, 1858, until December 2, 1858 ▌James Chesnut Jr. (D), from December 3, 1858 ▌3. Andrew Butler (D), until May 25, 1857 ▌James H. Hammond (D), from December 7, 1857

Tennessee ▌1. Andrew Johnson (D), from October 8, 1857 ▌2. John Bell (A)

Texas ▌1. Thomas J. Rusk (D), until July 29, 1857 ▌J. Pinckney Henderson (D), November 9, 1857 - June 4, 1858 ▌Matthias Ward (D), from September 27, 1858 ▌2. Samuel Houston (D)

Vermont ▌1. Solomon Foot (R) ▌3. Jacob Collamer (R)

Virginia ▌1. James M. Mason (D) ▌2. Robert M. T. Hunter (D)

Wisconsin ▌1. James R. Doolittle (R) ▌3. Charles Durkee (R)

The visual representation of Senators’ party membership by state at the opening of the 35th Congress in March 1857 offers a stark illustration of the sectional divide. The green stripes, indicating the presence of Know-Nothings , were a dwindling anomaly. The newly admitted states of Minnesota and Oregon , and their respective senators, were not seated until later in the congressional term, further shifting the balance.

•   2 Democrats
•   1 Democrat and 1 Republican
•   2 Republicans
•   2 Know-Nothings

House of Representatives

Main article: List of United States representatives in the 35th Congress

The House of Representatives , with its larger and more diverse membership, was a microcosm of the nation’s political anxieties. The names of representatives are preceded by their district numbers, a seemingly mundane detail that, in this era, often represented a distinct regional interest or a fervent ideological stance on the issues of the day.

Alabama ▌1 . James A. Stallworth (D) ▌2 . Eli S. Shorter (D) ▌3 . James F. Dowdell (D) ▌4 . Sydenham Moore (D) ▌5 . George S. Houston (D) ▌6 . Williamson R. W. Cobb (D) ▌7 . Jabez L. M. Curry (D)

Arkansas ▌1 . Alfred B. Greenwood (D) ▌2 . Edward A. Warren (D)

California ▌At-large . [note 1] Joseph C. McKibbin (D) ▌At-large . [note 1] Charles L. Scott (D)

Connecticut ▌1 . Ezra Clark Jr. (R) ▌2 . Samuel Arnold (D) ▌3 . Sidney Dean (R) ▌4 . William D. Bishop (D)

Delaware ▌At-large . William G. Whiteley (D)

Florida ▌At-large . George S. Hawkins (D)

Georgia ▌1 . James L. Seward (D) ▌2 . Martin J. Crawford (D) ▌3 . Robert P. Trippe (A) ▌4 . Lucius J. Gartrell (D) ▌5 . Augustus R. Wright (D) ▌6 . James Jackson (D) ▌7 . Joshua Hill (A) ▌8 . Alexander H. Stephens (D)

Illinois ▌1 . Elihu B. Washburne (R) ▌2 . John F. Farnsworth (R) ▌3 . Owen Lovejoy (R) ▌4 . William Kellogg (R) ▌5 . Isaac N. Morris (D) ▌6 . Thomas L. Harris (D), until November 24, 1858 ▌Charles D. Hodges (D), from January 4, 1859 ▌7 . Aaron Shaw (D) ▌8 . Robert Smith (D) ▌9 . Samuel S. Marshall (D)

Indiana ▌1 . James Lockhart (D), until September 7, 1857 ▌William E. Niblack (D), from December 7, 1857 ▌2 . William H. English (D) ▌3 . James Hughes (D) ▌4 . James B. Foley (D) ▌5 . David Kilgore (R) ▌6 . James M. Gregg (D) ▌7 . John G. Davis (D) ▌8 . James Wilson (R) ▌9 . Schuyler Colfax (R) ▌10 . Samuel Brenton (R), until March 29, 1857 ▌Charles Case (R), from December 7, 1857 ▌11 . John U. Pettit (R)

Iowa ▌1 . Samuel Curtis (R) ▌2 . Timothy Davis (R)

Kentucky ▌1 . Henry C. Burnett (D) ▌2 . Samuel O. Peyton (D) ▌3 . Warner L. Underwood (A) ▌4 . Albert G. Talbott (D) ▌5 . Joshua Jewett (D) ▌6 . John M. Elliott (D) ▌7 . Humphrey Marshall (A) ▌8 . James B. Clay (D) ▌9 . John C. Mason (D) ▌10 . John W. Stevenson (D)

Louisiana ▌1 . George Eustis Jr. (A) ▌2 . Miles Taylor (D) ▌3 . Thomas G. Davidson (D) ▌4 . John M. Sandidge (D)

Maine ▌1 . John M. Wood (R) ▌2 . Charles J. Gilman (R) ▌3 . Nehemiah Abbott (R) ▌4 . Freeman H. Morse (R) ▌5 . Israel Washburn Jr. (R) ▌6 . Stephen C. Foster (R)

Maryland ▌1 . James A. Stewart (D) ▌2 . James B. Ricaud (A) ▌3 . J. Morrison Harris (A) ▌4 . Henry Winter Davis (A) ▌5 . Jacob M. Kunkel (D) ▌6 . Thomas F. Bowie (D)

Massachusetts ▌1 . Robert B. Hall (R) ▌2 . James Buffington (R) ▌3 . William S. Damrell (R) ▌4 . Linus B. Comins (R) ▌5 . Anson Burlingame (R) ▌6 . Timothy Davis (R) ▌7 . Nathaniel P. Banks (R), until December 24, 1857 ▌Daniel W. Gooch (R), from January 31, 1858 ▌8 . Chauncey L. Knapp (R) ▌9 . Eli Thayer (R) ▌10 . Calvin C. Chaffee (R) ▌11 . Henry L. Dawes (R)

Michigan ▌1 . William A. Howard (R) ▌2 . Henry Waldron (R) ▌3 . David S. Walbridge (R) ▌4 . De Witt C. Leach (R)

Minnesota ▌At-large . [note 1] James M. Cavanaugh (D), from May 11, 1858 (newly admitted state) ▌At-large . [note 1] William W. Phelps (D), from May 11, 1858 (newly admitted state)

Mississippi ▌1 . Lucius Q. C. Lamar (D) ▌2 . Reuben Davis (D) ▌3 . William Barksdale (D) ▌4 . Otho R. Singleton (D) ▌5 . John A. Quitman (D), until July 17, 1858 ▌John J. McRae (D), from December 7, 1858

Missouri ▌1 . Francis P. Blair Jr. (R) ▌2 . Thomas L. Anderson (A) ▌3 . John B. Clark (D), from December 7, 1857 ▌4 . James Craig (D) ▌5 . Samuel H. Woodson (A) ▌6 . John S. Phelps (D) ▌7 . Samuel Caruthers (D)

New Hampshire ▌1 . James Pike (R) ▌2 . Mason Tappan (R) ▌3 . Aaron H. Cragin (R)

New Jersey ▌1 . Isaiah D. Clawson (R) ▌2 . George R. Robbins (R) ▌3 . Garnett Adrain (D) ▌4 . John Huyler (D) ▌5 . Jacob R. Wortendyke (D)

New York ▌1 . John A. Searing (D) ▌2 . George Taylor (D) ▌3 . Daniel Sickles (D) ▌4 . John Kelly (D), until December 25, 1858 ▌Thomas J. Barr (ID), from January 7, 1859 ▌5 . William B. Maclay (D) ▌6 . John Cochrane (D) ▌7 . Elijah Ward (D) ▌8 . Horace F. Clark (D) ▌9 . John B. Haskin (D) ▌10 . Ambrose S. Murray (R) ▌11 . William F. Russell (D) ▌12 . John Thompson (R) ▌13 . Abram B. Olin (R) ▌14 . Erastus Corning (D) ▌15 . Edward Dodd (R) ▌16 . George W. Palmer (R) ▌17 . Francis E. Spinner (R) ▌18 . Clark B. Cochrane (R) ▌19 . Oliver A. Morse (R) ▌20 . Orsamus B. Matteson (R) ▌21 . Henry Bennett (R) ▌22 . Henry C. Goodwin (R) ▌23 . Charles B. Hoard (R) ▌24 . Amos P. Granger (R) ▌25 . Edwin B. Morgan (R) ▌26 . Emory B. Pottle (R) ▌27 . John M. Parker (R) ▌28 . William H. Kelsey (R) ▌29 . Samuel G. Andrews (R) ▌30 . Judson W. Sherman (R) ▌31 . Silas M. Burroughs (R) ▌32 . Israel T. Hatch (D) ▌33 . Reuben Fenton (R)

North Carolina ▌1 . Henry M. Shaw (D) ▌2 . Thomas H. Ruffin (D) ▌3 . Warren Winslow (D) ▌4 . Lawrence O’Bryan Branch (D) ▌5 . John A. Gilmer (A) ▌6 . Alfred M. Scales (D) ▌7 . F. Burton Craige (D) ▌8 . Thomas L. Clingman (D), until May 7, 1858 ▌Zebulon B. Vance (D), from December 7, 1858

Ohio ▌1 . George H. Pendleton (D) ▌2 . William S. Groesbeck (D) ▌3 . Lewis D. Campbell (R), until May 25, 1858 ▌Clement Vallandigham (D), from May 25, 1858 ▌4 . Matthias H. Nichols (R) ▌5 . Richard Mott (R) ▌6 . Joseph R. Cockerill (D) ▌7 . Aaron Harlan (R) ▌8 . Benjamin Stanton (R) ▌9 . Lawrence W. Hall (D) ▌10 . Joseph Miller (D) ▌11 . Valentine B. Horton (R) ▌12 . Samuel S. Cox (D) ▌13 . John Sherman (R) ▌14 . Philemon Bliss (R) ▌15 . Joseph Burns (D) ▌16 . Cydnor B. Tompkins (R) ▌17 . William Lawrence (D) ▌18 . Benjamin F. Leiter (R) ▌19 . Edward Wade (R) ▌20 . Joshua R. Giddings (R) ▌21 . John Bingham (R)

Oregon ▌At-large . La Fayette Grover (D), from February 14, 1859 (newly admitted state)

Pennsylvania ▌1 . Thomas B. Florence (D) ▌2 . Edward Joy Morris (R) ▌3 . James Landy (D) ▌4 . Henry M. Phillips (D) ▌5 . Owen Jones (D) ▌6 . John Hickman (D) ▌7 . Henry Chapman (D) ▌8 . J. Glancey Jones (D), until October 30, 1858 ▌William H. Keim (R), from December 7, 1858 ▌9 . Anthony E. Roberts (R) ▌10 . John C. Kunkel (R) ▌11 . William L. Dewart (D) ▌12 . John G. Montgomery (D), until April 24, 1857 ▌Paul Leidy (D), from December 7, 1857 ▌13 . William H. Dimmick (D) ▌14 . Galusha A. Grow (R) ▌15 . Allison White (D) ▌16 . John A. Ahl (D) ▌17 . Wilson Reilly (D) ▌18 . John R. Edie (R) ▌19 . John Covode (R) ▌20 . William Montgomery (D) ▌21 . David Ritchie (R) ▌22 . Samuel A. Purviance (R) ▌23 . William Stewart (R) ▌24 . James L. Gillis (D) ▌25 . John Dick (R)

Rhode Island ▌1 . Nathaniel B. Durfee (R) ▌2 . William D. Brayton (R)

South Carolina ▌1 . John McQueen (D) ▌2 . William P. Miles (D) ▌3 . Laurence M. Keitt (D) ▌4 . Milledge L. Bonham (D) ▌5 . James L. Orr (D) ▌6 . William W. Boyce (D)

Tennessee ▌1 . Albert G. Watkins (D) ▌2 . Horace Maynard (A) ▌3 . Samuel A. Smith (D) ▌4 . John H. Savage (D) ▌5 . Charles Ready (A) ▌6 . George W. Jones (D) ▌7 . John V. Wright (D) ▌8 . Felix K. Zollicoffer (A) ▌9 . John D. C. Atkins (D) ▌10 . William T. Avery (D)

Texas ▌1 . John H. Reagan (D) ▌2 . Guy M. Bryan (D)

Vermont ▌1 . Eliakim P. Walton (R) ▌2 . Justin S. Morrill (R) ▌3 . Homer E. Royce (R)

Virginia ▌1 . Muscoe R. H. Garnett (D) ▌2 . John S. Millson (D) ▌3 . John Caskie (D) ▌4 . William Goode (D) ▌5 . Thomas S. Bocock (D) ▌6 . Paulus Powell (D) ▌7 . William Smith (D) ▌8 . Charles J. Faulkner Sr. (D) ▌9 . John Letcher (D) ▌10 . Sherrard Clemens (D) ▌11 . Albert G. Jenkins (D) ▌12 . Henry A. Edmundson (D) ▌13 . George W. Hopkins (D)

Wisconsin ▌1 . John F. Potter (R) ▌2 . Cadwallader C. Washburn (R) ▌3 . Charles Billinghurst (R)

Non-voting members

A curious collection of delegates from the burgeoning territories, these individuals observed and advocated, but lacked the power to cast a vote in the legislative process. Their presence, however, was a constant reminder of the nation’s expansion and the ongoing debates about the future status of these lands, particularly regarding the issue of slavery.

▌Kansas Territory . Marcus J. Parrott (R) ▌Minnesota Territory . William W. Kingsbury (D), until May 11, 1858 ▌Nebraska Territory . Fenner Ferguson (D) ▌New Mexico Territory . Miguel A. Otero (D) ▌Oregon Territory . Joseph Lane (D), until February 14, 1859 ▌Utah Territory . John M. Bernhisel ▌Washington Territory . Isaac Stevens (D)

The visual representation of House seats by party holding plurality in state offers another lens through which to view the intensifying regional divisions. The shades of blue and red demonstrate the geographical concentration of Democratic and Republican strength, respectively, with lighter shades indicating more competitive districts. This political cartography highlighted a nation splitting along ideological and economic lines, with the question of slavery underpinning nearly every political affiliation.

•   80.1-100% Democratic
•   80.1-100% Republican
•   60.1-80% Democratic
•   60.1-80% Republican
•   Up to 60% Democratic
•   Up to 60% Republican

Changes in membership

The constant flux in congressional membership during this period was not merely a matter of routine elections and retirements; it reflected the volatile political climate, where deaths, resignations, and even contested elections were often tied to the all-consuming national debate. The legislative branch, it seemed, was as unstable as the nation it represented. The count below accounts for the various shifts that occurred from the commencement of the first session of this Congress.

Senate

See also: List of special elections to the United States Senate

The upper chamber, typically seen as the more stable and deliberative body, nonetheless experienced its share of turnover. The addition of new states meant new seats, further complicating the delicate balance of power.

• Replacements: 5
• Democrats (D) : no net change
• Whigs (W) : no net change (it should be noted that the Whig Party was in severe decline by this point, with its members having largely migrated to other parties like the Know-Nothings or Republicans)
• Republicans (R) : no net change
• Americans (A) : no net change
• Deaths: 4
• Resignations: 1
• Interim appointments: 2
• Seats of newly admitted states: 4
• Total seats with changes: 9

Senate changes

House of Representatives

See also: List of special elections to the United States House of Representatives

The House of Representatives , with its more frequent elections and larger turnover, experienced an even greater degree of change. Deaths and resignations created vacancies, and the admission of new states brought new representatives into the fold, each adding their voice to the increasingly discordant national chorus.

• Replacements: 10
• Democrats (D) : 3 seat net loss
• Whigs (W) : 3 seat net gain (This reflects a nuanced shift, as many former Whigs were now identifying as Know-Nothings or Republicans, but some may have been elected under the Whig banner in specific contests, or the ‘W’ might be a historical classification for members of the Opposition Party )
• Republicans (R) : 1 seat net gain
• Independent Democrats (ID) : 1 seat net gain
• Deaths: 5
• Resignations: 6
• Contested election: 1
• Seats of newly admitted states: 3
• Total seats with changes: 14

House changes

Committees

The intricate web of congressional committees, though often operating behind closed doors, was where much of the legislative heavy lifting (or, in this period, the legislative stagnation) occurred. These specialized bodies reflected the concerns and priorities of the time, from managing the nation’s finances to overseeing its military, all while the shadow of slavery lengthened across every agenda. One might consider them the digestive system of Congress, processing legislative proposals with varying degrees of efficiency and success.

Senate

• Audit and Control the Contingent Expenses of the Senate (Chairman: Josiah J. Evans then William Wright )
• Banks of the District of Columbia (Select)
• Claims (Chairman: Alfred Iverson Sr. )
• Commerce (Chairman: Clement Claiborne Clay )
• Distributing Public Revenue Among the States (Select)
• District of Columbia (Chairman: Albert G. Brown )
• Engrossed Bills (Chairman: William Wright )
• Finance (Chairman: Robert M.T. Hunter )
• Foreign Relations (Chairman: James M. Mason )
• French Spoliations (Select)
• Indian Affairs (Chairman: William K. Sebastian )
• Judiciary (Chairman: James A. Bayard Jr. )
• Military Affairs (Chairman: Jefferson Davis )
• Military Asylum near Washington, D.C. (Select)
• Militia (Chairman: N/A)
• Naval Affairs (Chairman: Stephen Mallory )
• Ordnance and War Ships (Select)
• Pacific Railroad (Select)
• Patents and the Patent Office (Chairman: David S. Reid )
• Pensions (Chairman: George Wallace Jones )
• Post Office and Post Roads (Chairman: David Levy Yulee )
• Printing (Chairman: Robert W. Johnson )
• Private Land Claims (Chairman: Judah P. Benjamin )
• Public Buildings and Grounds (Chairman: Jesse D. Bright )
• Public Lands (Chairman: Charles E. Stuart )
• Retrenchment (Chairman: Stephen A. Douglas )
• Revolutionary Claims (Chairman: Josiah J. Evans )
• Tariff Regulation (Select)
• Territories (Chairman: N/A)
• Whole

House of Representatives

• Accounts (Chairman: John C. Mason )
• Agriculture (Chairman: William G. Whiteley )
• Claims (Chairman: Samuel S. Marshall )
• Commerce (Chairman: John Cochrane )
• District of Columbia (Chairman: William O. Goode )
• Elections (Chairman: Thomas L. Harris )
• Engraving (Chairman: Garnett B. Adrain )
• Expenditures in the Navy Department (Chairman: John B. Haskin )
• Expenditures in the Post Office Department (Chairman: Albert G. Talbott )
• Expenditures in the State Department (Chairman: Owen Jones )
• Expenditures in the Treasury Department (Chairman: William Lawrence )
• Expenditures in the War Department (Chairman: Wilson Reilly )
• Expenditures on Public Buildings (Chairman: Allison White )
• Foreign Affairs (Chairman: Thomas L. Clingman )
• Indian Affairs (Chairman: Alfred B. Greenwood )
• Invalid Pensions (Chairman: Joshua H. Jewett )
• Judiciary (Chairman: George S. Houston )
• Manufactures (Chairman: William D. Bishop )
• Mileage (Chairman: Robert Smith )
• Military Affairs (Chairman: John A. Quitman )
• Militia (Chairman: Israel T. Hatch )
• Naval Affairs (Chairman: Thomas S. Bocock )
• Patents (Chairman: James A. Stewart )
• Post Office and Post Roads (Chairman: William H. English )
• Private Land Claims (Chairman: John M. Sandidge )
• Public Buildings and Grounds (Chairman: Lawrence M. Keitt )
• Public Expenditures (Chairman: John M. Elliott )
• Public Lands (Chairman: Williamson R. W. Cobb )
• Revisal and Unfinished Business (Chairman: William L. Dewart )
• Revolutionary Claims (Chairman: Samuel S. Cox )
• Revolutionary Pensions (Chairman: John Hickman )
• Roads and Canals (Chairman: George W. Jones )
• Rules (Select)
• Standards of Official Conduct
• Territories (Chairman: Alexander H. Stephens )
• Ways and Means (Chairman: J. Glancy Jones then John S. Phelps )
• Whole

Joint committees

These committees, composed of members from both chambers, were intended to foster cooperation and efficiency, a noble goal that often proved elusive in a deeply divided Congress.

• Enrolled Bills (Chairman: Rep. Thomas G. Davidson )
• The Library (Chairman: Rep. William H. Dimmick )
• Printing (Chairman: Rep. Samuel A. Smith )

Caucuses

The formal and informal gatherings of party members, known as caucuses, were vital for coordinating legislative strategy and maintaining party discipline—or, in this era, for attempting to maintain it in the face of centrifugal forces.

• Democratic (House)
• Democratic (Senate)

Employees

Behind the scenes, a cadre of dedicated, or at least employed, individuals kept the wheels of the legislative branch turning, performing the necessary administrative tasks that allowed the elected officials to engage in their often-dramatic debates. One might argue their contributions to stability were far more significant than many of the politicians they served.

Legislative branch agency directors

• Architect of the Capitol : Thomas U. Walter
• Librarian of Congress : John Silva Meehan

Senate

• Chaplain : Stephen P. Hill (Baptist )
• Secretary : Asbury Dickins
• Sergeant at Arms : Dunning R. McNair

House of Representatives

• Chaplain : None (A curious omission, perhaps reflecting the inability to agree even on spiritual guidance)
• Clerk : James C. Allen
• Doorkeeper : Robert B. Hackney, until May 17, 1858; Joseph L. Wright, elected May 18, 1858
• Messenger : Thaddeus Morrice
• Sergeant at Arms : Adam J. Glossbrenner
• Postmaster : Michael W. Cluskey
• Reading Clerks : data missing (A minor detail lost to the sands of time, much like many of the debates themselves.)

See also

• 1856 United States elections (elections leading to this Congress)
• 1856 United States presidential election
• 1856–57 United States Senate elections
• 1856–57 United States House of Representatives elections
• 1858 United States elections (elections during this Congress, leading to the next Congress)
• 1858–59 United States Senate elections
• 1858–59 United States House of Representatives elections

Notes

• ^ a b c d United States representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket .
• ^ Special session of the Senate .
• ^ Special session of the Senate .
• ^ Opposition
• ^ Opposition
• ^ a b When seated or oath administered, not necessarily when service began.