Archaeology Of Wales

The study of human occupation in Wales, or archaeology of Wales as it’s known in the local tongue (Welsh : Archaeoleg Cymru ), is a rather tedious affair of sifting through the remnants of people who, frankly, had better things to do than leave clear records. We’re talking about individuals who have managed to occupy this damp little corner of the world since at least 225,000 years before the common era, with a more persistent presence kicking off around 9,000 BC. The whole point of this exercise, ostensibly, is to dissect the sites, the artefacts , and any other archaeological detritus that might illuminate the complex social tapestry and its evolution from the misty days of Prehistoric times right up to the grimy, soot-choked era of industry. This monumental task is, predictably, shared amongst a gaggle of academic institutions, consultancies, charities, and the ever-present government organizations.

Timeline

One might picture ancient Wales, perhaps with a particularly stoic Pentre Ifan , a Neolithic dolmen standing against the elements, a silent testament to those who came before.

Ancient Wales

Look, the Palaeolithic period in Wales? Evidence is about as scarce as a decent conversation with a politician. Geological shenanigans, you see – deposits getting washed away or buried under layers of time. Still, even with the geological equivalent of a cosmic prank played on the archaeological record, we can piece together something. Take the Red Lady of Paviland , unearthed in 1823. A real charmer, that one. Initially, it spawned a parade of wildly inaccurate theories about its origins. But, as is often the case, repeated investigations, armed with slightly more sophisticated tools than a shovel and a hunch, revealed the truth. The “Red Lady” – turns out it’s a bloke, and the oldest human skeleton found in the entire UK – clocks in at a staggering 33,000 to 34,000 years old, according to the esteemed academics at Oxford University’s Museum of Natural History . Fascinating, if you’re into that sort of thing.

The Neolithic period fares a bit better in the evidence department. We’ve got about 150 cromlechs scattered across Wales, not to mention dolmens like the aforementioned Pentre Ifan . Settlements, too, are starting to appear in the archaeological record. A whole Neolithic neighborhood unearthed in Llanfaethlu is being touted as potentially the “earliest village” in Wales. And the ingenuity of these early peoples? Evidence of mining is cropping up, including a Neolithic quarry discovered near St. Dyfnog’s Well. They were busy, these ancestors.

Bronze Age Wales

Behold the Rhyd-y-Gors Shield . A rather impressive piece of beaten copper alloy, measuring 67 cm across, dating back to between 1300 and 1000 BC. Currently residing in the hallowed halls of the British Museum, it’s a testament to the metalworking prowess of the era. This particular shield, discovered in Rhyd y Gors, Ceredigion , features twenty concentric ribs with alternating rows of bosses. It’s a fine example of early Bronze Age copper alloy craftsmanship. Then there’s the Llanwrthwl gold hoard, a collection of several Celtic golden torcs, found on February 21, 1954, in Case-gwyllt Bank, Talwrn Farm, Llanwrthwl. Two torcs were nestled beneath small stones, just below a rather substantial one, while another two lay beneath a second stone. The placement of these marker stones suggests a deliberate act of concealment, with the intention of retrieval. Almost five years later, a gold ring from the middle Bronze Age was discovered a mere 2.5 km away. A bit of a pattern, isn’t it?

Around 2000 BCE, the use of bronze for tools became the norm in Wales, effectively sidelining copper . During this epoch, the archaeological evidence leans heavily towards artefacts and burial sites, rather than extensive settlement remains. These artefacts, particularly the numerous metalwork hoards like the Broadward hoard, showcase the remarkable metallurgical capabilities of Bronze Age Wales. The intricate sheet-gold work found on the Mold Cape is another prime example. This industrial prowess is also evident at the Great Orme , home to what is considered the largest Bronze Age mine anywhere in the world. The sheer scale of it is… considerable.

The Llyn y Cerrig Bach Plaque , a relic from the Iron Age , now resides in the National Museum of Wales.

Iron Age Wales

The Iron Age in Wales, spanning from 800 BCE to 74 CE, hasn’t exactly been the subject of exhaustive archaeological deep dives. Most of what we know comes from settlement and hillfort sites, along with a smattering of status items. Evidence detailing the day-to-day domestic lives and the intricacies of local societies remains frustratingly scarce. However, what we do have suggests the presence of an elite warrior class and hints at cross-cultural exchanges. The adoption of Celtic symbolism, such as the Triskele , is also apparent. A particularly striking example is the crescentic plaque discovered at Llyn y Cerrig Bach on Anglesey. This symbol, believed to represent a triple limb, is thought by some to embody the elements of earth, wind, and water. The triskele on this artefact was meticulously hammered into the metal from the reverse side. Its precise function remains a mystery, though it’s likely decorative, possibly adorning a chariot, a shield, or even a musical instrument. It stands as a significant piece of evidence for Celtic symbolism in ancient Wales.

A bronze reign guide, thought to be from a Celtic chariot dating to 50–80 CE, was discovered near Pentyrch in 1965. Celtic chariots were the ultimate status symbol, and similar bronze work, embellished with red glass, was unearthed in Llanstadwell in 2018. This find marked the first-ever discovery of a Celtic chariot burial in southern Britain. It’s entirely plausible these chariots were employed in battles against the Romans by the native Celts of Wales.

Roman Wales

Ah, Rome. They arrived in Wales around 78 CE, leaving behind a rather significant archaeological footprint that continues to be excavated. After subjugating the local Celtic tribes – the Deceangli , the Ordovices , and the Silures – their control was cemented through military might, cultural assimilation, and the construction of fortified infrastructure. Take Caerleon , a town in South Wales known in Roman times as Isca Augusta . It boasts impressive sites like military barracks, public baths, and one of the most remarkably preserved amphitheatres in Britain. Existing settlements also underwent romanisation , with the population at Tre’r Ceiri swelling during the Roman occupation, evidenced by the numerous Roman artefacts found there. Mining, too, was a significant activity during the Roman era, particularly in Carmarthenshire , where archaeological fieldwork and excavation have revealed complex gold mining operations.

The Maen Achwyfan , likely dating from the 10th century, stands as a testament to later periods.

Medieval Wales

The extensive occupation of Wales by the English during the Medieval period is starkly reflected in the archaeological record, particularly in the proliferation of castles . Wales is home to over 600 castles, many of them stone structures erected by the English during or in the aftermath of the Norman conquest. It’s no wonder it’s often dubbed the castle capital of the world. During this era, the various Kingdoms of Wales and later the Principality of Wales emerged, leaving behind significant archaeological remnants. And let’s not forget the Vikings . Their raids peppered the Welsh coast throughout the Medieval period, though the extent of their influence is still debated. Archaeological evidence does, however, point to non-violent interactions between the Norse and Welsh populations, as seen in the Viking settlement at Llanbedrgoch . A Viking sword guard, dating from 1100-1125 CE, was discovered underwater in Smalls Reef, Pembrokeshire Coast, providing tangible proof of Viking presence and influence along the Pembrokeshire coast.

Artefacts from the medieval period also shed light on the practice of Celtic Christianity. While Augustine became the bishop of Canterbury in 590 AD, St Illtud was already actively spreading Christianity in Celtic Wales, possibly shortly after the Roman departure in 383 AD. Stone crosses, emblematic of Celtic Christianity, are now housed within the 13th-century Galilee chapel at St Illtud’s church in Llanilltud Fawr (Llantwit Major ), with some believed to date from the 8th to 10th centuries. Perhaps the most celebrated Celtic cross in Wales, and indeed the tallest wheel cross in Britain, is the Maen Achwyfan (Stone of Saint Cwyfan), most likely dating from the 10th century. This monument features carvings influenced by both Celtic and Norse styles, depicting an armed warrior, and is considered a nationally significant piece in the narrative of Christianity in Wales.

Early Modern Period

A rather macabre gold ring, adorned with the image of a skull, was discovered in Carreghofa, Powys, in 2019. According to the National Museum of Wales, this ring serves as a memento mori, a stark reminder of the inevitability of death and a reflection of the significantly higher mortality rates of the period (dated 1550–1650) compared to our own.

Industrial Wales to Present

Wales experienced a sustained 400-year period of industrialisation , marked by significant industries such as stone quarrying , coal and metal mining , and smelting . These industrial activities have left behind a substantial archaeological legacy, including structures like the Llangollen Canal in North Wales, which was crucial for transporting raw materials and finished products between Wales and England. Many sites from this era are remarkably well-preserved, with some, such as Blaenavon and Llanberis , now serving as industrial museums, offering a glimpse into this transformative period.

Notable Sites

Offa’s Dyke , a formidable earthwork near Clun , stands as a significant historical monument.

Pentre Ifan , a Neolithic cromlech, is more than just a collection of stones; it’s a potent symbol of Welsh heritage and is widely recognized as one of the most iconic prehistoric monuments in Wales. Its study dates back to 1603, and it was likely a communal burial site and a sacred space throughout its prolonged use. In Anglesey , the Neolithic site of Bryn Celli Ddu , a complex featuring a henge and a chambered tomb, continues to draw considerable public interest.

The Great Orme Copper Mines stand out as a notable Bronze Age site. This colossal mine had the capacity to yield nearly 2,000 tons of bronze, making it the largest known mine of its kind from that era worldwide. The site was actively exploited throughout the Bronze Age before production ceased, though it saw brief activity again during the Roman period. The copper extracted here was instrumental in the creation of bronze objects that were subsequently traded and distributed across Europe.

The Iron Age fort of Tre’r Ceiri is exceptionally well-preserved, remaining one of the most intact sites of its kind anywhere in the UK. It has been the subject of intense archaeological scrutiny over the years, with the earliest evidence of human presence at the site being a Bronze Age cairn . The site was occupied during Roman times, yielding a significant quantity of Roman artefacts. While occupation ceased in the 4th century CE, it remains a major tourist attraction, drawing visitors keen to explore its ancient ramparts.

Several prominent Roman sites have been excavated across Wales. In North Wales, Segontium , located near Caernarfon , is particularly noteworthy. It served as the largest Roman fort in the region and is now a significant tourist destination. The site encompasses a temple and a civilian town. Isca Augusta , the Roman name for modern Caerleon , is another substantial military complex and also hosts the National Roman Legion Museum . Furthermore, the site of Venta Silurum showcases the most intact Roman defensive walls found within the UK.

Offa’s Dyke , a medieval earthwork constructed as a clear demarcation between England and Wales, is a remarkable feat of engineering. Its path is now famously followed by a popular long-distance walking trail. Other significant medieval sites that attract visitors include Tintern Abbey , Carreg Cennen Castle , and the impressive castles at Conwy , Caerphilly , Caernarfon , Cardiff , and Pembroke .

Wales is home to four UNESCO World Heritage Sites with strong archaeological connections, all recognized for their Outstanding Universal Value . These include the Pontcysyllte Aqueduct and Canal , The Castles and Town Walls of King Edward in Gwynedd , the Slate Landscape of Northwest Wales , and the Blaenavon Industrial Landscape . The “Castles and Town Walls of King Edward” designation encompasses several significant medieval sites, while the Pontcysyllte Aqueduct, the Slate Quarries, and Blaenavon represent important industrial heritage. The Big Pit National Coal Museum at Blaenavon, for instance, attracted over 113,000 visitors in the 2019-2020 period, demonstrating the public’s enduring interest in Wales’ industrial past.

Institutions

The restoration of Castell Coch in 2018, undertaken by Cadw , highlights the ongoing efforts to preserve Wales’ historical sites.

Several key institutions form the bedrock of archaeological work in Wales, essentially creating a ’tripod’ for the protection, recording, and understanding of the nation’s archaeological heritage. These are Cadw , the government agency responsible for the historic environment; the Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Wales (RCAHMW), tasked with collecting and disseminating archaeological and historical information; and the four Welsh Archaeological Trusts , which operate as independent charities managing archaeological resources within their respective regions.

Cadw actively manages and maintains historic sites, facilitates public access, and promotes archaeological research, providing support for excavations such as those at Dryslwyn Castle . The RCAHMW, operating under a Royal Warrant, maintains national standards and manages extensive archives of archaeological and historical data. The four Welsh Archaeological Trusts – the Clwyd-Powys Archaeological Trust , the Dyfed Archaeological Trust , the Glamorgan-Gwent Archaeological Trust , and the Gwynedd Archaeological Trust – are crucial in delivering archaeological services and engaging the public at a regional level.

Other significant charitable organizations include the Council for British Archaeology Wales Cymru, the Welsh branch of a UK-wide charity dedicated to supporting archaeologists and promoting heritage awareness, notably through initiatives like the Young Archaeologists Club. The Cambrian Archaeological Association is another key player, fostering the study and understanding of Welsh archaeology through its research and the publication of the annual journal, Archaeologia Cambrensis .

Universities across Wales offering archaeology programs include the University of Wales Trinity Saint David , Bangor University , Swansea University , Aberystwyth University , and Cardiff University .

Return of Artefacts to Wales

There have been persistent calls within the Welsh media for the repatriation of significant archaeological artefacts currently held in English museums. Among the items frequently cited are the Mold Cape , the Llanllyfni lunula , the Rhos Rydd shield , the Moel Hebog shield , and various Welsh buckler shields, all housed in the British Museum. Additionally, the Red Lady of Paviland (currently in Oxford) and the Trawsfynydd Tankard (in Liverpool) have been identified as items that should be returned to Wales.

Public Engagement

A diverse array of museums, organizations, and charities across Wales are actively involved in promoting archaeology to the public. This includes providing access to numerous sites, monuments, and museums, such as the 121 sites managed by Cadw . Public engagement is further enhanced through historical re-enactments and living history demonstrations at sites like Castell Henllys , a reconstructed Iron Age hillfort , and the St Fagans National Museum of History , which recreates various facets of Welsh history and drew over 680,000 visitors in 2018/19. Other similar initiatives include Cosmeston Medieval Village , a 14th-century living history museum. Accessibility to heritage information is also improved through free online databases like Coeflin and Archwilio, managed by the Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Wales and the Welsh Archaeological Trusts, respectively.

The Council for British Archaeology organizes a Festival of Archaeology, which includes events held in Wales. Other organizations also host dedicated archaeological days, such as the Pembrokeshire Coast National Park Archaeology Day.

Volunteer community projects play a vital role in fostering public engagement with archaeology throughout Wales. These initiatives are primarily delivered by the Welsh Archaeological Trusts and their partner organizations. Notable examples include:

• The Chirk Castle Community Archaeology Project, a collaboration between the Clwyd-Powys Archaeological Trust and the National Trust , supported by funding from Cadw .
• Excavations at St. Patrick’s Chapel, undertaken by the Dyfed Archaeological Trust and the University of Sheffield , with support from Cadw , the Nineveh Charitable Trust, and the Pembrokeshire Coast National Park Authority.
• The North-East Wales Community Archaeology projects, managed by the Clwyd-Powys Archaeological Trust and funded by Cadw .
• Excavations at the Dinas Dinlle hillfort , conducted by the Gwynedd Archaeological Trust and the RCAHMW , with funding from the EU ‘CHERISH’ project.

This article is part of a series on the History of Wales .