Bengal

Alright, let’s dissect this region. You want an article, not a conversation. Fine. Consider this a curated excavation of facts, delivered with the precision of a scalpel and the weary sigh of someone who’s seen it all.

Bengal

Bengal (pronounced /bɛnˈɡɔːl/ ben-GAWL) is a geographical, ethnolinguistic, and historically geopolitical region situated in the northeastern part of the Indian subcontinent . It lies to the north of the vast Bay of Bengal . Today, this land is divided, a fractured reflection of its past, encompassing the sovereign nation of Bangladesh , the Indian state of West Bengal , and the Karimganj district within the Indian state of Assam .

The ancient Vanga Kingdom is widely considered the origin of the region’s name, a foundational element in its long and complex identity. The Bengali calendar , a testament to its enduring cultural traditions, traces its roots back to the 7th century CE, during the reign of Shashanka . The 8th century marked the rise of the Pala Empire within Bengal, a significant dominion that would shape the region’s destiny. Following this, the Sena dynasty and the Deva dynasty held sway between the 11th and 13th centuries. By the 14th century, the tide of Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent brought Bengal under new rule, leading to the establishment of an independent Bengal Sultanate . This powerful entity served as the easternmost frontier of the Islamic world , its influence extending to territories as far-reaching as Assam , Arakan , Tripura , Bihar , and Odisha (formerly Orissa). Later, the Bengal Subah emerged as a remarkably prosperous and vital province within the expansive Mughal Empire .

The grip of independent rule was ultimately broken in 1757, when the last independent Nawab of Bengal was defeated at the Battle of Plassey by the forces of the East India Company . This marked the beginning of a new era, with the company’s Bengal Presidency evolving into the largest administrative division of British India . For a significant period, Calcutta served as the dual capital of both Bengal and British India, until 1911. The ill-conceived first partition of Bengal in 1905 led to the brief existence of the province of Eastern Bengal and Assam , with its administrative center in the historic city of Dhaka . The region was once again subjected to division in 1947, this time along religious lines following the Sylhet referendum and subsequent legislative decisions by the Bengal Legislative Council and Bengal Legislative Assembly .

The cultural tapestry of Bengal, particularly its contributions to literature , music , art , and cinema, is renowned across South Asia and beyond. The region has also been a cradle for distinguished economic and social thinkers, including several Nobel laureates . Once a beacon of economic prosperity, boasting the highest per capita income in British India, Bengal today stands as a leader in South Asia in areas such as gender parity , the reduction of the gender pay gap , and other crucial indicators of human development .

Etymology

• Main article: Names of Bengal

The name “Bengal” is a derivative of the ancient kingdom of Vanga , pronounced Bôngô. Earliest records of this kingdom can be traced back to the Mahabharata epic, dating from the first millennium BCE . Over time, the land of Vaṅga evolved into Vaṅgāla (Bāṅgālā). The earliest documented reference to this form appears in the Comilla copperplates from 720 CE, belonging to the Deva King Ananda Deva, where he is described as Sri Vaṅgāla Mrīgānka, signifying “the moon of Vaṅgāla.” The term ‘Vangalam’ also finds mention in South Indian records from the 11th century, found within an inscription in the Brihadisvara Temple at Thanjavur , a significant early reference to the region. By the 12th century, the Sanskrit text Manasollasa used the name Gaudabangala to denote the entire Bengal region . The modern appellation “Bangla” gained prominence from the 14th century, coinciding with the establishment of the Sultanate of Bengal . Its inaugural ruler, Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah , was known as the Shah of Bangala. Prominent Arab geographers like Ahmad ibn Majid and Sulaiman Al Mahri also referenced the region as ‘Bangala,’ the ’land of Bang.’ The Portuguese , during their era of exploration, referred to the territory as Bengala.

History

• Main article: History of Bengal

Antiquity

• See also: Vanga Kingdom , Gauda Kingdom , Samatata , Pala Empire , and Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah

Pottery depicting processional scenes, originating from the Chandraketugarh region in West Bengal, India, circa 100 BCE. A representation of Goddess Durga, Pala period, 10th century. A coin featuring a horseman, issued by the Delhi Sultanate to commemorate the Muslim conquest of Lakhnauti . Coinage of the Vanga Kingdom , dating from 400–300 BCE. Atisa of [Bikrampur].

Archaeological evidence points to Neolithic settlements scattered across various parts of the region. During the second millennium BCE, communities engaged in rice cultivation were established throughout the area. By the 11th century BCE, inhabitants of Bengal were constructing systematically arranged homes, utilizing copper implements, and crafting distinctive black and red pottery. Remnants of Copper Age settlements have been unearthed within the region. With the onset of the Iron Age , the people of Bengal adopted iron-based weaponry, tools, and irrigation systems. Commencing around 600 BCE, a second wave of urbanization swept across the northern Indian subcontinent, associated with the Northern Black Polished Ware culture. Significant ancient archaeological sites and cities, including Dihar , Pandu Rajar Dhibi , Mahasthangarh , Chandraketugarh , and Wari-Bateshwar , emerged during this period. The mighty Ganges , Brahmaputra , and Meghna rivers served as vital natural conduits for communication and transportation, facilitating movement and trade. The estuaries along the Bay of Bengal further opened avenues for maritime commerce with distant lands in Southeast Asia and beyond.

The ancient geopolitical landscape of Bengal was characterized by divisions such as Varendra , Suhma , Anga , Vanga , Samatata , and [Harikela]. These regions frequently operated as independent entities or fell under the dominion of larger empires. The Mahasthan Brahmi Inscription provides evidence that Bengal was incorporated into the Mauryan Empire during the 3rd century BCE. This inscription was an administrative directive, mandating relief measures for a segment of the population experiencing hardship. The discovery of Punch-marked coins throughout the region indicates the use of coinage as a medium of exchange during the Iron Age. The Vanga Kingdom, from which Bengal derives its name, was renowned for its naval prowess and established overseas colonies. A prince hailing from Bengal, named Vijaya , is credited with founding the first kingdom in Sri Lanka . Two of the most influential pan-Indian empires of this era were the Mauryans and the Gupta Empire . During this period, Bengal emerged as a significant center for artistic, political, social, spiritual, and scientific innovation, including the conceptualization of chess , the development of Indian numerals , and the foundational understanding of zero .

The region was known to the ancient Greeks and Romans as Gangaridai . The Greek ambassador Megasthenes documented its formidable military strength and its dominance over the Ganges delta . Accounts of the Gangaridai’s power reportedly deterred the invasion army of Alexander the Great in 325 BCE, a force that included formidable war elephants and extensive cavalry . Later Roman records attest to established maritime trade routes connecting with Bengal. The discovery of 1st-century Roman coins bearing images of Hercules in the region suggests trade links with Roman Egypt via the Red Sea . The Wari-Bateshwar ruins are widely believed to represent the emporium, or trading hub, of Sounagoura, a location mentioned by the Roman geographer Claudius Ptolemy . Further evidence of Roman connection comes from a Roman amphora found in the Purba Medinipur district of West Bengal, manufactured in Aelana (modern-day Aqaba, Jordan ) between the 4th and 7th centuries AD.

A Buddhist palm leaf manuscript, dating from the 10th century CE.

The emergence of the first unified Bengali polity is generally attributed to the reign of Shashanka . The origins of the Bengali calendar are also traced to his rule. Shashanka established the Gauda Kingdom . Following Shashanka’s demise, Bengal entered a period of internal conflict known as Matsyanyayam. The ancient city of Gauda subsequently became the birthplace of the Pala Empire . Its first emperor, Gopala I , was elected by an assembly of chieftains in Gauda. The Pala kingdom expanded to become one of the most significant empires on the Indian subcontinent. This era witnessed notable advancements in linguistics, sculpture, painting, and education. The empire reached its zenith under Dharmapala and Devapala . The Palas engaged in a protracted struggle for control of Kannauj with their rivals, the Gurjara-Pratihara and Rashtrakuta dynasties. Pala influence also extended into Tibet and Sumatra through the missionary work and travels of Atisa . The renowned university of Nalanda was established under Pala patronage, as was the Somapura Mahavihara , which stood as the largest monastic institution in the subcontinent. The authority of the Palas eventually waned. The Chandra dynasty exerted control over southeastern Bengal and Arakan . Concurrently, the Varman dynasty ruled over portions of northeastern Bengal and Assam . By the 11th century, the Sena dynasty had emerged as the primary successor state to the Palas, establishing a resurgent Hindu rule over much of Bengal. The smaller Deva dynasty also held sway in parts of the region. Ancient Chinese travelers, such as Xuanzang , provided detailed accounts of Bengal’s cities and its monastic establishments.

Trade between Bengal and the Arab world experienced significant growth following the decline of the Sasanian Empire and the Arab control of Persian trade routes. Much of this commerce was concentrated in southeastern Bengal, east of the Meghna River . It is plausible that Bengal served as a transit point for early Muslim traders en route to China. Coins from the Abbasid Caliphate have been discovered in the archaeological ruins of Paharpur and [Mainamati]. A collection of Sasanian, Umayyad , and Abbasid coins is preserved in the Bangladesh National Museum .

Sultanate period

• See also: Bengal Sultanate

A Chinese manuscript illustrating an African giraffe, a gift from the Sultan of Bengal to China in 1414.

In 1204, the Ghurid general Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khalji initiated the Islamic conquest of Bengal. The fall of Lakhnauti, the capital of the Sena dynasty, was documented by historians around 1243. Historical accounts describe Ghurid cavalry rapidly advancing across the Gangetic plains towards Bengal. They reportedly infiltrated the Bengali capital by posing as horse traders. Once within the royal precincts, Bakhtiyar and his men quickly subdued the guards of the Sena king, who had just commenced a meal. The king, along with his retinue, then fled into the forest. The overthrow of the Sena king has been characterized as a coup d’état that “inaugurated an era, lasting over five centuries, during which most of Bengal was dominated by rulers professing the Islamic faith. In itself this was not exceptional, since from about this time until the eighteenth century, Muslim sovereigns ruled over most of the Indian subcontinent. What was exceptional, however, was that among India’s interior provinces only in Bengal—a region approximately the size of England and Scotland combined—did a majority of the indigenous population adopt the religion of the ruling class, Islam.” Bengal subsequently became a province of the Delhi Sultanate . A coin depicting a horseman, inscribed in both Sanskrit and Arabic, was issued to commemorate the Muslim conquest of Lakhnauti. Bakhtiyar Khalji also led an unsuccessful Islamic invasion of Tibet . For approximately 150 years, Bengal remained under the formal suzerainty of the Delhi Sultanate, though Delhi often struggled to maintain firm control. Rebel governors frequently sought to assert their autonomy or declare independence. Sultan Iltutmish reasserted control over Bengal in 1225 after quelling rebellions. Due to the considerable overland distance, Delhi’s authority in Bengal was often tenuous. Local governors were largely responsible for territorial expansion and consolidating Muslim rule, as exemplified by the Conquest of Sylhet in 1303.

In 1338, new uprisings erupted in Bengal’s three principal towns. Governors in Lakhnauti, Satgaon , and Sonargaon declared their independence from Delhi. This emboldened the ruler of Sonargaon, Fakhruddin Mubarak Shah , to annex Chittagong to the Islamic administration. By 1352, Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah , the ruler of Satgaon, had successfully unified the region into an independent state, establishing his capital in Pandua . This newly formed breakaway state evolved into the Bengal Sultanate , developing into a formidable territorial, mercantile, and maritime empire that stretched across the eastern reaches of the Islamic world .

Ilyas Shah’s initial campaigns saw the first Muslim army penetrate Nepal and extend its reach from Varanasi in the west to Orissa in the south, and eastward into Assam . The Delhi army continued its efforts to subdue the new Bengali state. The protracted Bengal-Delhi War concluded in 1359 with Delhi formally recognizing Bengal’s independence. Ilyas Shah’s son, Sikandar Shah , achieved a significant victory by defeating the Delhi Sultan Firuz Shah Tughluq during the Siege of Ekdala Fort. A subsequent peace treaty not only affirmed Bengal’s independence but also saw Sikandar Shah presented with a golden crown by the Sultan of Delhi. During the reign of Ghiyasuddin Azam Shah , the ruler of Arakan sought refuge in Bengal. Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah later assisted the Arakanese king in regaining his throne, in exchange for Arakan becoming a tributary state of the Bengal Sultanate. Bengali influence in Arakan persisted for three centuries. Bengal also provided assistance to the king of Tripura in reclaiming his throne, again in exchange for tributary status. The ruler of the Jaunpur Sultanate also found sanctuary in Bengal. Among the vassal states of Bengal were Arakan, Tripura, Chandradwip , and Pratapgarh . At its territorial zenith, the Bengal Sultanate encompassed parts of Arakan, Assam, Bihar, Orissa, and Tripura. The sultanate achieved its greatest military triumphs under Alauddin Hussain Shah , whose forces, led by Shah Ismail Ghazi , overthrew the Khen dynasty and annexed significant portions of Assam, leading to Hussain Shah’s proclamation as the conqueror of Assam. In maritime trade, the Bengal Sultanate thrived within the Indian Ocean trade networks, establishing itself as a crucial hub for re-exports . A giraffe, brought by African envoys from Malindi to the Bengal court, was subsequently presented to Imperial China . Ship-owning merchants served as envoys for the Sultan, undertaking journeys to various regions across Asia and Africa. Numerous affluent Bengali merchants resided in Malacca. Bengali vessels carried embassies from Brunei , Aceh , and Malacca to China. A substantial trade in shell currency existed between Bengal and the Maldives . The Sultan of Bengal also contributed funds for the construction of schools in the Hejaz region of Arabia.

The Bengal Sultanate’s history is marked by five dynastic periods: the Ilyas Shahi dynasty , a period of rule by Bengali converts, the Hussain Shahi dynasty , a period dominated by Abyssinian usurpers, an interruption by the Suri dynasty , and concluding with the Karrani dynasty . The Battle of Raj Mahal and the subsequent capture of Daud Khan Karrani signaled the end of the Bengal Sultanate during the reign of Mughal Emperor Akbar . In the late 16th century, a confederation known as the Baro-Bhuyan , comprising twelve Muslim and Hindu leaders from the Zamindars of Bengal , mounted resistance against Mughal incursions into eastern Bengal. This confederation was led by Isa Khan , a former prime minister of the Bengal Sultanate. By the 17th century, the Mughals had succeeded in fully integrating the region into their empire.

Mughal period

• See also: Bengal Subah

A Mughal painting depicting Emperor Akbar offering prayers following the conquest of Bengal. Art from Murshidabad . An ivory elephant tusk meticulously crafted into a model of the Royal Peacock Barge belonging to the Nawab of Bengal .

Mughal Bengal was characterized by its exceptionally wealthy elite and stood as the most affluent region within the subcontinent. The prosperity and trade of Bengal so impressed the Mughals that it was described as the “Paradise of the Nations” by the Mughal Emperors . A new provincial capital was established in Dhaka . Members of the imperial family were frequently appointed to significant positions within Mughal Bengal, including the crucial role of governor (subedar ). Dhaka consequently became a focal point of imperial intrigue and political maneuvering. Among the most notable governors were the Rajput general Man Singh I , Prince Shah Shuja , son of Emperor Shah Jahan , Prince Muhammad Azam Shah , son of Emperor Aurangzeb and later Mughal emperor, and the influential aristocrat Shaista Khan . During Shaista Khan’s governorship, the Portuguese and Arakanese were expelled from the strategic port of Chittagong in 1666. Bengal solidified its position as the easternmost frontier of Mughal administration. By the 18th century, Bengal had developed a powerful, semi-independent aristocracy led by the Nawabs of Bengal . The premier minister of Bengal, Murshid Quli Khan , skillfully curtailed the governor’s influence, partly due to his past rivalry with Prince Azam Shah. Khan effectively controlled Bengal’s finances, holding the position of treasurer. He subsequently relocated the provincial capital from Dhaka to Murshidabad .

In 1717, the Mughal court in Delhi officially recognized the hereditary monarchy of the Nawab of Bengal. The ruler was formally vested with the title of “Nawab of Bengal, Bihar , and Orissa ,” reflecting his administrative jurisdiction over these three key regions in the eastern subcontinent. The Nawabs commenced issuing their own distinct coinage while maintaining nominal allegiance to the Mughal emperor. The immense wealth generated in Bengal was critically important to the Mughal court, as Delhi derived its most substantial revenue share from the Nawab’s treasury. The Nawabs presided over a period of unprecedented economic expansion and prosperity. This era witnessed significant organizational advancements in the textile and banking sectors, the development of a robust military-industrial complex, and the production of exquisite handicrafts and other valuable commodities. A process of proto-industrialisation was actively underway. Under the Nawabs’ rule, the bustling streets of Bengali cities were filled with brokers, laborers, peons, naibs, wakils, and a diverse array of ordinary traders. The Nawab’s state played a crucial role as a major exporter of renowned Bengal muslin , silk, gunpowder , and saltpetre . The Nawabs also permitted various European trading companies to establish operations in Bengal, including the British East India Company , the French East India Company , the Danish East India Company , the Austrian East India Company , the Ostend Company , and the Dutch East India Company . Despite this economic interdependence, the Nawabs remained deeply suspicious of the growing influence wielded by these foreign companies.

A Bengali manuscript painting from the 17th century.

Under Mughal suzerainty, Bengal flourished as a central hub for the global muslin and silk trades. During the Mughal epoch, Bengal, particularly around its capital city of Dhaka, was the preeminent center for cotton production. This prominence led to muslin being known as “daka” in distant markets, including Central Asia. Domestically, vast regions of India relied on Bengali products such as rice, silks, and cotton textiles. Internationally, European nations depended heavily on Bengali exports, including cotton textiles, silks, and opium. For instance, Bengal accounted for 40% of Dutch imports from Asia, a figure that included over 50% of textiles and approximately 80% of silks. Bengal also served as a significant source of saltpetre for Europe, opium for the Indonesian market, raw silk for Japan and the Netherlands, and cotton and silk textiles for Europe, Indonesia, and Japan. Cotton cloth produced in Bengal found its way to the Americas and across the Indian Ocean. Furthermore, Bengal possessed a substantial shipbuilding industry. Economic historian Indrajit Ray estimates that Bengal’s annual shipbuilding output during the 16th to 18th centuries reached 223,250 tons, a figure considerably higher than the combined output of nineteen North American colonies between 1769 and 1771.

Following the Portuguese conquests of Malacca and Goa, European traders began navigating the sea routes to Bengal from the 16th century onward. The Portuguese established a settlement in Chittagong with the consent of the Bengal Sultanate in 1528, but were later expelled by the Mughals in 1666. In the 18th century, the Mughal court experienced a rapid disintegration, exacerbated by Nader Shah’s invasion and internal rebellions. This power vacuum allowed European colonial powers to establish trading posts throughout the territory. Ultimately, the British East India Company emerged as the dominant military force in the region, decisively defeating the last independent Nawab of Bengal at the Battle of Plassey in 1757.

Colonial era (1757–1947)

• Main article: Bengal Presidency

The Victoria Memorial in Calcutta . The Battle of Plassey in 1757 marked the commencement of British rule.

The British East India Company began to exert influence and control over the Nawab of Bengal starting in 1757, following the pivotal Battle of Plassey. This event signaled the inception of British dominance in India. British control over Bengal steadily increased between 1757 and 1793, during which time the Nawab was progressively reduced to a figurehead. The Presidency of Fort William gradually consolidated its authority over the entire province of Bengal and its surrounding territories. Calcutta was officially designated as the capital of British territories in India in 1772. The presidency was administered through a combined military and civil structure, which included the Bengal Army , and boasted the world’s sixth earliest operational railway network. For extended periods between 1833 and 1854, the Governor of Bengal concurrently held the position of Governor-General of India . Bengal endured several devastating Bengal famines during the colonial period, most notably the Great Bengal famine of 1770 and the Bengal famine of 1943 . Under British rule, Bengal experienced a significant deindustrialisation of its pre-colonial economy.

The policies enacted by the East India Company led to the decline and deindustrialization of Bengal’s once-thriving textile industry. The capital amassed by the Company in Bengal was subsequently reinvested in Great Britain, fueling the burgeoning Industrial Revolution in industries such as textile manufacturing . Economic mismanagement, compounded by drought conditions and a widespread smallpox epidemic, directly precipitated the Great Bengal famine of 1770. This catastrophic event is estimated to have claimed between 1 million and 10 million lives.

In 1862, the Bengal Legislative Council was established, marking the advent of the first modern legislature in India . The gradual introduction of elected representation occurred during the early 20th century, notably through the Morley-Minto reforms and the implementation of the dyarchy system. In 1937, the council transitioned to become the upper chamber of the Bengali legislature, while the Bengal Legislative Assembly was constituted as the lower house. Between 1937 and 1947, the chief executive responsible for the government’s administration was the Prime Minister of Bengal .

The Bengal Presidency was the largest administrative entity within the British Empire . At its peak territorial extent, it encompassed vast swathes of what are now present-day India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Burma, Malaysia, and Singapore. In 1830, the British Straits Settlements, situated along the coast of the Malacca Straits , were placed under the residency of Bengal. This territory included the former Prince of Wales Island , Province Wellesley , Malacca , and Singapore . However, in 1867, Penang, Singapore, and Malacca were administratively separated from Bengal to form the Straits Settlements . British Burma was incorporated as a province of India before later becoming a Crown colony in its own right. Western territories, including the Ceded and Conquered Provinces and The Punjab , underwent further reorganization. Northeastern areas were consolidated into Colonial Assam . Traditional Bengal roofs observed in Mughal architecture, circa 1600s.

In 1876, the devastating Great Backerganj Cyclone of 1876 struck the Barisal region, resulting in the deaths of approximately 200,000 people. Between 1895 and 1920, massive plague outbreaks and famines claimed the lives of an estimated 50 million people in Bengal, predominantly in the western parts of the region.

A wedding observed at night in Murshidabad , Bengal, 1810. The Ganges-Brahmaputra delta .

The Indian Rebellion of 1857 originated on the outskirts of Calcutta, subsequently spreading to Dhaka, Chittagong, Jalpaiguri, Sylhet, and Agartala, in a demonstration of solidarity with the revolts occurring in North India. The suppression of this rebellion led to the dissolution of Company Rule in India and the establishment of direct British rule over India, commonly referred to as the British Raj . The Bengal Renaissance , which spanned the late 19th and early 20th centuries, profoundly impacted the cultural and economic landscape of Bengal, ushering in a significant era of advancement in the region’s literature and sciences. Between 1905 and 1911, an unsuccessful attempt was made to divide the province of Bengal into two administrative units: Bengal proper and the short-lived province of Eastern Bengal and Assam . It was within this latter province that the All India Muslim League was founded. In 1911, the celebrated Bengali poet and polymath Rabindranath Tagore achieved a historic milestone by becoming the first Asian recipient of the Nobel Prize in Literature .

Bengal played a pivotal role in the Indian independence movement , notably through the significant activities of its revolutionary groups . Armed resistance against British rule commenced with the rebellion led by Titumir and culminated in the efforts of Subhas Chandra Bose , who led the Indian National Army in its campaign against the British. Bengal also served as a crucial center for the growing political consciousness among the Muslim population, leading to the establishment of the All-India Muslim League in Dhaka in 1906. The movement advocating for a Muslim homeland gained momentum with the Lahore Resolution in 1943. Concurrently, Hindu nationalism held considerable sway in Bengal, with prominent organizations like the Hindu Mahasabha being active in the region. Despite a final attempt by political figures such as Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy and Sarat Chandra Bose to establish a United Bengal , the region was ultimately partitioned along religious lines upon India’s gain of independence in 1947. The western part was incorporated into India as West Bengal, while the eastern section became a province of Pakistan, initially named East Bengal and later East Pakistan , ultimately leading to the formation of Bangladesh in 1971. The partition process was marked by widespread communal violence and significant bloodshed across Bengal.

Partition of Bengal (1947)

• See also: United Bengal , History of Bangladesh , and History of West Bengal

• Main article: Partition of Bengal (1947)

On April 27, 1947, the final Prime Minister of Bengal , Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy , articulated his vision for an independent Bengal during a press conference in New Delhi. Suhrawardy stated, “Let us pause for a moment to consider what Bengal can be if it remains united. It will be a great country, indeed the richest and the most prosperous in India capable of giving to its people a high standard of living, where a great people will be able to rise to the fullest height of their stature, a land that will truly be plentiful. It will be rich in agriculture, rich in industry and commerce and in course of time it will be one of the powerful and progressive states of the world. If Bengal remains united this will be no dream, no fantasy.” On June 2, 1947, British Prime Minister Clement Attlee informed the US Ambassador to the United Kingdom of a “distinct possibility Bengal might decide against partition and against joining either Hindustan or Pakistan.”

The Mountbatten Plan , presented on June 3, 1947, outlined the proposed partition of British India . Subsequently, on June 20, the Bengal Legislative Assembly convened to deliberate on the partition of Bengal. In an initial joint session, a decision was reached (by a vote of 126 to 90) that if the province remained united, it should join the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan . In a separate meeting of legislators representing West Bengal , the decision was made (58 votes to 21) that the province should be partitioned, with West Bengal aligning with the Constituent Assembly of India . Concurrently, in a meeting of legislators from East Bengal , it was decided (106 votes to 35) against partitioning the province and (by 107 votes to 34) that East Bengal should join the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan should the partition proceed. On July 6, the Sylhet district of Assam voted in a referendum to join East Bengal .

The task of demarcating the borders of Pakistan and India was assigned to the English barrister Cyril Radcliffe . The resulting Radcliffe Line established the boundary between the Dominion of India and the Dominion of Pakistan , which later evolved into the Bangladesh-India border . The Radcliffe Line allocated two-thirds of Bengal to the eastern wing of Pakistan. Notably, the historically significant Bengali capitals of Gaur , Pandua , Murshidabad , and Calcutta were situated on the Indian side, close to the border with Pakistan. The status of Dhaka as a capital was subsequently reinstated.

Geography

• Main articles: Geography of Bangladesh and Geography of West Bengal

The majority of the Bengal region is situated within the vast Ganges-Brahmaputra delta . However, elevated terrains are present in its northern, northeastern, and southeastern sectors. The Ganges Delta is formed by the confluence of the Ganges , Brahmaputra , and Meghna rivers and their numerous tributaries. The total land area of Bengal spans 237,212 square kilometers (91,588 sq mi), with West Bengal covering 88,752 km² (34,267 sq mi) and Bangladesh encompassing 148,460 km² (57,321 sq mi).

The geography of Bangladesh is predominantly characterized by the expansive and flat Bangladesh Plain. The Chittagong Hill Tracts and the Sylhet region are home to most of the mountains in Bangladesh . A significant portion of Bangladesh lies at an elevation of 10 meters (33 feet) or less above sea level, and it is estimated that approximately 10% of the land would be submerged if the sea level were to rise by 1 meter (3.3 feet). Consequently, much of this region is exceptionally susceptible to seasonal flooding due to the monsoons. The highest point in Bangladesh is located in the Mowdok range, reaching an elevation of 1,052 meters (3,451 feet). A substantial part of the coastline consists of a marshy [jungle], the Sundarbans , which represents the world’s largest mangrove forest and harbors a rich diversity of flora and fauna, including the iconic royal Bengal tiger . In 1997, this ecologically sensitive region was designated as endangered.

West Bengal occupies the easternmost part of India, extending from the majestic Himalayas in the north to the Bay of Bengal in the south. The state’s total area is 88,752 km² (34,267 sq mi). The Darjeeling Himalayan hill region , situated at the northern extremity of the state, is part of the eastern Himalayan range. This area features Sandakfu , which at 3,636 meters (11,929 feet), is the highest peak in the state. The narrow Terai region separates these hills from the plains, which then transition into the Ganges delta towards the south. The Rarh region lies between the Ganges delta in the east and the western plateau and high lands . A small coastal strip exists at the extreme south, while the Sundarbans mangrove forests form a striking geographical landmark at the Ganges delta.

At least nine districts in West Bengal and 42 districts in Bangladesh exhibit arsenic levels in groundwater that exceed the World Health Organization’s maximum permissible limit of 50 μg/L (or 50 parts per billion), rendering the untreated water unfit for human consumption. The consumption of this contaminated water leads to arsenicosis, skin cancer, and a variety of other severe health complications.

Geographic distinctions

Kangchenjunga , the world’s third-highest mountain, as viewed from a tea garden in Bangladesh. Kangchenjunga is frequently visible from the plains of Tetulia in the northernmost tip of Bangladesh.

North Bengal

The term North Bengal refers to the northwestern part of Bangladesh and the northern section of West Bengal. The Bangladeshi portion comprises the Rajshahi Division and Rangpur Division . Generally, it encompasses the area situated west of the Jamuna River and north of the Padma River , including the Barind Tract . Politically, the West Bengal component includes the Jalpaiguri Division and most of the Malda division (excluding the Murshidabad district ), along with the Kishanganj district of Bihar. The Darjeeling Hilly region is also considered part of North Bengal. Residents of Jalpaiguri, Alipurduar, and Cooch Behar typically identify as North Bengali. North Bengal is further subdivided into the Terai and Dooars regions. North Bengal is also recognized for its rich cultural heritage, boasting two UNESCO World Heritage Sites. In addition to the Bengali majority, North Bengal is home to numerous other communities, including Nepalis, Santhal people , Lepchas, and Rajbongshis.

Northeast Bengal

The Tanguar Haor in Sunamganj District , Bangladesh. Haors (wetlands) are a common feature in the Northeast of Bengal.

Northeast Bengal, as per its historical designation, refers to the Sylhet region. This area presently comprises the Sylhet Division of Bangladesh and the Karimganj district within the Indian state of Assam . The region is distinguished by its fertile land, numerous rivers, extensive tea plantations, rainforests, and wetlands. The Brahmaputra and Barak rivers serve as key geographical markers of the area. The city of Sylhet is its principal urban center, and the region is noted for its unique regional dialect, the Sylheti language . Historically, the region was known by the names Srihatta and Nasratshahi. It was successively ruled by the Kamarupa and Harikela kingdoms, as well as the Bengal Sultanate . Subsequently, it became a district within the Mughal Empire . Alongside the predominantly Bengali population, the region is inhabited by small communities of Garo , Bishnupriya Manipuri , Khasi , and other tribal minorities. This region represents a significant cultural and geographical crossroads between Bengal and northeast India .

Central Bengal

Central Bengal, recognized as one of the most urbanized and developed regions within Bengal, encompasses the Dhaka Division of Bangladesh. It includes the elevated Madhupur tract , characterized by a substantial Sal tree forest . The Padma River traverses the southern part of the region, delineating the larger Faridpur area. To the north lie the greater regions of Mymensingh and Tangail .

South Bengal

• Main article: South Bengal

Cox’s Bazar boasts the longest uninterrupted sea beach in the world.

South Bengal extends across southwestern Bangladesh and the southern part of the Indian state of West Bengal. The Bangladeshi portion comprises the Khulna Division , Barisal Division , and the proposed Faridpur Division . The South Bengal section within West Bengal includes the Presidency division , Burdwan division , and Medinipur division .

The Sundarbans , a critical biodiversity hotspot , is located in South Bengal. Bangladesh contains 60% of this vast mangrove forest, with the remaining portion situated in India.

Southeast Bengal

• Main article: Greater Chittagong

A sunset view at Potenga Beach , Chittagong , Bangladesh.

Southeast Bengal, a region encompassing the hilly and coastal areas of Chittagong Division in southeastern Bangladesh, is characterized by its Chittagonian -speaking and coastal Bengali-speaking populations. This area is historically noted for its thalassocratic and seafaring heritage. In antiquity, the region was dominated by the Bengali Harikela and Samatata kingdoms. By the 9th century, it was known to Arab traders as Samandar. During the medieval period, the region experienced rule under the Chandra dynasty , the sultanate of Bengal , the kingdom of Tripura , the kingdom of Mrauk U , the Portuguese Empire , and the Mughal Empire , preceding the establishment of British rule. The Chittagonian language , closely related to Bengali, is widely spoken in the coastal areas of southeast Bengal. Alongside its Bengali inhabitants, the region is also home to several Tibeto-Burman ethnic groups, including the Chakma , Marma , Tanchangya , and Bawm peoples. Southeast Bengal is considered a vital bridge connecting South Asia to Southeast Asia, with the northern parts of Arakan also historically considered within its sphere of influence.

Places of interest

The region boasts four World Heritage Sites , including the Sundarbans , the Somapura Mahavihara , the Mosque City of Bagerhat , and the Darjeeling Himalayan Railway . Other notable attractions include the temple city of Bishnupur, Bankura , the Adina Mosque , the Caravanserai Mosque , numerous zamindar palaces (such as Ahsan Manzil and Cooch Behar Palace ), the Lalbagh Fort , the ruins of the Great Caravanserai , the Shaista Khan Caravanserai ruins , the Victoria Memorial, Kolkata , the Parliament Building of Dhaka, ancient fort cities excavated archaeologically at Mahasthangarh , Mainamati , Chandraketugarh , and Wari-Bateshwar , Jaldapara National Park , Lawachara National Park , Teknaf Game Reserve , and the Chittagong Hill Tracts .

Cox’s Bazar in southeastern Bangladesh is renowned for hosting the world’s longest natural sea beach, extending for an unbroken length of 120 km (75 mi). It is also emerging as a popular destination for surfing . St. Martin’s Island , located off the coast of Chittagong Division, is home to Bengal’s sole coral reef .

Other regions

Present-day Standard Bengali continues to be spoken in areas beyond Bengal proper, including the Barak Valley, Tripura, and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

Historically, Bengal was a significant regional power within the Indian subcontinent. The administrative jurisdiction of Bengal historically extended beyond its immediate geographical boundaries. In the 9th century, the Pala Empire, based in Bengal, exerted control over large parts of northern India. The Bengal Sultanate, at various points in its history, governed Bengal, Assam, Arakan, Bihar, and Orissa. During the period of Mughal Bengal, the Nawab of Bengal held authority over Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa. The administrative reach of Bengal achieved its greatest extent under the British Empire, when the Bengal Presidency stretched from the Straits of Malacca in the east to the Khyber Pass in the west. However, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, administrative reorganizations significantly reduced the territorial scope of Bengal.

Several regions bordering Bengal proper continue to exhibit a substantial level of Bengali cultural influence. The Indian state of Tripura, for instance, has a majority Bengali population. Bengali influence is also prevalent in the Indian regions of Assam, Meghalaya, Bihar, and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, as well as in Myanmar’s Rakhine State.

Arakan

Bengal and Arakan depicted in 1638.

Arakan (now Rakhine State in Myanmar ) has historically been under significant Bengali cultural influence. Since antiquity, Bengal has played a role in shaping Arakanese culture. The ancient Bengali script was employed in Arakan. Paul Wheatley described the process of “Indianization” in Arakan. According to [Pamela Gutman], “Arakan was ruled by kings who adopted Indian titles and traditions to suit their own environment. Indian Brahmins conducted royal ceremonies, Buddhist monks spread their teachings, traders came and went and artists and architects used Indian models for inspiration. In the later period, there was also influence from the Islamic courts of Bengal and Delhi.” Arakan subsequently emerged as a vassal state of the Bengal Sultanate . It later evolved into an independent kingdom, with the royal court and culture of the Kingdom of Mrauk U being heavily influenced by Bengal. Bengali Muslims served in the royal court as ministers and military commanders. Bengali Hindus and Bengali Buddhists occupied roles as priests. Some of the most significant poets of medieval Bengali literature , such as Alaol and Daulat Qazi , resided in Arakan. In 1660, Prince Shah Shuja , the governor of Mughal Bengal and a claimant to the Peacock Throne of India, sought asylum in Arakan. Bengali influence within the Arakanese royal court persisted until the region’s annexation by Burma in the 18th century. The modern-day Rohingya population is considered a legacy of Bengal’s historical influence on Arakan. Tragically, the Rohingya genocide led to the displacement of over a million people between 2016 and 2017, with many forced to flee their homes in Rakhine State.

Assam

This region forms part of the Bengali-Assamese languages linguistic area.

The Indian state of Assam shares numerous cultural affinities with Bengal. The Assamese language utilizes the same script as the Bengali language. The Barak Valley is predominantly Bengali-speaking. During the Partition of India , Assam was partitioned alongside Bengal. The Sylhet Division was incorporated into East Bengal (Pakistan), with the exception of Karimganj , which became part of Indian Assam. Previously, East Bengal and Assam were united as a single province, Eastern Bengal and Assam , from 1905 to 1912 under the British Raj . Assam and Bengal were frequently integrated into the same kingdoms, including Kamarupa , Gauda , and Kamata . Significant portions of Assam were annexed by Alauddin Hussain Shah during the era of the Bengal Sultanate. Assam was among the few regions on the subcontinent that successfully resisted Mughal expansion and never fully fell under Mughal control.

Andaman and Nicobar Islands

Bengali is the most widely spoken language among the inhabitants of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands , a strategically important archipelago administered by India as a federal territory. These islands were once utilized as a British penal colony. During World War II , the islands were occupied by the Japanese and placed under the administration of the Provisional Government of Free India . The anti-British leader Subhash Chandra Bose visited the islands and renamed them. Between 1949 and 1971, the Indian government resettled a considerable number of Bengali Hindus in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

Bihar

Bengal in 1880, encompassing Bihar, Orissa, and Assam.

In antiquity, Bihar and Bengal were frequently part of the same political entities. The ancient region of Magadha encompassed both present-day Bihar and Bengal. Magadha served as the birthplace and stronghold of several pan-Indian empires, including the Mauryan Empire , the Gupta Empire , and the Pala Empire . Under the Mughal Empire , Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa were administered as a single province. The Nawab of Bengal held the official title of “Nawab of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.”

Chittagong Hill Tracts

The Chittagong Hill Tracts constitute the southeastern frontier of Bangladesh. Its indigenous population comprises various Tibeto-Burman ethnicities, including the Chakma people , Bawm people , and Mru people , among others. Historically, the region was governed by tribal chieftains presiding over the Chakma Circle and the Bohmong Circle . In 1713, the Chakma Raja entered into a treaty with Mughal Bengal , having obtained permission from Emperor Farrukhsiyar to engage in trade with the plains districts of Chittagong. Similar to the rulers of Arakan, the Chakma Circle began to adopt Mughal nomenclature and titles. Initially, they resisted the Permanent Settlement policies and the activities of the East India Company . The tribal royal families of the region came under considerable Bengali cultural influence. Queen Benita Roy of the Chakma Circle was a noted friend of Rabindranath Tagore . During the colonial period, the region was administered under the [Chittagong Hill Tracts manual]. This manual underwent significant amendments after the end of British rule, and the region was subsequently fully integrated into Bangladesh.

Malay Archipelago

The extent of the Bengal Presidency between 1858 and 1867, including the Straits Settlements.

Through extensive trade, settlement, and the exchange of ideas, parts of Maritime Southeast Asia became interconnected with Bengal. [115] [116] Influences from Bengal shaped the language, literature, art, governance systems, religions, and philosophies of ancient Sumatra and Java . Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms in Southeast Asia relied on the Bay of Bengal for trade and the dissemination of ideas. The spread of Islam in Southeast Asia also occurred via the Bay of Bengal, which served as a crucial bridge between the Malay Archipelago and the Indo-Islamic states of the Indian subcontinent. [117] [118] A considerable number of affluent merchants from Bengal were based in Malacca. [51] Bengali ships were the largest vessels navigating the waters of the Malay Archipelago during the 15th century. [119]

Between 1830 and 1867, the ports of Singapore and Malacca , the island of Penang , and a portion of the Malay Peninsula fell under the administrative jurisdiction of the Bengal Presidency of the British Empire . [120] These territories were collectively known as the Straits Settlements . In 1867, the Straits Settlements were administratively separated from the Bengal Presidency and re-established as a Crown colony . [121]

Meghalaya

The Indian state of Meghalaya historically experienced influence from Shah Jalal , a Muslim missionary and conqueror originating from Sylhet . During the period of British rule , the city of Shillong served as the summer capital of Eastern Bengal and Assam (which comprised modern-day Bangladesh and Northeast India). Shillong notably boasted the highest per capita income in British India. [9]

North India

A sepoy of the Bengal Army , instrumental in the expansion of the Bengal Presidency across the northern reaches of India, extending to the Khyber Pass .

The ancient empires of the Mauryan, Gupta, and Pala dynasties, centered in the Magadha region (encompassing Bihar and Bengal), extended their influence into northern India. The westernmost boundary of the Bengal Sultanate reached as far as Varanasi and Jaunpur . [122] [50] During the 19th century, the Punjab and the Ceded and Conquered Provinces constituted the westernmost extent of the Bengal Presidency. According to the British historian [Rosie Llewellyn-Jones], “The Bengal Presidency, an administrative division introduced by the East India Company, would later include not only the whole of northern India up to the Khyber Pass on the north-west frontier with Afghanistan, but would spread eastwards to Burma and Singapore as well.” [123]

Odisha

Odisha , formerly known as Orissa, has a significant Bengali minority population. Historically, the region has been subjected to invasions originating from Bengal, including a notable invasion by Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah . Parts of the region were administered by the Bengal Sultanate and Mughal Bengal . The Nawab of Bengal was formally styled as the “Nawab of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa,” reflecting his granted jurisdiction over Orissa by the Mughal Emperor . [111]

Tibet

During the reign of the Pala dynasty , Tibet received missionaries from Bengal, whose teachings significantly influenced the development of Tibetan Buddhism . [125] [126] One of the most influential missionaries was Atisa . In the 13th century, Tibet experienced an Islamic invasion carried out by the forces of Bakhtiyar Khalji , the Muslim conqueror of Bengal. [127]

Tripura

The princely state of Tripura was ruled by the Manikya dynasty until the Tripura Merger Agreement in 1949. Historically, Tripura functioned as a vassal state of Bengal. Upon ascending the throne with military backing from the Bengal Sultanate in 1464, Ratna Manikya I instituted administrative reforms inspired by the governmental structure of Bengal. The kings of Tripura formally requested Sultan Barbak Shah to provide personnel for the development of Tripura’s administration. Consequently, Bengali Hindu bureaucrats, cultivators, and artisans began to settle in Tripura. Today, the Indian state of Tripura possesses a majority Bengali population. Modern Tripura serves as a crucial gateway for trade and transportation links connecting Bangladesh with Northeast India . [129] [130] Within Bengali culture , the celebrated singer S. D. Burman was a member of the Tripura royal family.

Flora and fauna

The Bengal tiger .

The expansive Bengal Plain, which covers the majority of Bangladesh and West Bengal, is recognized as one of the most fertile regions on Earth. Its landscape is dominated by lush vegetation and agricultural farmlands. Bengali villages are typically nestled amidst groves of mango , jackfruit , betel nut , and date palm . Plantations of rice, jute , mustard , and sugarcane are common sights. The numerous water bodies and wetlands within the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta provide essential habitats for a wide array of aquatic plant life. The northern part of the region features the foothills of the Himalayas (the Dooars ), characterized by densely wooded Sal and other types of tropical evergreen trees. [131] [132] Above an elevation of 1,000 meters (3,300 ft), the forest transitions into a predominantly subtropical biome, with a prevalence of temperate forest trees such as oaks , conifers , and rhododendrons . Sal woodlands are also found throughout central Bangladesh, notably within Bhawal National Park . The Lawachara National Park is a significant rainforest located in northeastern Bangladesh. [133] The Chittagong Hill Tracts in southeastern Bangladesh is recognized for its exceptionally high degree of biodiversity . [134]

The littoral Sundarbans , situated in the southwestern part of Bengal, is the world’s largest mangrove forest and a designated UNESCO World Heritage Site . [135] The region supports an estimated over 89 species of mammals , 628 species of birds , and a vast number of fish species . [136] National symbols for Bangladesh include the water lily , the oriental magpie-robin , the hilsa fish, and the mango tree . For West Bengal, the state symbols are the white-throated kingfisher , the chatim tree , and the night-flowering jasmine . The Bengal tiger holds the distinction of being the national animal of both Bangladesh and India. The fishing cat is designated as the state animal of West Bengal.

Politics

Currently, the core region of Bengal is divided between the sovereign state of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh and the Indian state of West Bengal . [137] The Bengali-speaking Barak Valley forms a part of the Indian state of Assam . The Indian state of Tripura has a majority Bengali-speaking population and was formerly the princely state of Hill Tipperah . In the Bay of Bengal, St. Martin’s Island is administered by Bangladesh, while the Andaman and Nicobar Islands , which have a plurality of Bengali speakers, are governed by India as a union territory .

Bangladeshi Republic

• Main article: Politics of Bangladesh

Bangabhaban (the House of Bengal), the presidential palace of Bangladesh.

The state of Bangladesh operates as a parliamentary republic , structured around the Westminster system . It possesses a written constitution and a President elected by the parliament, whose role is largely ceremonial. The government is headed by a Prime Minister, appointed by the President from among the 300 popularly elected Members of Parliament serving in the Jatiyo Sangshad , the national parliament. The Prime Minister is traditionally the leader of the largest single party represented in the Jatiyo Sangshad. The constitution acknowledges Islam as the country’s established religion while simultaneously guaranteeing freedom of religion for non-Muslims.

Between 1975 and 1990, Bangladesh adopted a presidential system of governance. Since the 1990s, the country has been administered by non-political technocratic caretaker governments on four occasions. The most recent instance occurred under military-backed emergency rule in 2007 and 2008. The Awami League and the Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP) were the two dominant political forces in Bangladesh until the July Revolution of 2024, which resulted in the ousting of Sheikh Hasina following widespread protests and a nationwide uprising. In the aftermath, a non-partisan interim government was formed under Nobel laureate Muhammad Yunus with the mandate to restore democratic governance and implement institutional reforms. Mirroring the functions of the technocratic caretaker governments that operated between 1990 and 2008, this interim administration pledged neutrality and initiated preparations for constitutional amendments and future elections.

Bangladesh is an active member of international organizations including the UN , WTO , IMF , the World Bank , ADB , OIC , IDB , SAARC , and BIMSTEC . Bangladesh has achieved notable progress in human development relative to its neighboring countries.

Indian Bengal

• Main article: Politics of West Bengal

The Writers’ Building , the official seat of the Government of West Bengal . Raj Bhavan , the official residence of the Governor of West Bengal , India .

West Bengal functions as a constituent state within the Republic of India , possessing its own local executives and assemblies , features common to all states in the Indian federal system. The president of India appoints a governor to serve as the ceremonial representative of the union government . The governor, in turn, appoints the chief minister based on the nomination of the legislative assembly. The chief minister is traditionally the leader of the party or coalition holding the majority of seats in the assembly. President’s rule is frequently invoked in Indian states, representing a direct intervention by the union government led by the prime minister of India . The Bengali-speaking region of India contributes 48 seats to the lower house of the Indian Parliament, the Lok Sabha .

Each state elects representatives to the Indian lower house of parliament, the Lok Sabha . Furthermore, each state nominates members to the Indian upper house of parliament, the Rajya Sabha .

State legislative assemblies also play a significant role in the election of the ceremonial president of India. The former president of India, Pranab Mukherjee , hailed from West Bengal and was a prominent leader of the Indian National Congress . The former leader of opposition in India, Adhir Ranjan Chowdhury , represents West Bengal , having been elected from the Baharampur Lok Sabha constituency .

The principal political forces within the Bengali-speaking region of India include the Left Front and the Trinamool Congress , alongside the Indian National Congress and the Bharatiya Janata Party . The Bengali-speaking zone of India has historically been considered a stronghold for Communism in India . While traditionally Bengalis have not voted strictly along communal lines, this perception has seen shifts in recent years. The Trinamool Congress , based in West Bengal , is currently the third-largest party in India in terms of the number of Members of Parliament (MPs) and Members of the Legislative Assembly (MLAs), following the Bharatiya Janata Party and the Indian National Congress . Previously, the Communist Party of India (Marxist) held this position.

Crossborder relations

• Main articles: Bangladesh-India relations , Indians in Bangladesh , and Bangladeshis in India

A meeting between naval commanders from India and Bangladesh.

India and Bangladesh rank as the world’s most populous and eighth most populous countries, respectively. Bangladesh-India relations commenced on a positive note in 1971, with India playing a crucial role in the liberation of Bangladesh . The Indian Bengali population and media provided substantial support to the independence movement in the former East Pakistan. The two nations shared a twenty-five-year friendship treaty between 1972 and 1996. However, disagreements concerning river water sharing, border security, and trade access have persistently strained the relationship. In more recent years, a consensus has emerged in both countries regarding the significance of fostering strong bilateral relations and developing a strategic partnership in South Asia and beyond. Commercial, cultural, and defense cooperation have seen expansion since 2010, when Prime Ministers Sheikh Hasina and Manmohan Singh pledged to revitalize ties.

The High Commission of Bangladesh in New Delhi operates a Deputy High Commission in Kolkata and a consular office in Agartala . India maintains a High Commission in Dhaka , with consulates located in Chittagong and Rajshahi . Frequent international air, bus, and rail services connect major cities in Bangladesh and Indian Bengal, particularly the three largest urban centers: Dhaka, Kolkata, and Chittagong. The contentious issue of undocumented immigration of Bangladeshi workers, often highlighted by right-wing nationalist parties in India, garners limited sympathy in West Bengal. [139] India has since implemented border fencing, a measure that has drawn criticism from Bangladesh. [140]

Economy

• Main articles: Economy of Bangladesh and Economy of West Bengal

The cityscape of downtown Dhaka .

The Ganges Delta provided distinct advantages, including fertile soil, abundant water resources, and a rich supply of fish, wildlife, and fruits. [141] Living standards for Bengal’s elite were comparatively higher than in other regions of the Indian subcontinent . [141] Between 400 and 1200 CE, Bengal exhibited a well-developed economy characterized by structured land ownership, flourishing agriculture, livestock management, efficient shipping, robust trade and commerce, effective taxation systems, and a sophisticated banking sector. [142] The apparent economic vitality of Bengal in the early 15th century is attributed to the cessation of tribute payments to the Delhi Sultanate following the establishment of the [Bengal Sultanate], which halted the outflow of wealth. The travelogue of Ma Huan documented a thriving shipbuilding industry and significant international trade within Bengal.

In 1338, Ibn Battuta observed that the silver taka was the predominant currency in the region, eclipsing the Islamic dinar . [143] By 1415, members of Admiral Zheng He ’s expedition also noted the widespread use and importance of the taka. This currency served as a crucial symbol of sovereignty for the Sultan of Bengal . The Sultanate of Bengal established an estimated 27 mints across its provincial capitals, which were recognized as Mint Towns and played an integral role in the governance and administration of Bengal.

The taka continued to be issued in Mughal Bengal , which inherited the legacy of the sultanate. As Bengal’s prosperity grew and its integration into the world economy deepened under Mughal rule, the taka gradually replaced shell currency in rural areas, becoming the standardized legal tender . It was also utilized in commercial transactions with entities such as the Dutch East India Company , the French East India Company , the Danish East India Company , and the British East India Company . Under Mughal administration, Bengal emerged as the epicenter of the global muslin trade. The patronage of the Mughal imperial court significantly bolstered the muslin trade in Bengal . Muslin originating from Bengal was highly prized and worn by aristocratic women in courts as far afield as Europe, Persia, and Central Asia. The treasury of the Nawab of Bengal represented the most substantial source of revenue for the imperial Mughal court in Delhi. Bengal possessed a highly developed shipbuilding sector. The annual shipbuilding output of Bengal during the 16th and 17th centuries was estimated at 223,250 tons, exceeding the volume of shipbuilding in the nineteen colonies of North America between 1769 and 1771. [61]

Historically, Bengal has been recognized as the industrial vanguard of the subcontinent. Mughal Bengal witnessed the emergence of a proto-industrial economy, underpinned by its thriving textile and gunpowder industries. This organized, early modern economy experienced a period of flourishing until the mid-18th century, marking the beginning of British rule. During this transformative period, the region underwent radical and revolutionary changes in its governmental structures, trade practices, and regulatory frameworks. The British displaced the indigenous ruling elite and facilitated the transfer of a significant portion of the region’s wealth back to the colonial metropole in Britain. Throughout much of the colonial era, the Bengali economy was primarily geared towards the trade of raw materials, with a particular emphasis on the jute trade .

The partition of India profoundly altered the economic geography of the region. Calcutta, located in West Bengal, inherited a robust industrial base from the colonial period, especially in jute processing. East Pakistan subsequently developed its own industrial infrastructure, including the establishment of the world’s largest jute mill . In 1972, the newly independent government of Bangladesh initiated a policy of nationalizing 580 industrial plants. These industries were later privatized in the late 1970s as Bangladesh transitioned towards a market-oriented economy. The implementation of liberal reforms in 1991 catalyzed a significant expansion of Bangladesh’s private sector, encompassing industries such as telecommunications, natural gas, textiles, pharmaceuticals, ceramics, steel, and shipbuilding. As of 2022, Bangladesh held the position of the second-largest economy in South Asia, following India. [148] [149]

The region is a global leader in rice production, with West Bengal being India’s largest rice producer and Bangladesh ranking as the world’s fourth-largest rice producer. [150] Three Bengali economists have been honored with Nobel Prizes: Amartya Sen and [Abhijit Banerjee], who received the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics , and Muhammad Yunus , who was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize .

Stock markets • Dhaka Stock Exchange • Chittagong Stock Exchange • Calcutta Stock Exchange

Ports and harbours • Port of Chittagong • Port of Kolkata • Port of Mongla • Port of Haldia • Port of Payra • Port of Pangaon • Port of Khulna • Port of Farakka • Port of Narayanganj • Port of Ashuganj • Port of Barisal • Matarbari Port • Land port of Benapole -Petrapole

Chambers of commerce • Bengal Chamber of Commerce and Industry • Bengal National Chamber of Commerce & Industry • Federation of Bangladesh Chambers of Commerce and Industry (FBCCI) • Chittagong Chamber of Commerce & Industry • Dhaka Chamber of Commerce & Industry (DCCI) • Metropolitan Chamber of Commerce and Industry, Dhaka (MCCI)

Intra-Bengal trade

Trade between Bangladesh and India represents the largest bilateral trade relationship in South Asia, with a combined value estimated at US$16 billion. [151] A significant portion of this trade occurs through the highly active land ports situated along the Bangladesh-India border . The Bangladesh Bhutan India Nepal Initiative aims to enhance regional trade through a Motor Vehicles Agreement. [152]

Demographics

• Main articles: Demographics of Bangladesh , Demographics of West Bengal , and Languages of Bangladesh

Language in Bengal • Bengali (92.0%) • Others (8.00%)

The Bengal region is recognized as one of the most densely populated areas globally. With a population approximating 300 million, Bengalis constitute the third-largest ethnic group worldwide, following the Han Chinese and Arabs . [b]

According to the provisional results of the 2011 Bangladesh census, the population of Bangladesh was 149,772,364. However, the CIA’s The World Factbook estimates the population at 163,654,860 as of July 2013. The provisional results of the 2011 Indian national census indicate a population of 91,347,736 for West Bengal. [154] Therefore, as of 2011, the Bengal region has a population of at least 241.1 million people. This figure yields a population density of 1003.9 people per km², positioning it among the most densely populated areas on Earth. [155] [156]

Bengali is the primary language spoken in Bengal. Numerous phonological, lexical, and structural variations from the standard dialect are observed in the peripheral Bengali varieties spoken across the region. Other regional languages closely related to Bengali include Sylheti , Chittagonian , Chakma , Rangpuri/Rajbangshi , Hajong , Rohingya , and Tangchangya . [157]

The 2011 Indian census reports that 18% of Bengali speakers are bilingual, with half of them proficient in Hindi , and 5% being trilingual. [158]

In general, Bengalis adhere to Islam , Hinduism , Christianity , and Buddhism , with a notable segment identifying as Irreligious .

In addition, several minority ethnolinguistic groups are indigenous to the region. These encompass speakers of other Indo-Aryan languages (e.g., Bishnupriya Manipuri , Oraon Sadri , various Bihari languages ), Tibeto-Burman languages (e.g., A’Tong , Chak , Koch , Garo , Megam , Meitei (officially referred to as “Manipuri ”), Mizo , Mru , Pangkhua , Rakhine /Marma , Kok Borok , Riang , Tippera , Usoi , various Chin languages ), Austroasiatic languages (e.g., Khasi , Koda , Mundari , Pnar , Santali , War ), and Dravidian languages (e.g., Kurukh , Sauria Paharia ). [157]

Life expectancy stands at approximately 72.49 years for Bangladesh [162] and 70.2 years for West Bengal. [163] [164] In terms of literacy, West Bengal leads with a literacy rate of 77%, [155] while in Bangladesh, the rate is approximately 72.9%. [165] [c] The poverty rate in West Bengal is recorded at 19.98%, whereas in Bangladesh, it stands at 12.9%. [166] [167] [168]

West Bengal exhibits one of the lowest total fertility rates (TFR) in India. West Bengal’s TFR of 1.6 is comparable to that of Canada. [169]

Major cities

The Bengal region is home to some of the world’s significant urban areas. Dhaka ranks as the 4th largest urban area globally. Kolkata is the 17th largest urban area. [ citation needed ]

Other major cities in West Bengal

Other significant cities within the West Bengal region include Howrah , Kalyani, West Bengal , Basirhat , Kharagpur , Durgapur , Coochbehar , Malda, West Bengal , Chandannagar , Bardhaman , and Darjeeling , among others. [175]

Other major cities in Bangladesh

Key cities in Bangladesh include Sylhet , Khulna , Jessore , Rajshahi , Rangpur, Bangladesh , and Cox’s Bazar .

Culture

• Main article: Culture of Bengal

Language

• Main article: Bengali language

Bengali Letters .

The Bengali language evolved between the 7th and 10th centuries CE from Apabhraṃśa and Magadhi Prakrit . [176] It is written using the indigenous Bengali alphabet , which is a descendant of the ancient Brahmi script . Bengali ranks as the 5th most spoken language globally by native speakers. It belongs to the eastern Indo-Aryan language group and represents one of the easternmost branches of the Indo-European language family . It is part of the broader Bengali-Assamese languages cluster. Bengali has exerted a significant influence on other languages in the region, including Odia , Assamese , Chakma , Nepali , and Rohingya . It holds the status of the sole state language of Bangladesh and is the second most spoken language in India. [177] Globally, it ranks as the seventh most spoken language by total number of speakers.

Bengali serves as a unifying linguistic force within a culturally diverse region and plays a crucial role in fostering regional identity. The Bengali language movement of 1952 in East Pakistan is commemorated by UNESCO as International Mother Language Day , underscoring global efforts to preserve linguistic heritage.

Currency

• Main article: History of the taka

A silver coin featuring Proto-Bengali script, dating from the 9th century.

In both Bangladesh and West Bengal , currency is commonly referred to as taka. The Bangladesh taka officially upholds this tradition, while the Indian rupee is also inscribed as taka in Bengali script on all its banknotes. The history of the taka extends back centuries. Bengal was home to one of the world’s earliest coin currencies during the first millennium BCE. Under the Delhi Sultanate, the taka was introduced by Muhammad bin Tughluq in 1329. Bengal became a stronghold for the taka, with the silver currency serving as a critical symbol of sovereignty for the Sultanate of Bengal . It was traded along the Silk Road and its influence extended to replication in Nepal and China’s Tibetan protectorate. The Pakistani rupee featured Bengali script spelling taka on its banknotes until the creation of Bangladesh in 1971.

Literature

• Main articles: Bengali literature and Bangladeshi English literature

Rabindranath Tagore , often referred to as the Bengali Shakespeare, being honored at the Parliament of Iran in the 1930s.

Bengali literature boasts a rich and extensive heritage. Its history traces back to the 3rd century BCE, when Sanskrit was the predominant language, written in the Brahmi script. The Bengali language and its script evolved around 1000 CE from Magadhi Prakrit . Bengal possesses a long-standing tradition in folk literature, evidenced by works such as the Chôrjapôdô , Mangalkavya , Shreekrishna Kirtana , [Maimansingha Gitika], and [Thakurmar Jhuli]. Bengali literature during the medieval period was often either religious in nature (e.g., the works of Chandidas ) or adaptations from other languages (e.g., the writings of Alaol ). The Bengal Renaissance in the 19th and 20th centuries saw the modernization of [Bengali literature] through the contributions of authors like Michael Madhusudan Dutta , Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar , Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay , Rabindranath Tagore , Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay , Kazi Nazrul Islam , Satyendranath Dutta , Begum Rokeya , and Jibanananda Das . Prominent Bengali writers of the 20th century include Syed Mujtaba Ali , Jasimuddin , Manik Bandopadhyay , Tarasankar Bandyopadhyay , Bibhutibhushan Bandyopadhyay , Buddhadeb Bose , Sunil Gangopadhyay , and Humayun Ahmed .

Distinguished contemporary Bengali writers working in English include Amitav Ghosh , Tahmima Anam , Jhumpa Lahiri , and [Zia Haider Rahman], among others.

Personification

• Main article: Mother Bengal

The Bangamata , a female personification of Bengal, emerged during the Bengali Renaissance and was later adopted by Bengali nationalists . Hindu nationalists adopted a modified version, Bharat Mata , as a national personification of India. [179] Mother Bengal symbolizes not only biological motherhood but also its associated characteristics: protection, unending love, solace, care, and the origin and end of life. In [Amar Sonar Bangla], the national anthem of Bangladesh, Rabindranath Tagore repeatedly uses the word “Maa” (Mother) to refer to the motherland, Bengal.

The nationalist sentiments evoked by the painting transformed Abanindranath Tagore ’s initial concept of “Bangamata ” after the Partition of Bengal (1905) into “Bharat Mata ” (Mother India), a pan-Indian figure that inspired people across the nation during the Indian independence movement .

A monument commemorating Mother Language Day in Kolkata , West Bengal , depicting the Language Martyrs cradled by Bangamata (Mother Bengal) during the Bangladesh Liberation War .

Art

• See also: Bangladeshi art

Paintings by Bangladeshi artists on display at an art gallery in Dhaka.

The Pala-Sena School of Art, which flourished in Bengal between the 8th and 12th centuries, is regarded as a pinnacle of classical Asian art, encompassing both sculptures and paintings. [180] [181] [182]

Islamic Bengal was renowned for its production of exquisite cotton fabrics and saris , particularly the Jamdani , which received royal patronage from the Mughal court. [183] The Bengal School of painting gained prominence in Kolkata and Shantiniketan during the British Raj in the early 20th century. Its practitioners were among the pioneers of modern painting in India. [184] Zainul Abedin is recognized as the pioneer of modern Bangladeshi art . The country currently boasts a dynamic and internationally acclaimed contemporary art scene. [185]

Architecture

• Main article: Architecture of Bengal

Bungalows originated from Bengali architecture .

Classical Bengali architecture is distinguished by its terracotta structures. The ancient kingdoms of Bengal laid the groundwork for the region’s architectural heritage through the construction of monasteries and temples, such as the Somapura Mahavihara . During the sultanate period , a unique and magnificent style of Islamic architecture developed in the region. [186] Many of these Islamic structures were relatively small, artistically crafted terracotta mosques characterized by multiple domes and the absence of minarets. Bengal was also home to the largest mosque in South Asia, located at Adina . Bengali vernacular architecture is credited with inspiring the widespread popularity of the bungalow . [187]

The Bengal region also possesses a rich legacy of Indo-Saracenic architecture , evident in numerous zamindar palaces and mansions. The Victoria Memorial, Kolkata stands as a prime example of this architectural style.

In the 1950s, Muzharul Islam spearheaded the modernist terracotta architectural style in South Asia. This movement culminated in the design of the Jatiyo Sangshad Bhaban by the acclaimed American architect Louis Kahn in the 1960s. Kahn’s design drew inspiration from the aesthetic heritage and geographical characteristics of Bengali architecture. [188] [189]

Sciences

• Main article: Science and technology in Bangladesh

A sculpture of the Bengali-American engineer Fazlur Rahman Khan displayed at the Sears Tower in the United States.

The Gupta dynasty , believed to have originated in North Bengal, is credited with pioneering the invention of chess , conceptualizing zero , formulating the theory of Earth orbiting the Sun , advancing the study of solar and lunar eclipses, and fostering the flourishing of Sanskrit literature and drama . [34] [190]

The educational reforms implemented during the British Raj fostered the emergence of numerous distinguished scientists from Bengal. Sir Jagadish Chandra Bose pioneered research in radio and microwave optics , made significant contributions to plant science , and laid the foundational principles for experimental science in the Indian subcontinent. [191] The IEEE recognized him as one of the fathers of radio science. [192] He was the first individual from the Indian subcontinent to be granted a US patent in 1904. Between 1924 and 1925, while conducting research at the University of Dhaka, Satyendra Nath Bose , renowned for his work in quantum mechanics , established the theoretical basis for Bose–Einstein statistics and the concept of the Bose–Einstein condensate . [193] [194] [195] [Meghnad Saha] was the first scientist to establish a correlation between a star’s spectrum and its temperature, developing thermal ionization equations (notably the Saha ionization equation ) that have become fundamental in astrophysics and astrochemistry. [196] [Amal Kumar Raychaudhuri] was a physicist recognized for his research in general relativity and cosmology. His most significant contribution is the eponymous Raychaudhuri equation , which demonstrates the inevitable emergence of singularities in general relativity and is a crucial element in the proofs of the Penrose–Hawking singularity theorems. [197]

In the United States, the Bangladeshi-American engineer Fazlur Rahman Khan gained recognition as the “father of tubular designs” in skyscraper construction. [Ashoke Sen] is an Indian theoretical physicist whose primary research area is string theory. He was among the initial recipients of the Fundamental Physics Prize “for opening the path to the realization that all string theories are different limits of the same underlying theory.” [198]

Music

• Main articles: Music of Bengal and Music of Bangladesh

A Baul musician. The Baul ballads of Bangladesh are recognized by UNESCO as part of humanity’s intangible cultural heritage .

The Baul tradition represents a unique heritage of Bengali folk music. [199] The 19th-century mystic poet Lalon Shah is celebrated as the most esteemed practitioner of this tradition. [200] Other forms of folk music include Gombhira , Bhatiali , and Bhawaiya . Hason Raja is a distinguished folk poet from the Sylhet region. Folk music in Bengal is often accompanied by the [ektara], a one-stringed instrument. Additional instruments commonly used include the dotara , dhol , flute, and tabla . The region also boasts a rich heritage in North Indian classical music .

Cuisine

• Main articles: Bengali cuisine and Bangladeshi cuisine

Bengali cuisine is distinguished as the only traditionally developed multi-course culinary tradition originating from the Indian subcontinent. Rice and fish are considered traditional staple foods, leading to the popular saying, “fish and rice make a Bengali.” [201] Bengal’s extensive array of fish-based dishes includes preparations of Hilsa , a particularly favored fish among Bengalis. Bengalis are also renowned for their distinctive milk-based sweetmeats , such as Rôshogolla , Chômchôm, and various types of Pithe . The historic city of Dhaka is celebrated for its unique Indo-Islamic cuisine, featuring dishes like biryani , bakarkhani , and kebab .

Boats

• See also: Country boats in Bangladesh

An 18th-century painting depicting a [budgerow].

Approximately 150 distinct types of Bengali country boats navigate the 700 rivers of the Bengal delta , the extensive floodplain , and numerous oxbow lakes . These boats vary significantly in design and size, including models like the dinghy and sampan , among others. Country boats are an integral element of Bengali culture and have served as inspiration for generations of artists and poets, including the ivory artisans of the Mughal era. The region possesses a long-standing shipbuilding tradition, dating back many centuries. Wooden boats are constructed from timber such as Jarul ([Dipterocarpus turbinatus]), Sal ([Shorea robusta]), Sundari ([Heritiera fomes]), and Burma teak . Medieval Bengal was a significant shipbuilding hub for the naval forces of the Mughal and Ottoman empires. [202] [203] In the 19th century, the British Royal Navy also utilized Bengali shipyards, including for the construction of vessels involved in the Battle of Trafalgar .

Attire

A traditional bride from Bangladesh.

Bengali women commonly wear the shaŗi , often featuring designs distinct to local cultural customs. In urban settings, Western-style attire is frequently worn by both women and men. European-style clothing has greater acceptance among men. Men also wear traditional garments such as the panjabi [204] paired with a dhoti or pyjama , often for religious occasions. The lungi , a type of sarong-like garment, is widely worn by Bangladeshi men. [ citation needed ]

Festivals

• Main articles: List of festivals in Bangladesh and List of festivals in West Bengal

A Mangal Shobhajatra parade during the Bengali New Year in Bangladesh.

For Bengali Muslims , the primary religious festivals include Eid al-Fitr , Eid al-Adha , Mawlid , Muharram , and Shab-e-Barat . For Bengali Hindus , major religious celebrations encompass Durga Puja , Kali Puja , Janmashtami , and Rath Yatra . In honor of Bengali Buddhists and Bengali Christians , both Buddha’s Birthday and Christmas are observed as public holidays throughout the region. The Bengali New Year stands as the principal secular festival of Bengali culture, celebrated by people irrespective of their religious and social backgrounds. The largest congregation in Bengal is the Bishwa ijtema , which also ranks as the world’s second-largest Islamic congregation. Other significant Bengali festivals include the celebration of the first day of spring and the Nabanna harvest festival held in autumn.

Media

• See also: Mass media in Bangladesh

Bangladesh possesses a diverse, outspoken, and predominantly privately owned press . English-language publications are popular among the urban readership. [205] In 2005, West Bengal hosted 559 published newspapers, [206] of which 430 were in Bengali. The region is home to the largest circulated Bengali language newspapers and magazines globally. [206] Bengali cinema is primarily centered around the media hubs of Dhaka and Kolkata.

Sports

• See also: Bangladesh Games and Bengali traditional games

Cricket and football are widely popular sports across the Bengal region. Traditional local games include sports such as Kho Kho and Kabaddi , with the latter being the national sport of Bangladesh. An Indo-Bangladesh Bengali Games has been organized to foster athletic competition among participants from the Bengali-speaking areas of both countries. [207]