36th United States Congress

36th United States Congress

← 35th  ←

→ 37th

The United States Capitol (1860) stood as a silent, perhaps even oblivious, witness to the escalating tensions that defined this era.

March 4, 1859 – March 4, 1861

• Members: A collection of 66 senators, 238 representatives, and 5 non-voting delegates, each trying to navigate the political maelstrom.
• Senate majority : Held by the Democratic Party until February 4, 1861, a tenure that ended much like the Union itself – fractured and yielding to the inevitable. Subsequently, the Republican Party assumed control, inheriting a chamber already bleeding members.
• Senate President : John C. Breckinridge (D), a man whose political trajectory mirrored the nation’s split, eventually aligning with the Confederacy.
• House majority : A precarious Republican -led coalition , indicating the shifting demographic and ideological landscape of the country.
• House Speaker : William Pennington (R), who secured his position after an embarrassingly protracted and deeply divisive election.
• Sessions :
  • Special [a] : March 4, 1859 – March 10, 1859
  • 1st : December 5, 1859 – June 26, 1860
  • Special [b] : June 26, 1860 – June 28, 1860
  • 2nd : December 3, 1860 – March 4, 1861

The 36th United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the federal government, consisting of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives . It convened in Washington, D.C. from March 4, 1859, to March 4, 1861, a period that encompassed the third and fourth years of James Buchanan ’s rather uninspired presidency . The apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives was based, as always, on the 1850 United States census , a numerical reflection that belied the deeply fractured national sentiment. While the Senate, ever the more deliberative (or perhaps just slower to react) body, maintained a Democratic majority for the bulk of its term, the House of Representatives saw a Republican plurality, signaling the rising power of the party that would ultimately oversee the Union’s greatest crisis. This Congress, in essence, was the legislative soundtrack to the nation’s agonizing descent into civil war, a two-year performance where the curtain was slowly, painfully, drawn on an era of fragile peace.

Major events

Main articles: 1859 in the United States , 1860 in the United States , and 1861 in the United States

See also: Secession in the United States

Amidst the escalating political turmoil, life, and indeed, fortune, continued to present itself in various forms. The year 1859, a mere prologue to the storm, offered glimpses of both progress and profound unrest:

• June 8, 1859: The legendary Comstock Lode was discovered in the western Utah Territory , a region that would later become Nevada . As if the nation needed more distractions from its existential crisis, wealth was literally being unearthed, fueling a silver rush that drew thousands westward, inadvertently contributing to the development of the frontier while the East simmered.
• August 27, 1859: The first commercially successful oil well in the United States was drilled near Titusville, Pennsylvania by Edwin Drake. This seemingly innocuous event marked the dawn of the modern petroleum industry, a development whose future impact on global affairs would far outstrip any immediate political squabble, though few could have foreseen it then.
• October 16–18, 1859: John Brown’s raid on Harpers Ferry unfolded, a desperate, violent attempt by the abolitionist John Brown to spark a slave revolt. This audacious act, perceived as either heroic liberation or treasonous terrorism depending on one’s geographical and moral compass, served as a stark and bloody precursor to the larger conflict.
• December 2, 1859: John Brown was executed, transforming him into a martyr for the abolitionist cause in the North and a symbol of dangerous radicalism in the South. His death solidified the hardening of positions that would soon make compromise impossible.
• December 5, 1859 – February 1, 1860: The election for the House speakership became an excruciating, drawn-out affair, requiring a staggering 44 ballots. This parliamentary paralysis perfectly encapsulated the deep divisions within the legislative body, foreshadowing the broader national deadlock. It was a clear sign that even the most basic functions of government were under threat from sectional strife.

The year 1860, the eve of secession, saw the political landscape irrevocably altered:

• April 3, 1860: The Pony Express began its first run, a romantic but fleeting endeavor to speed mail delivery across the vast American West. It was a symbol of connection in a nation rapidly disconnecting from itself, a brief moment of unity before the inevitable sundering.
• April 23 – May 3, 1860: The Democratic National Convention convened in Charleston, South Carolina . [1] Unable to agree on a nominee due to irreconcilable differences over slavery, the delegates voted to reconvene in June. [2] This spectacular failure of the dominant political party to find common ground was a bellwether for the Union itself.
• May 9, 1860: The Constitutional Union Party National Convention was held in Baltimore, Maryland , nominating John Bell for president. [3] This hastily formed party represented a desperate, ultimately futile, attempt to bridge the sectional divide by appealing to a shared sense of constitutionalism and national unity, offering little more than platitudes in the face of deep-seated ideological conflict.
• May 18, 1860: The Republican National Convention in Chicago, Illinois nominated Abraham Lincoln for president. His election, seen as an existential threat to the Southern way of life, would be the catalyst for secession.
• June 18–23, 1860: The Democratic Party reconvened in Baltimore, Maryland , finally nominating Stephen A. Douglas for president, though with significant Southern defections. [2]
• June 26–28, 1860: Southern Democrats, having walked out of the main convention, held their own convention in Richmond, Virginia , nominating the sitting Vice President , John C. Breckinridge , for president. [2] This formal split within the Democratic Party underscored the profound and unbridgeable chasm that had opened in American politics.
• November 6, 1860: The U.S. presidential election resulted in Abraham Lincoln ’s victory, defeating a fractured opposition consisting of John C. Breckinridge , Stephen A. Douglas , and John Bell . This outcome, achieved without a single electoral vote from the deep South, was the final straw for many Southern states.

The year 1861 began with the rapid unraveling of the Union:

• December 20, 1860: South Carolina Secession Convention enacted an Ordinance of Secession , [4] [5] becoming the first state to formally declare its independence from the United States . This act, a direct response to Lincoln’s election, ignited the fuse of secession.
• January 3, 1861: The Delaware Secession Convention, in a rare moment of restraint, voted not to secede from the Union, [6] a decision that highlighted the complex loyalties even within slaveholding states.
• January 9, 1861: Mississippi Secession Convention enacted an Ordinance of Secession . [7] [5]
• January 10, 1861: Florida Secession Convention enacted an Ordinance of Secession . [8] [5]
• January 11, 1861: Alabama Secession Convention enacted an Ordinance of Secession . [9] [5]
• January 18, 1861: Georgia Secession Convention enacted an Ordinance of Secession . [10] [5]
• January 26, 1861: Louisiana Secession Convention enacted an Ordinance of Secession . [11] [5]
• January 29, 1861: Kansas was finally admitted to the Union as a free state, a development that, under normal circumstances, would have been celebrated as a victory for anti-slavery forces. Instead, it was a hollow triumph, overshadowed by the mass exodus of Southern states.
• February 1, 1861: Texas Secession Convention enacted an Ordinance of Secession . [12] [5]
• February 13, 1861: A Joint Session of Congress, with an air of grim determination, certified the election of President Abraham Lincoln and Vice President Hannibal Hamlin , effectively sealing the fate of the nation. [13]
• February 23, 1861: The people of Texas ratified its Ordinance of Secession . [12] Concurrently, President-elect Abraham Lincoln arrived secretly in Washington, D.C. after an alleged assassination plot in Baltimore, Maryland , a poignant symbol of the dangers and divisions awaiting him.

Major legislation

Main article: Major legislation: 36th United States Congress

Even as the nation fractured, the legislative machinery, with its inherent momentum, continued to churn out acts and proposals, some visionary, some desperate, and some utterly futile in the face of impending war.

• June 16, 1860: The Pacific Telegraph Act of 1860 , ch. 147, 12 Stat.  41. This act authorized the construction of a transcontinental telegraph line, a marvel of communication that would, ironically, help connect a country on the verge of tearing itself apart. It was a forward-looking piece of legislation, aiming to bind the distant parts of the growing nation with threads of copper and electricity.
• March 2, 1861: The Morrill Tariff , ch. 68, 12 Stat.  178, was enacted. This highly protectionist tariff significantly raised import duties, a policy long favored by Northern industrialists and opposed by the agrarian South. Its passage, just two days before Lincoln’s inauguration, further solidified the economic grievances that fueled Southern secession, effectively becoming one of the final legislative acts of a united Congress.
• December 18, 1860 (introduced): The Crittenden Compromise was a series of proposed constitutional amendments and resolutions aimed at resolving the secession crisis by protecting slavery where it already existed and extending the Missouri Compromise line. Despite being a desperate, last-ditch effort to avert war, it was ultimately rejected by both the House of Representatives and the Senate , proving that the time for compromise had passed.

Constitutional amendments

In a chilling attempt to appease the South and prevent the inevitable, Congress even considered altering the foundational document of the United States .

• March 2, 1861: Congress approved an amendment to the United States Constitution that would shield “domestic institutions” of the states (which, in 1861, was a euphemism for slavery) from the constitutional amendment process and from abolition or interference by Congress. It was submitted to the state legislatures for ratification , with the forlorn hope that such a concession could hold the Union together. 12 Stat.  251.
• This amendment, commonly known as the Corwin Amendment , has not been ratified and remains, to this day, technically pending before the states—a rather poignant monument to a failed attempt at appeasement. It serves as a stark reminder of how far some were willing to go to preserve a fundamentally immoral institution.

Treaties

Even as internal strife consumed the nation, the federal government continued to engage in its duties concerning external relations and indigenous populations.

• March 8, 1859: The Quinault Treaty was ratified, 12 Stat.  927. This treaty, signed with the Quinault and other tribes of the Pacific Northwest , ceded vast tracts of land to the United States in exchange for reservations and other considerations, continuing the pattern of westward expansion and displacement.
• March 8, 1859: The Point No Point Treaty was also ratified, 12 Stat.  933. This agreement with the S’Klallam, Chimakum, and Skokomish tribes further facilitated American settlement in the Washington Territory , demonstrating that the expansionist agenda persisted even as the Union threatened to contract.

States admitted and territories organized

The inexorable march of westward expansion and territorial organization continued, adding new pieces to the national puzzle even as old ones threatened to break away.

• January 29, 1861: Kansas was finally admitted as a state, ch. 20, 12 Stat.  126. After years of brutal conflict over its status as a free or slave state, known as “Bleeding Kansas,” its entry as a free state was a significant, if belated, victory for abolitionists, though it did little to avert the larger conflict.
• February 28, 1861: The Colorado Territory was organized, ch. 59, 12 Stat.  172. This act formally established a new territorial government in the mineral-rich Rocky Mountains, reflecting the ongoing allure of the West and the administrative necessity of governing these burgeoning regions.
• March 2, 1861: The Nevada Territory was organized, ch. 83, 12 Stat.  209. Carved out of the western Utah Territory , this organization was largely driven by the discovery of the Comstock Lode , creating a formal structure for the booming mining region.
• March 2, 1861: The Dakota Territory was organized, ch. 86, 12 Stat.  239. This vast territory, encompassing much of the modern-day Dakotas and parts of Montana and Wyoming, was established to facilitate settlement and governance in the northern plains.

Party summary

The political landscape of the 36th Congress was a volatile, shifting mosaic of allegiances, reflecting the deep and irreconcilable divisions that were tearing the nation apart. The very concept of “majority” became a precarious, fleeting thing, particularly in the Senate as Southern states began their exodus.

Senate membership

The Senate, at the beginning of the 36th Congress, still maintained a narrow Democratic majority, a testament to its more conservative nature. However, by the end of its term, with the dramatic withdrawal of Southern members, the balance of power decisively shifted to the Republicans . This transformation was not merely a change in party control but a stark reflection of the Union’s disintegration. The “vacant” column at the end of the term tells a more profound story than any statistical breakdown ever could.

House membership

The House of Representatives , with its larger and more diverse membership, was a microcosm of the nation’s political fragmentation. At the outset, it was a complex mix of Democrats, a significant Republican plurality, and various splinter factions like the Anti-Lecompton Democrats and the Southern Opposition Party . By the close of the Congress, the withdrawals of Southern representatives left a significantly diminished body, with the Republican Party solidifying its control, but over a Union that was no longer whole. The sheer number of vacancies by the end speaks volumes about the depth of the crisis.

Leadership

Presiding over a legislative body on the brink of dissolution was, to put it mildly, an unenviable task. These individuals were charged with maintaining order and guiding debate as the very foundations of the United States trembled.

• President of the Senate: John C. Breckinridge (D), who, in a twist of fate, would soon become a general in the Confederate Army. His presence in this role during the secession crisis highlights the deeply conflicted loyalties of the period.

Senate

• President : John C. Breckinridge (D). His role was largely ceremonial, but his personal trajectory underscored the national schism.
• President pro tempore : This position, often a reflection of internal party dynamics, saw a few changes during these tumultuous years.
  • Benjamin Fitzpatrick (D), served until February 26, 1860, and then again from June 26, 1860 – December 2, 1860.
  • Jesse D. Bright (D), briefly held the office from June 12–26, 1860.
  • Solomon Foot (R), was elected on February 16, 1861, marking the shift in power to the Republican Party as Southern senators departed.

House of Representatives

• Speaker : William Pennington (R), elected February 1, 1860, after an arduous 44 rounds of balloting. [14] His election itself was a dramatic testament to the deep partisan gridlock that paralyzed the House, making the simple act of choosing a leader a national spectacle of division.
• Democratic Caucus Chairman : George S. Houston , representing the leadership of the Democratic faction within the House.

Members

This list details the individuals who served in the 36th Congress, each representing their respective states and districts during a period that would test the very bonds of the Union. Senators, chosen by state legislatures, served six-year terms, while Representatives, elected by popular vote, served two-year terms.

Senate

Main article: List of United States senators in the 36th Congress

Senators were elected by the state legislatures every two years, with one-third beginning new six-year terms with each Congress. Preceding the names in the list below are Senate class numbers , which indicate the cycle of their election. In this Congress, Class 1 meant their term began in the last Congress, requiring reelection in 1862; Class 2 meant their term began with this Congress, requiring reelection in 1864; and Class 3 meant their term ended with this Congress, requiring reelection in 1860. The staggered terms meant that even as some senators withdrew, others remained, creating a complex and shifting composition.

Alabama

▌2. Clement C. Clay Jr. (D), until January 21, 1861, when he withdrew due to Alabama’s secession. ▌3. Benjamin Fitzpatrick (D), until January 21, 1861, also withdrawing with his state.

Arkansas

▌2. William K. Sebastian (D) ▌3. Robert W. Johnson (D)

California

▌1. David C. Broderick (D), until September 16, 1859, when his term was tragically cut short. ▌Henry P. Haun (D), served from November 3, 1859 – March 4, 1860, as an interim appointment. ▌Milton Latham (D), from March 5, 1860, succeeding Haun. ▌3. William M. Gwin (D)

Connecticut

▌1. James Dixon (R) ▌3. Lafayette S. Foster (R)

Delaware

▌1. James A. Bayard Jr. (D) ▌2. Willard Saulsbury Sr. (D)

Florida

▌1. Stephen Mallory (D), until January 21, 1861, withdrawing as Florida seceded. ▌3. David Levy Yulee (D), until January 21, 1861, also departing with his state.

Georgia

▌2. Robert Toombs (D), until February 4, 1861, a prominent secessionist who would become a Confederate general. ▌3. Alfred Iverson Sr. (D), until January 28, 1861, also withdrawing as Georgia joined the Confederacy.

Illinois

▌2. Stephen A. Douglas (D), a key figure in the national debate over slavery and popular sovereignty, who ran against Lincoln in 1860. ▌3. Lyman Trumbull (R)

Indiana

▌1. Jesse D. Bright (D) ▌3. Graham N. Fitch (D)

Iowa

▌2. James W. Grimes (R) ▌3. James Harlan (R)

Kansas

2. Vacant from January 29, 1861 (newly admitted state), as the state’s senators were not elected until the subsequent Congress, a minor delay amidst the national crisis.
3. Vacant from January 29, 1861 (newly admitted state).

Kentucky

▌2. Lazarus W. Powell (D) ▌3. John J. Crittenden (A), the author of the ill-fated Crittenden Compromise , a final attempt at a legislative solution to prevent war.

Louisiana

▌2. Judah P. Benjamin (D), until February 4, 1861, a brilliant legal mind who would serve in various high-ranking positions in the Confederacy. ▌3. John Slidell (D), until February 4, 1861, another prominent secessionist who would become a Confederate diplomat.

Maine

▌1. Hannibal Hamlin (R), until January 17, 1861, when he resigned to become Vice President under Abraham Lincoln . ▌Lot M. Morrill (R), from January 17, 1861, stepping into Hamlin’s shoes. ▌2. William Pitt Fessenden (R)

Maryland

▌1. Anthony Kennedy (A) ▌3. James A. Pearce (D)

Massachusetts

▌1. Charles Sumner (R), a staunch abolitionist who famously suffered a brutal caning on the Senate floor in 1856. ▌2. Henry Wilson (R)

Michigan

▌1. Zachariah Chandler (R) ▌2. Kinsley S. Bingham (R)

Minnesota

▌1. Henry M. Rice (D) ▌2. Morton S. Wilkinson (R)

Mississippi

▌1. Jefferson Davis (D), until January 21, 1861, when he withdrew to become the President of the Confederate States of America. ▌2. Albert G. Brown (D), until January 12, 1861, also departing with his state.

Missouri

▌1. Trusten Polk (D) ▌3. James S. Green (D)

New Hampshire

▌2. John P. Hale (R) ▌3. Daniel Clark (R)

New Jersey

▌1. John R. Thomson (D) ▌2. John C. Ten Eyck (R)

New York

▌1. Preston King (R) ▌3. William H. Seward (R), a prominent Republican who would serve as Lincoln’s Secretary of State.

North Carolina

▌2. Thomas Bragg (D) ▌3. Thomas L. Clingman (D)

Ohio

▌1. Benjamin Wade (R) ▌3. George E. Pugh (D)

Oregon

▌2. Edward D. Baker (R), from October 2, 1860, a close friend of Abraham Lincoln and a future Union general. ▌3. Joseph Lane (D)

Pennsylvania

▌1. Simon Cameron (R), who would become Lincoln’s first Secretary of War. ▌3. William Bigler (D)

Rhode Island

▌1. James F. Simmons (R) ▌2. Henry B. Anthony (R)

South Carolina

▌2. James Chesnut Jr. (D), until November 10, 1860, withdrawing almost immediately after Lincoln’s election. ▌3. James H. Hammond (D), until November 11, 1860, also departing as his state led the secession movement.

Tennessee

▌1. Andrew Johnson (D), a unique figure who remained loyal to the Union despite his Southern origins and would later become Vice President and then President. ▌2. Alfred O. P. Nicholson (D), until March 3, 1861.

Texas

▌1. Matthias Ward (D), until December 5, 1859. ▌Louis Wigfall (D), from December 5, 1859, a firebrand secessionist who would ironically be present at the shelling of Fort Sumter. ▌2. John Hemphill (D)

Vermont

▌1. Solomon Foot (R), who would later serve as President pro tempore . ▌3. Jacob Collamer (R)

Virginia

▌1. James M. Mason (D) ▌2. Robert M. T. Hunter (D)

Wisconsin

▌1. James R. Doolittle (R) ▌3. Charles Durkee (R)

Senators’ party membership by state at the opening of the 36th Congress in March 1859. The green stripes represent Know-Nothings .   2 Democrats

  1 Democrat and 1 Republican

  2 Republicans

The visual representation of senatorial party affiliations at the outset of the 36th Congress offers a snapshot of the delicate balance that was about to shatter. The prevalence of Democratic representation, particularly in the South, stood in stark contrast to the burgeoning Republican strength in the North, with the smattering of Know-Nothings representing a fading political force.

President pro tempore Benjamin Fitzpatrick , until February 26, 1860 June 26, 1860 – December 2, 1860 President pro tempore Jesse D. Bright , June 12, 1860 – June 13, 1860 President pro tempore Solomon Foot , from February 16, 1861

House of Representatives

Main article: List of United States representatives in the 36th Congress

The names of representatives are preceded by their district numbers. This body, more immediately reflective of popular sentiment, was a whirlwind of factions and shifting alliances, particularly during the prolonged speakership election.

Alabama

▌1 . James A. Stallworth (D), until January 21, 1861, withdrawing with his state. ▌2 . James L. Pugh (D), until January 21, 1861, also departing. ▌3 . David Clopton (D), until January 21, 1861, another representative leaving office due to secession. ▌4 . Sydenham Moore (D), until January 21, 1861. ▌5 . George S. Houston (D), until January 21, 1861. ▌6 . Williamson R. W. Cobb (D), until January 30, 1861. ▌7 . Jabez L. M. Curry (D), until January 21, 1861, a future Confederate diplomat.

Arkansas

▌1 . Thomas C. Hindman (D) ▌2 . Albert Rust (D)

California

▌At-large . John C. Burch (D) ▌At-large . Charles L. Scott (D)

Connecticut

▌1 . Dwight Loomis (R) ▌2 . John Woodruff (R) ▌3 . Alfred A. Burnham (R) ▌4 . Orris S. Ferry (R)

Delaware

▌At-large . William G. Whiteley (D)

Florida

▌At-large . George S. Hawkins (D), until January 21, 1861, withdrawing as Florida seceded.

Georgia

▌1 . Peter E. Love (D), until January 23, 1861. ▌2 . Martin J. Crawford (D), until January 23, 1861. ▌3 . Thomas Hardeman Jr. (O), until January 23, 1861. ▌4 . Lucius J. Gartrell (D), until January 23, 1861. ▌5 . John W. H. Underwood (D), until January 23, 1861. ▌6 . James Jackson (D), until January 23, 1861. ▌7 . Joshua Hill (O), until January 23, 1861. ▌8 . John J. Jones (D), until January 23, 1861.

Illinois

▌1 . Elihu B. Washburne (R) ▌2 . John F. Farnsworth (R) ▌3 . Owen Lovejoy (R), an ardent abolitionist and brother of Elijah P. Lovejoy, an anti-slavery martyr. ▌4 . William Kellogg (R) ▌5 . Isaac N. Morris (D) ▌6 . John A. McClernand (D), from November 8, 1859, a future Union general. ▌7 . James C. Robinson (D) ▌8 . Philip B. Fouke (D) ▌9 . John A. Logan (D), who would later become a distinguished Union general and a key figure in the post-war Republican Party.

Indiana

▌1 . William E. Niblack (D) ▌2 . William H. English (D) ▌3 . William McKee Dunn (R) ▌4 . William S. Holman (D) ▌5 . David Kilgore (R) ▌6 . Albert G. Porter (R) ▌7 . John G. Davis (ALD) ▌8 . James Wilson (R) ▌9 . Schuyler Colfax (R), who would later become Vice President under Ulysses S. Grant. ▌10 . Charles Case (R) ▌11 . John U. Pettit (R)

Iowa

▌1 . Samuel Curtis (R), a future Union general. ▌2 . William Vandever (R)

Kansas

▌At-large . Martin F. Conway (R), from January 29, 1861, the first representative for the newly admitted state, a symbolic victory for free-staters.

Kentucky

▌1 . Henry C. Burnett (D), who would later serve in the Confederate Congress. ▌2 . Samuel O. Peyton (D) ▌3 . Francis Bristow (O) ▌4 . William C. Anderson (O) ▌5 . John Y. Brown (D), from December 3, 1860. ▌6 . Green Adams (O) ▌7 . Robert Mallory (O) ▌8 . William E. Simms (D) ▌9 . Laban T. Moore (O) ▌10 . John W. Stevenson (D)

Louisiana

▌1 . John E. Bouligny (A), notable as the only Southern representative not to resign his seat after his state’s secession. ▌2 . Miles Taylor (D), until February 5, 1861, withdrawing as Louisiana seceded. ▌3 . Thomas G. Davidson (D) ▌4 . John M. Landrum (D)

Maine

▌1 . Daniel E. Somes (R) ▌2 . John J. Perry (R) ▌3 . Ezra B. French (R) ▌4 . Freeman H. Morse (R) ▌5 . Israel Washburn Jr. (R), until January 1, 1861, resigning to become Governor of Maine . ▌Stephen Coburn (R), from January 2, 1861. ▌6 . Stephen C. Foster (R)

Maryland

▌1 . James A. Stewart (D) ▌2 . Edwin H. Webster (A) ▌3 . J. Morrison Harris (A) ▌4 . Henry Winter Davis (A) ▌5 . Jacob M. Kunkel (D) ▌6 . George W. Hughes (D)

Massachusetts

▌1 . Thomas D. Eliot (R) ▌2 . James Buffington (R) ▌3 . Charles F. Adams Sr. (R), son and grandson of presidents, a prominent Republican. ▌4 . Alexander H. Rice (R) ▌5 . Anson Burlingame (R) ▌6 . John B. Alley (R) ▌7 . Daniel W. Gooch (R) ▌8 . Charles R. Train (R) ▌9 . Eli Thayer (R) ▌10 . Charles Delano (R) ▌11 . Henry L. Dawes (R)

Michigan

▌1 . George B. Cooper (D), until May 15, 1860, losing a contested election. ▌William A. Howard (R), from May 15, 1860. ▌2 . Henry Waldron (R) ▌3 . Francis W. Kellogg (R) ▌4 . Dewitt C. Leach (R)

Minnesota

Both representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket , reflecting the state’s unified Republican leanings. (2 Republicans)

▌At-large . Cyrus Aldrich (R) ▌At-large . William Windom (R), a future Secretary of the Treasury.

Mississippi

▌1 . Lucius Q. C. Lamar (D), until December 20, 1860, withdrawing as Mississippi seceded. ▌2 . Reuben Davis (D), until January 12, 1861. ▌3 . William Barksdale (D), until January 12, 1861, a future Confederate general. ▌4 . Otho R. Singleton (D), until January 12, 1861. ▌5 . John J. McRae (D), until January 12, 1861.

Missouri

▌1 . John R. Barret (D), until June 8, 1860. ▌Francis P. Blair Jr. (R), served from June 8, 1860 – June 25, 1860, winning a contested election. ▌John R. Barret (D), from December 3, 1860, winning back his seat after Blair’s resignation. ▌2 . Thomas L. Anderson (ID) ▌3 . John B. Clark (D) ▌4 . James Craig (D) ▌5 . Samuel H. Woodson (A) ▌6 . John S. Phelps (D) ▌7 . John W. Noell (D)

New Hampshire

▌1 . Gilman Marston (R) ▌2 . Mason Tappan (R) ▌3 . Thomas M. Edwards (R)

New Jersey

▌1 . John T. Nixon (R) ▌2 . John L. N. Stratton (R) ▌3 . Garnett Adrain (ALD) ▌4 . Jetur R. Riggs (ALD) ▌5 . William Pennington (R), the hard-won Speaker of the House.

New York

▌1 . Luther C. Carter (R) ▌2 . James Humphrey (R) ▌3 . Daniel Sickles (D) ▌4 . Thomas J. Barr (ID) ▌5 . William B. Maclay (D) ▌6 . John Cochrane (D) ▌7 . George Briggs (R) ▌8 . Horace F. Clark (ALD) ▌9 . John B. Haskin (ALD) ▌10 . Charles H. Van Wyck (R) ▌11 . William S. Kenyon (R) ▌12 . Charles L. Beale (R) ▌13 . Abram B. Olin (R) ▌14 . John H. Reynolds (ALD) ▌15 . James B. McKean (R) ▌16 . George W. Palmer (R) ▌17 . Francis E. Spinner (R) ▌18 . Clark B. Cochrane (R) ▌19 . James H. Graham (R) ▌20 . Roscoe Conkling (R) ▌21 . R. Holland Duell (R) ▌22 . M. Lindley Lee (R) ▌23 . Charles B. Hoard (R) ▌24 . Charles B. Sedgwick (R) ▌25 . Martin Butterfield (R) ▌26 . Emory B. Pottle (R) ▌27 . Alfred Wells (R) ▌28 . William Irvine (R) ▌29 . Alfred Ely (R) ▌30 . Augustus Frank (R) ▌31 . Silas M. Burroughs (R), until June 3, 1860, his term cut short by death. ▌Edwin R. Reynolds (R), from December 5, 1860, filling the vacancy. ▌32 . Elbridge G. Spaulding (R) ▌33 . Reuben Fenton (R)

North Carolina

▌1 . William N. H. Smith (O) ▌2 . Thomas Ruffin (D) ▌3 . Warren Winslow (D) ▌4 . Lawrence O’Bryan Branch (D) ▌5 . John Gilmer (O) ▌6 . James M. Leach (O) ▌7 . F. Burton Craige (D) ▌8 . Zebulon Vance (O)

Ohio

▌1 . George H. Pendleton (D) ▌2 . John A. Gurley (R) ▌3 . Clement Vallandigham (D) ▌4 . William Allen (D) ▌5 . James M. Ashley (R) ▌6 . William Howard (D) ▌7 . Thomas Corwin (R) ▌8 . Benjamin Stanton (R) ▌9 . John Carey (R) ▌10 . Carey A. Trimble (R) ▌11 . Charles D. Martin (D) ▌12 . Samuel S. Cox (D) ▌13 . John Sherman (R), a powerful Republican who would have a long and influential career. ▌14 . Cyrus Spink (R), until May 31, 1859, his term ending prematurely. ▌Harrison G. O. Blake (R), from October 11, 1859. ▌15 . William Helmick (R) ▌16 . Cydnor B. Tompkins (R) ▌17 . Thomas C. Theaker (R) ▌18 . Sidney Edgerton (R) ▌19 . Edward Wade (R) ▌20 . John Hutchins (R) ▌21 . John Bingham (R)

Oregon

▌At-large . Lansing Stout (D)

Pennsylvania

▌1 . Thomas B. Florence (D) ▌2 . Edward Joy Morris (R) ▌3 . John P. Verree (R) ▌4 . William Millward (R) ▌5 . John Wood (R) ▌6 . John Hickman (ALD) ▌7 . Henry C. Longnecker (R) ▌8 . John Schwartz (ALD), until June 20, 1860. ▌Jacob K. McKenty (D), from December 3, 1860. ▌9 . Thaddeus Stevens (R), a radical abolitionist who would become a dominant figure during Reconstruction. ▌10 . John W. Killinger (R) ▌11 . James H. Campbell (R) ▌12 . George W. Scranton (R) ▌13 . William H. Dimmick (D) ▌14 . Galusha A. Grow (R) ▌15 . James T. Hale (R) ▌16 . Benjamin F. Junkin (R) ▌17 . Edward McPherson (R) ▌18 . Samuel S. Blair (R) ▌19 . John Covode (R) ▌20 . William Montgomery (D) ▌21 . James K. Moorhead (R) ▌22 . Robert McKnight (R) ▌23 . William Stewart (R) ▌24 . Chapin Hall (R) ▌25 . Elijah Babbitt (R)

Rhode Island

▌1 . Christopher Robinson (R) ▌2 . William D. Brayton (R)

South Carolina

▌1 . John McQueen (D), until December 21, 1860, withdrawing as South Carolina led the secession. ▌2 . William P. Miles (D), until December 21, 1860. ▌3 . Laurence M. Keitt (D), until December 1860. ▌4 . Milledge L. Bonham (D), until December 21, 1860. ▌5 . John D. Ashmore (D), until December 21, 1860. ▌6 . William W. Boyce (D), until December 21, 1860.

Tennessee

▌1 . Thomas A. R. Nelson (O) ▌2 . Horace Maynard (O) ▌3 . Reese B. Brabson (O) ▌4 . William B. Stokes (O) ▌5 . Robert H. Hatton (O) ▌6 . James H. Thomas (D) ▌7 . John V. Wright (D) ▌8 . James M. Quarles (O) ▌9 . Emerson Etheridge (O) ▌10 . William T. Avery (D)

Texas

▌1 . John H. Reagan (D) ▌2 . Andrew J. Hamilton (ID)

Vermont

▌1 . Eliakim P. Walton (R) ▌2 . Justin S. Morrill (R), the namesake of the Morrill Tariff and the Morrill Land-Grant Acts . ▌3 . Homer E. Royce (R)

Virginia

▌1 . Muscoe R. H. Garnett (D) ▌2 . John S. Millson (D) ▌3 . Daniel C. De Jarnette (ID) ▌4 . William Goode (D), until July 3, 1859. ▌Roger A. Pryor (D), from December 7, 1859. ▌5 . Thomas S. Bocock (D) ▌6 . Shelton Leake (ID) ▌7 . William Smith (D) ▌8 . Alexander Boteler (O) ▌9 . John T. Harris (ID) ▌10 . Sherrard Clemens (D) ▌11 . Albert G. Jenkins (D) ▌12 . Henry A. Edmundson (D) ▌13 . Elbert S. Martin (ID)

Wisconsin

▌1 . John F. Potter (R) ▌2 . Cadwallader C. Washburn (R) ▌3 . Charles H. Larrabee (D)

Non-voting members

The territories, ever waiting in the wings for statehood, also sent their delegates, who, while lacking a vote, still held a voice in the national discourse.

▌Kansas Territory . Marcus J. Parrott (R), until January 29, 1861, when Kansas achieved statehood. ▌Nebraska Territory . Experience Estabrook , until May 18, 1860, losing a contested election. ▌Samuel G. Daily (R), from May 18, 1860, taking over the delegate seat. ▌New Mexico Territory . Miguel A. Otero (D) ▌Utah Territory . William H. Hooper (D) ▌Washington Territory . Isaac Stevens (D)

House seats by party holding plurality in state *   80+% to 100% Democratic

  80+% to 100% Republican

  60+% to 80% Democratic

  60+% to 80% Republican

  Up to 60% Democratic

  Up to 60% Republican

The visual representation of House plurality by state vividly illustrates the deep North-South divide. The solid blocks of Republican control in the North and Democratic dominance in the South demonstrate the irreconcilable regional interests that fueled the coming conflict, making legislative harmony a distant, perhaps even delusional, dream.

Speaker of the House William Pennington A group photo of the U.S. House of Representatives , in 1860, during this Congress. A gathering of men, some oblivious, some deeply concerned, about the precipice upon which their nation stood.

Changes in membership

The 36th Congress saw an unusually high degree of turnover, a testament to the turbulent times. Deaths, resignations, and the dramatic withdrawals of Southern members created a revolving door of political office, reflecting the chaos and uncertainty gripping the nation.

The count below reflects changes from the beginning of the first session of this Congress.

Senate

See also: List of special elections to the United States Senate

• Replacements: 4
• Democrats (D) : no net change, but significant individual shifts.
• Republicans (R) : no net change, but benefited from the overall exodus.
• Deaths: 1
• Resignations: 1
• Interim appointments: 1
• Withdrawals: 13, a number that speaks volumes about the accelerating secession crisis.
• Total seats with changes: 16, nearly a quarter of the Senate’s membership.

Senate changes

House of Representatives

• Replacements: 7
• Democrats (D) : no net change, but many individual departures.
• Republicans (R) : 1 seat net loss, despite gaining power overall.
• Anti-Lecompton Democrats (LD) : 1 seat net gain.
• Deaths: 4
• Resignations: 3
• Contested election: 1, highlighting the contentious nature of politics.
• Withdrawals: 28, a staggering number reflecting the mass exodus of Southern representatives.
• Total seats with changes: 41, indicating a significant and rapid transformation of the House’s composition.

Main article: List of special elections to the United States House of Representatives

House changes

Committees

Even as the legislative body itself was in turmoil, the committees, the bureaucratic organs of Congress, continued their work, a testament to the enduring, if sometimes Sisyphean, nature of governance.

Senate

• Alter and Improve Senate Chamber (Select)
• Amendments to the Constitution (Select)
• Audit and Control the Contingent Expenses of the Senate (Chairman: Andrew Johnson )
• Banks of the District of Columbia (Select)
• Circulation of Bank Notes in the District of Columbia (Select)
• Claims (Chairman: Alfred Iverson Jr. )
• Commerce (Chairman: Clement Claiborne Clay )
• Comptroller William Medill (Select)
• Distributing Public Revenue Among the States (Select)
• District of Columbia (Chairman: Albert G. Brown )
• Duties of Imports (Select)
• Finance (Chairman: Robert M. T. Hunter )
• Foreign Relations (Chairman: James M. Mason )
• French Spoliations (Select)
• Harpers Ferry Invasion (Select), a committee undoubtedly formed in the wake of John Brown’s violent raid, reflecting the immediate legislative response to national crises.
• Indian Affairs (Chairman: William K. Sebastian )
• Judiciary (Chairman: James A. Bayard Jr. )
• Memorial of Houmas Lands Settlers (Select)
• Military Affairs (Chairman: Jefferson Davis ), a committee whose chairman would soon lead an opposing army. The irony is palpable.
• Naval Affairs (Chairman: Stephen Mallory ), another chairman who would soon oversee the Confederate Navy.
• Ordnance and War Ships (Select), a prescient committee given the impending conflict.
• Pacific Railroad (Select), looking to the future even as the present crumbled.
• Patents and the Patent Office (Chairman: William Bigler )
• Pensions (Chairman: N/A)
• Post Office and Post Roads (Chairman: N/A)
• Printing (Chairman: N/A)
• Public Printing Investigation (Select)
• Private Land Claims (Chairman: N/A)
• Public Lands (Chairman: Robert W. Johnson )
• Retrenchment (Chairman: N/A)
• Revolutionary Claims (Chairman: N/A)
• Tariff Regulation (Select)
• Territories (Chairman: N/A)
• Thirteen on the Disturbed Condition of the Country (Select), a committee formed explicitly to address the national crisis, a desperate attempt to find common ground that ultimately failed.
• Whole

House of Representatives

• Accounts (Chairman: Francis E. Spinner )
• Agriculture (Chairman: Martin Butterfield )
• Claims (Chairman: John Hickman )
• Commerce (Chairman: Elihu B. Washburne )
• District of Columbia (Chairman: Luther C. Carter )
• Elections (Chairman: John A. Gilmer )
• Engraving (Chairman: Garnett B. Adrain )
• Expenditures in the Interior Department (Chairman: N/A)
• Expenditures in the Navy Department (Chairman: Robert Hatton )
• Expenditures in the Post Office Department (Chairman: George W. Palmer )
• Expenditures in the State Department (Chairman: James B. McKean )
• Expenditures in the Treasury Department (Chairman: Dwight Loomis )
• Expenditures in the War Department (Chairman: William Stewart ), another committee whose work would become tragically relevant.
• Expenditures on Public Buildings (Chairman: William D. Brayton )
• Foreign Affairs (Chairman: Thomas Corwin )
• Indian Affairs (Chairman: Emerson Etheridge )
• Invalid Pensions (Chairman: Reuben E. Fenton )
• Judiciary (Chairman: John Hickman )
• Manufactures (Chairman: Charles F. Adams )
• Mileage (Chairman: John D. Ashmore )
• Military Affairs (Chairman: Benjamin Stanton )
• Militia (Chairman: Cydnor B. Tompkins )
• Naval Affairs (Chairman: Freeman H. Morse )
• Patents (Chairman: William Millward )
• Post Office and Post Roads (Chairman: Schuyler Colfax )
• Private Land Claims (Chairman: Cadwallader C. Washburn )
• Public Buildings and Grounds (Chairman: Charles R. Train )
• Public Expenditures (Chairman: John B. Haskin )
• Public Lands (Chairman: Eli Thayer )
• Revisal and Unfinished Business (Chairman: John A. Logan )
• Revolutionary Claims (Chairman: George N. Briggs )
• Revolutionary Pensions (Chairman: John F. Potter )
• Roads and Canals (Chairman: Robert Mallory )
• Rules (Select)
• Standards of Official Conduct
• Territories (Chairman: Galusha A. Grow )
• Ways and Means (Chairman: John Sherman )
• Whole

Joint committees

These committees, composed of members from both chambers, were meant to foster cooperation, a concept that became increasingly elusive during this period.

• Enrolled Bills (Chairman: Sen. Henry Haun then Sen. Willard Saulsbury Sr. )
• The Library (Chairman: Rep. John U. Pettit )
• Printing (Chairman: Rep. John A. Gurley )
• Making Arrangements for Inaugurating Washington’s Statue, a committee dedicated to honoring the past at a time when the future was profoundly uncertain.

Caucuses

Political caucuses served as internal party mechanisms, where strategies were forged and allegiances tested, especially within the increasingly divided Democratic Party.

• Democratic (House)
• Democratic (Senate)

Employees

Even as the political superstructure groaned under immense strain, the underlying bureaucratic machinery, staffed by dedicated (or simply employed) individuals, continued its daily operations.

Legislative branch agency directors

• Architect of the Capitol : Thomas U. Walter , overseeing the very structure that housed the nation’s fracturing government.
• Librarian of Congress : John Silva Meehan , safeguarding the nation’s collective knowledge as its unity crumbled.

Senate

• Chaplain : Stephen P. Hill (Baptist ), until December 15, 1859.
• Phineas D. Gurley (Presbyterian ), elected December 15, 1859, tasked with offering spiritual guidance to a body seemingly beyond salvation.
• Secretary : Asbury Dickins , the chief administrative officer.
• Sergeant at Arms : Dunning R. McNair , responsible for maintaining order, a task that grew increasingly challenging.

House of Representatives

• Clerk : James C. Allen , until February 3, 1860.
• John W. Forney , elected February 3, 1860, taking over the crucial role of record-keeping.
• Chaplain : None. Perhaps they had given up on divine intervention for this particular chamber.
• Doorkeeper : Robert B. Hackney, until February 6, 1860.
• George Marston, elected February 6, 1860, controlling access to a house increasingly divided against itself.
• Messenger : Thaddeus Morrice
• Postmaster : Josiah M. Lucas
• Reading Clerks : [ data missing ]
• Sergeant at Arms : Adam J. Glossbrenner , until February 3, 1860.
• Henry William Hoffman , from February 3, 1860, assuming the heavy responsibility of maintaining decorum in a fractious environment.

See also

For those who wish to delve further into the mechanisms and electoral cycles that led to and from this particular period of legislative drama, these resources provide additional context and detail.

• 1858 United States elections (elections leading to this Congress)
• 1858–59 United States Senate elections
• 1858–59 United States House of Representatives elections
• [1860