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Chinua Achebe

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Chinua Achebe

"Achebe" redirects here. For other uses, see Achebe (surname).

[Image of Achebe in Lagos, 1966]

Born Albert Chinụalụmọgụ Achebe

(1930-11-16)16 November 1930

Ogidi, Colonial Nigeria Died 21 March 2013(2013-03-21) (aged 82)

Boston, Massachusetts, US Notable works

• "The African Trilogy": •

•  Things Fall Apart (1958) •  No Longer at Ease (1960) •  Arrow of God (1964)

• A Man of the People (1966)

• Anthills of the Savannah (1987)

Children 4, including Chidi Chike and Nwando

Chinua Achebe (/ˈtʃɪnwɑː əˈtʃɛbeɪ/ ⓘ ; born Albert Chinụalụmọgụ Achebe ; 16 November 1930 – 21 March 2013) was a Nigerian novelist, poet, and critic. He’s not just a central figure of modern African literature; he is the bedrock. His first novel, and dare I say his magnum opus, Things Fall Apart (1958), isn’t just pivotal; it’s the Rosetta Stone for understanding the African literary landscape. It remains the most widely studied, translated, and read African novel. Ever. Alongside Things Fall Apart, his works No Longer at Ease (1960) and Arrow of God (1964) form the "African Trilogy," a triptych that dissected the soul of a continent undergoing seismic shifts. Later, he gifted us A Man of the People (1966) and Anthills of the Savannah (1987), novels that continued to prod and provoke. He was often called the "father of modern African literature," a title he, with characteristic rigor, rejected. And frankly, who am I to argue with him?

Born in Ogidi, Colonial Nigeria, Achebe’s childhood was a fascinating fusion of Igbo traditions and the encroaching tide of colonial Christianity. He was a prodigy in school, eventually landing at what is now the University of Ibadan. There, the seeds of his critique against the colonial gaze, particularly in Western literature's portrayal of Africa, began to sprout fiercely. After graduating, he landed in Lagos, working for the Nigerian Broadcasting Service (NBS). It was there, in 1958, that Things Fall Apart catapulted him to international acclaim. Within a decade, he’d not only published four more groundbreaking novels through Heinemann but had also launched the Heinemann African Writers Series, a vital platform that launched careers of writers like Ngũgĩ wa Thiong'o and Flora Nwapa.

Achebe’s mission was audacious: to dismantle the colonial narrative that had suffocated African literature. He wove together the rich tapestry of Igbo traditions, the spiritual complexities of Christianity, and the inevitable clash of Western and African values to forge an authentic African voice. And he did it in English, a language he fiercely defended as a tool for reaching a wider audience, particularly those in the very nations that had colonized his homeland. His 1975 lecture, "An Image of Africa: Racism in Conrad's Heart of Darkness," remains a seismic event in postcolonial discourse. Published in The Massachusetts Review, it didn't just critique Joseph Conrad as a "thoroughgoing racist"; it dared to question the very foundations of Western literary canon. When Biafra declared its independence in 1967, Achebe stood with his people, serving as an ambassador. The ensuing Nigerian Civil War was a brutal scar, and Achebe’s appeals for aid echoed across continents. Post-war, disillusioned by the persistent corruption and elitism he witnessed, he spent time in the United States in the 1970s. A devastating car crash in 1990 left him partially paralyzed, leading him back to the US for a nineteen-year tenure at Bard College as a professor of Languages and Literature.

In 2007, he received the Man Booker International Prize. From 2009 until his death, he held the position of Professor of African Studies at Brown University. His work has spawned a vast scholarly industry, a testament to its enduring power. Beyond his novels, Achebe's literary output includes short stories, poetry, essays, and children’s books. A titled Igbo chief himself, his writing style is deeply rooted in the Igbo oral tradition, blending straightforward narration with folk stories, proverbs, and eloquent oratory. His work grapples with the profound themes of culture and colonialism, masculinity and femininity, politics, and the very nature of history. The Chinua Achebe Literary Festival is held annually to celebrate his enduring legacy.

Life and career

Youth and background (1930–1947)

[Map of Nigeria's linguistic groups. Achebe's homeland, the Igbo region (archaically spelt Ibo ), lies in the central south.]

Chinua Achebe was born on 16 November 1930, christened Albert Chinụalụmọgụ Achebe. His father, Isaiah Okafo Achebe, was a teacher and evangelist who stood at the precarious junction of tradition and modernity. His mother, Janet Anaenechi Iloegbunam, hailed from a family of blacksmiths, and was herself a devout Christian and a vegetable farmer. Their home, nestled near the Igbo village of Ogidi in what was then Colonial Nigeria, was a microcosm of the cultural flux of the era. Isaiah, an early convert to Christianity, was the nephew of Udoh Osinyi, a respected titled leader known for his tolerance. Orphaned young, Isaiah’s conversion meant he stepped away from the ancestral Odinani religious practices, though he maintained a deep respect for them, influenced by his uncle's steadfastness. The Achebe household was vibrant, with five other children: Frank Okwuofu, John Chukwuemeka Ifeanyichukwu, Zinobia Uzoma, Augustine Ndubisi, and Grace Nwanneka – names that echoed this blend of the old and the new. After the birth of the youngest daughter, the family relocated to Isaiah Achebe's ancestral town of Ogidi, in the region now known as Anambra.

The air in the Achebe home, and indeed in the Igbo community, was thick with stories. Achebe's mother and sister Zinobia were his early storytellers, their tales a constant source of fascination. The walls of their home were adorned with educational charts and almanacs, and a collection of books, including an Igbo adaptation of Bunyan's The Pilgrim's Progress and a prose version of Shakespeare's A Midsummer Night's Dream, fueled his young imagination. He eagerly awaited traditional village events, especially the vibrant masquerade ceremonies, which would later find vivid expression in his literary works.

His formal education began in 1936 at St Philips' Central School in Ogidi. Despite an initial aversion to the children's religious class, his sharp intellect quickly earned him a place in a higher grade. A testament to his early promise, he was noted for his exceptional handwriting and reading skills. His secondary education took him to the prestigious Government College Umuahia, a crucible of intellectual development in what is now Abia State. He was a regular attendee of Sunday school and special services, often assisting his father. A memorable incident involved a theological debate between apostates and the catechist, a clash of ideas that likely planted early seeds of critical inquiry. In 1942, he moved to Nekede Central School, near Owerri, where his academic rigor saw him pass entrance exams for two different colleges.

University (1948–1953)

[Image of the Gate of the University of Ibadan, 2016]

1948 marked a significant year for Nigeria; its first university, University College, opened its doors in preparation for national independence. Affiliated with the University of London, it was known then as the University of Ibadan. Achebe was among the inaugural cohort, admitted on a bursary to study medicine. It was within these halls that his profound dissatisfaction with the colonial narrative took root, particularly his critique of works like Joseph Conrad's Heart of Darkness. The final straw, however, was encountering Joyce Cary's Mister Johnson, a portrayal of Nigerian characters that he found to be a demeaning caricature. This ignited a spark; he decided to become a writer, determined to offer a counter-narrative. This decision meant abandoning medicine and forfeiting his scholarship, a path that necessitated financial strain. The government eventually provided a bursary, and his elder brother Augustine sacrificed funds meant for a trip home to support his studies.

Achebe’s literary journey began in 1950 with "Polar Undergraduate" for the University Herald, a piece that humorously celebrated the intellectual vibrancy of his peers. He continued to contribute essays and letters on philosophy and academic freedom to another campus publication, The Bug, and served as the Herald's editor in 1951–52. His first short story, "In a Village Church" (1951), offered a nuanced look at the integration of Igbo life with Christian institutions. Subsequent stories like "The Old Order in Conflict with the New" (1952) and "Dead Men's Path" (1953) delved into the delicate balance and inherent conflicts between tradition and modernity, always with an eye toward mutual understanding. His academic exploration expanded under Professor Geoffrey Parrinder, leading him to delve into Christian history and African traditional religions.

Upon completing his final examinations in 1953, Achebe received a second-class degree, a result that left him unsettled. He returned to Ogidi, contemplating his next steps. It was during this period of uncertainty that a friend from university convinced him to apply for an English teaching position at the Merchants of Light school in Oba. The school was a far cry from academic prestige, a dilapidated institution with a meager library, situated on land known as "bad bush" due to local superstitions.

Teaching and producing (1953–1956)

As a teacher, Achebe instilled in his students a passion for reading and originality. Recognizing their limited access to contemporary media, he shared his own collection of newspapers. His tenure at Oba lasted only four months before he moved to Lagos in 1954 to join the Nigerian Broadcasting Service (NBS), a colonial-era radio network established in 1933. Assigned to the Talks Department, he honed his skills in crafting scripts for oral delivery, a process that sharpened his understanding of the subtle distinctions between written and spoken language, a skill that would prove invaluable for his realistic dialogue.

Lagos, a sprawling conurbation teeming with rural migrants, made a profound impact on him. The city's vibrant social and political pulse fueled his ambition to write a novel, a challenging endeavor given the scarcity of published African fiction in English at the time, though works like Amos Tutuola's Palm-Wine Drinkard and Cyprian Ekwensi's People of the City stood as notable exceptions. A royal visit by Queen Elizabeth II in 1956 served as a stark reminder of the pervasive influence of colonialism and politics, a moment that resonated deeply with Achebe.

In that same year, 1956, Achebe was selected for staff training at the BBC in London. This first international trip was a crucial opportunity to refine his production skills and, more importantly, to seek feedback on his nascent novel, which he had already begun to envision as two separate works. In London, he met novelist Gilbert Phelps, to whom he cautiously offered his manuscript. Phelps’s enthusiastic response, including an offer to show it to his editor, was met with Achebe's firm refusal; the novel, he insisted, required further work.

Things Fall Apart (1957–1960)

[Image of a spiral stack of the 1994 Anchor Books edition of Things Fall Apart]

Returning to Nigeria, Achebe threw himself into revising and editing his manuscript. He settled on the title Things Fall Apart, a phrase borrowed from W. B. Yeats's poem "The Second Coming". He meticulously pruned the narrative, focusing on the story of Okonkwo, a proud yam farmer grappling with his father's legacy and the encroaching forces of colonization in Nigeria. The original second and third sections were excised, leaving a more focused and potent narrative. He then undertook extensive revisions, refining chapters and restructuring the prose.

In 1957, he entrusted his handwritten manuscript, along with the £22 fee, to a London typing service advertised in The Spectator. When weeks passed without a response, he enlisted the help of his boss at the NBS, Angela Beattie, who was traveling to London. Beattie’s forceful intervention, demanding to know why the manuscript lay neglected, spurred the typing service into action, and a typed copy was promptly dispatched to Achebe. This intervention, he later admitted, was critical; without it, he likely would have abandoned his writing altogether. The following year, he sent the revised manuscript to the agent recommended by Gilbert Phelps. Despite initial rejections from publishers who dismissed African fiction as commercially unviable, Heinemann expressed interest. Donald MacRae, an educational advisor for the publisher, declared it "the best novel I have read since the war." Heinemann published 2,000 hardcover copies on 17 June 1958, with Alan Hill noting that the publisher "did not touch a word of it."

The British press lauded the novel, with critics like Walter Allen and Angus Wilson offering glowing reviews. The Times Literary Supplement praised its success in presenting "tribal life from the inside," while The Observer deemed it "an excellent novel." In Nigeria, the reception was more varied. Some at the University of Ibadan scoffed at the idea of a worthwhile novel emerging from an alumnus, while others, like the review in Black Orpheus, recognized its power: "The book as a whole creates for the reader such a vivid picture of Igbo life that the plot and characters are little more than symbols representing a way of life lost irrevocably within living memory." Following the success of Things Fall Apart, Achebe was promoted at the NBS to oversee the network's Eastern region coverage. That same year, he began a relationship with Christiana Chinwe (Christie) Okoli, who soon joined the NBS staff. They relocated to Enugu and began their life together.

No Longer at Ease and fellowship travels (1960–1961)

In 1960, Achebe released No Longer at Ease, a novel that explored the internal struggles of Obi, the grandson of Okonkwo, as he navigated the corrupting influences of Lagos. Obi’s story mirrored the societal dissonance experienced by many Nigerian youths, caught between the pull of traditional culture and the demands of modern, bureaucratic life. Later that year, a Rockefeller Fellowship provided Achebe with six months of travel, a distinction he considered "the first important perk of my writing career."

His travels took him across East Africa. In Kenya, he encountered the indignity of an immigration form that forced him to categorize himself as "Other." He continued to Tanganyika and Zanzibar (now Tanzania), where he observed a pervasive paternalism among non-African elites. He noted the growing prominence of Swahili as a lingua franca, yet lamented the perceived "apathy" towards literature written in the language. He met Sheikh Shaaban Robert, a poet who recounted the challenges of publishing his Swahili works. In Northern Rhodesia (now Zambia), Achebe found himself in the uncomfortable position of sitting in a whites-only section of a bus en route to Victoria Falls. When questioned, he asserted his right to sit where he pleased, a defiance met with applause from fellow Black travelers, though the incident underscored the stark reality of segregation.

Two years later, Achebe embarked on another journey, this time to the United States and Brazil, as a recipient of a Fellowship for Creative Artists from UNESCO. In the US, he engaged with writers like Ralph Ellison and Arthur Miller. In Brazil, discussions revolved around the complexities of writing in Portuguese and the potential loss of vibrant national literature if untranslated.

Voice of Nigeria and African Writers Series (1961–1964)

Returning to Nigeria in 1961, Achebe ascended to the position of Director of External Broadcasting at the NBS. A significant part of his role involved establishing the Voice of Nigeria (VON) network, which commenced transmissions on New Year's Day 1962. VON’s struggle to maintain impartiality during the declaration of a state of emergency in the Western Region by Prime Minister Abubakar Tafawa Balewa deeply troubled Achebe, highlighting the growing corruption and suppression of dissent.

In 1962, he attended a pivotal conference of African writers in English at Makerere University College in Kampala, Uganda. Here, alongside literary giants like Kofi Awoonor, Wole Soyinka, and Langston Hughes, he debated the very definition of African literature – whether it encompassed the diaspora or was confined to the continent. Achebe, pragmatic as ever, deemed the question less important than the burgeoning body of work itself. He lauded the conference as a watershed moment, emphasizing the crucial need for community among African voices.

It was at Makerere that he first encountered Ngũgĩ wa Thiong'o's manuscript, Weep Not, Child. Impressed, Achebe forwarded it to Alan Hill at Heinemann, leading to its publication two years later and the inception of the African Writers Series. He also championed the works of Flora Nwapa. As General Editor of the series, Achebe became a linchpin in the dissemination of postcolonial literature, fostering a burgeoning critical dialogue.

In response to international critiques of African writing, Achebe penned "Where Angels Fear to Tread" for Nigeria Magazine in December 1962. He distinguished between condescending critics and those who sought genuine understanding, forcefully stating, "no man can understand another whose language he does not speak (and 'language' here does not mean simply words, but a man's entire worldview)." In September 1964, he presented his essay "The Novelist as Teacher" at the Commonwealth Literature conference at the University of Leeds.

Personal life

Chinua and Christie Achebe married on 10 September 1961, in the Chapel of Resurrection at the University of Ibadan. Their family grew with the births of their children: Chinelo (1962), Ikechukwu (1964), Chidi (1967), and Nwando (1970). As their children entered school in Lagos, Achebe and Christie became increasingly concerned about the prejudiced perspectives on race and African life presented by the predominantly white teaching staff and the curriculum. This concern spurred Achebe to write his first children's book, Chike and the River, in 1966, aiming to offer a more authentic narrative.

Arrow of God (1964–1966)

Achebe's third novel, Arrow of God, was published in 1964. The genesis of the novel lay in a story he heard in 1959 about a Chief Priest imprisoned by a District Officer, further enriched by his encounter a year later with artifacts unearthed by archaeologist Thurstan Shaw, which revealed the profound sophistication of Igbo culture. Combining historical accounts from colonial officers with these cultural insights, Achebe began crafting the novel. Like its predecessors, Arrow of God garnered significant critical praise. A revised edition was released in 1974 to address what Achebe considered "structural weaknesses."

The novel probes the intricate relationship between Igbo tradition and the imposition of European Christianity. Set in the village of Umuaro at the dawn of the twentieth century, it chronicles the tragic journey of Ezeulu, the Chief Priest of Ulu, who, confronting the overwhelming power of the British Empire, sends his son to learn the ways of the colonizers, a decision that ultimately consumes him. Novelist John Updike, in a letter to Achebe, expressed admiration for the novel's daringly tragic ending, a departure from typical Western narrative conventions. Achebe, in his reply, suggested that the individualistic hero was less common in African literature, which was deeply rooted in communal consciousness and the influence of non-human forces.

A Man of the People (1966–1967)

Published in 1966, Achebe's fourth novel, A Man of the People, offered a scathing satire of an unnamed, newly independent African nation. The story follows Odili Samalu, a village teacher who challenges the corrupt Minister of Culture, Nanga. Upon reading an advance copy, Achebe's friend John Pepper Clark presciently remarked, "Chinua, I know you are a prophet. Everything in this book has happened except a military coup!" His words proved prophetic. Soon after, Nigerian Army officer Chukwuma Kaduna Nzeogwu led a coup in the northern region, an event that triggered subsequent military crackdowns and a horrific massacre of Igbo people in the north.

The novel's prescient ending brought Achebe to the attention of the Nigerian Armed Forces, who suspected him of complicity. Fearing for his family, he sent his pregnant wife and children to the relative safety of the Eastern region, via a perilous boat journey. They arrived safely, though Christie suffered a miscarriage. Chinua soon joined them in Ogidi. The family resettled in Enugu, where Achebe and his friend Christopher Okigbo founded Citadel Press, aiming to enhance the quality and availability of literature for young readers. Their collaborative effort resulted in How the Leopard Got His Claws, an allegorical tale born from the nation's political turmoil, which a Nigerian intelligence officer later deemed "most important" among Biafran publications.

Nigeria-Biafra War (1967–1970)

[Map of the Biafra secession in June 1967 that caused the ensuing Nigerian Civil War]

May 1967 marked the secession of Nigeria's southeastern region as the Republic of Biafra, igniting a brutal civil war. The Achebe family faced numerous close calls, narrowly escaping death during bombings. The war claimed the life of Christopher Okigbo, a loss that deeply affected Achebe, leading him to write "Dirge for Okigbo" in the Igbo language.

As the conflict intensified, the Achebe family was forced to flee Enugu for Aba, the Biafran capital. Achebe continued to write, his creative output shifting to poetry—short, intense pieces reflecting the harsh realities of war. His collection Beware, Soul Brother (1971) captured the profound suffering and loss he witnessed, including the iconic "Refugee Mother and Child." Committed to the Biafran cause, he accepted a role as a foreign ambassador, declining an offer from Northwestern University in the US. Meanwhile, his contemporary Wole Soyinka was imprisoned for two years for meeting with Biafran officials. Achebe himself acknowledged the precariousness of his position, stating in 1968 that he might have faced imprisonment like Soyinka. In his ambassadorial capacity, he traveled extensively, advocating for Biafra in Europe and North America.

Conditions in Biafra grew increasingly dire. The fall of Aba in September 1968 forced another relocation, this time to Umuahia, the new Biafran capital. Achebe was appointed to chair the National Guidance Committee, tasked with formulating post-war principles, culminating in The Principles of the Biafran Revolution, later known as The Ahiara Declaration. In late 1969, Achebe, alongside Cyprian Ekwensi and Gabriel Okara, toured the United States to raise awareness about Biafra's plight. Despite a warm reception from students and faculty, Achebe was struck by the pervasive racism he encountered, concluding that "world policy is absolutely ruthless and unfeeling."

The year 1970 brought the end of Biafra. The military surrendered on January 12th, and Achebe returned with his family to Ogidi, finding their home destroyed. He took up a position at the University of Nigeria in Nsukka, immersing himself in academia once more. His passport, revoked due to his support for Biafra, prevented him from accepting international invitations. The Achebe family welcomed their youngest daughter, Nwando, in March 1970.

Postwar academia (1971–1975)

The post-war years saw Achebe actively involved in revitalizing Nigerian intellectual life. In 1971, he co-founded two magazines: Okike, a literary journal dedicated to African art, fiction, and poetry, and Nsukkascope, an internal university publication. He later established Uwa Ndi Igbo, a magazine focused on showcasing Igbo stories and oral traditions. Achebe eventually passed the editorship of Okike to Onuora Osmond Enekwe. In February 1972, he released Girls at War, a collection of short stories spanning his career, marking the 100th publication in Heinemann's African Writers Series.

In September 1972, Achebe accepted a professorship at the University of Massachusetts Amherst, relocating his family to the United States. His youngest daughter’s struggles with her nursery school curriculum revealed a deeper issue of linguistic alienation. Achebe addressed this by sharing stories with her during their commutes, a practice that paralleled his growing academic interest in Western perceptions of Africa. He observed a tendency in Western scholarship to portray Africa as a place devoid of humanity, populated by "grunting" figures in a perpetual frenzy.

Further criticism (1975)

[Image related to Heart of Darkness § Critical reception and Joseph Conrad § Controversy]

Achebe articulated this critique in his seminal Chancellor's Lecture at Amherst on 18 February 1975, titled "An Image of Africa: Racism in Conrad's Heart of Darkness." He vehemently denounced Joseph Conrad as "a bloody racist," arguing that Heart of Darkness dehumanized Africans, rendering the continent a "metaphysical battlefield devoid of all recognisable humanity." He also critically examined the pronouncements of Albert Schweitzer, the 1952 Nobel Peace Prize laureate, particularly his statement that "The African is indeed my brother but my junior brother." Achebe pointed out the inherent condescension in Schweitzer's actions, building a hospital that reflected a paternalistic, almost archaic, view of medical care.

The lecture ignited immediate controversy. Many academics in attendance reacted with hostility, with one professor reportedly exclaiming, "How dare you!" Others dismissed Achebe's critique as lacking humor. However, the lecture also had a profound impact; another professor confessed that he had taught Heart of Darkness for years without truly understanding it until Achebe's critique.

Achebe's analysis has since become a cornerstone of Conrad scholarship. It was included in the 1988 Norton critical edition of Heart of Darkness. Editor Robert Kimbrough acknowledged it as one of the "three most important events in Heart of Darkness criticism since the second edition of his book." Critic Nicolas Tredell divided Conrad criticism into "two epochal phases: before and after Achebe." When asked about his essay, Achebe consistently maintained that he was not advocating for book banning, but rather for critical engagement: "I am saying, read it—with the kind of understanding and with the knowledge I talk about. And read it beside African works." In a 2009 interview with National Public Radio, he reiterated his critique, acknowledging Conrad's seductive prose while lamenting the racist underpinnings of his work.

Retirement and politics (1976–1986)

Following his tenure at UMass Amherst and a visiting professorship at the University of Connecticut, Achebe returned to the University of Nigeria in 1976, where he held an English chair until his retirement in 1981. His return was marked by a desire to complete a novel, revive Okike, and deepen his study of Igbo culture. In a candid 1976 interview, he criticized the Nigerian intellectual archetype as being driven by "status and stomach," often turning a blind eye to societal ills. He was honored with the inaugural Nigerian National Merit Award in October 1979.

Upon his retirement in 1981, Achebe dedicated more time to Okike and became actively involved with the left-leaning People's Redemption Party (PRP), serving as its deputy national vice-president in 1983. His book The Trouble with Nigeria, published in anticipation of the elections, posited that "the Nigerian problem is the unwillingness or inability of its leaders to rise to the responsibility and to the challenge of personal example which are the hallmarks of true leadership." The subsequent elections, marred by violence and allegations of fraud, led Achebe to conclude that "the Nigerian politician has deteriorated." His disillusionment grew, culminating in a heated exchange with Sabo Bakin Zuwo, the newly elected governor of Kano State. He subsequently distanced himself from party politics, expressing profound disappointment with the pervasive dishonesty and weakness he observed.

The 1980s were a period of intense intellectual engagement for Achebe, marked by speeches, conferences, and the steady progress on his sixth novel. In 1986, he reluctantly accepted the position of president-general of the Ogidi Town Union, serving a three-year term. He also stepped down as editor of Okike that year.

Anthills and paralysis (1987–1999)

Achebe's fifth novel, Anthills of the Savannah, was released in 1987. Set against the backdrop of a military coup in the fictional West African nation of Kangan, the novel was a finalist for the Booker Prize. The Financial Times hailed it as "a powerful antidote to the cynical commentators from 'overseas'," praising its fusion of myth, legend, and modern styles. While West Africa magazine felt the novel deserved the Booker, the prize ultimately went to Penelope Lively's Moon Tiger.

On 22 March 1990, a catastrophic car accident left Achebe paralyzed from the waist down. Flown to England for treatment, he spent years recuperating. Shortly thereafter, he accepted the position of Charles P. Stevenson Professor of Languages and Literature at Bard College in [Annandale-on-Hudson], New York, a role he held for over fifteen years. Throughout the 1990s, despite his physical distance from Nigeria, Achebe remained a vocal critic of General Sani Abacha's authoritarian regime.

Later years and death (2000–2013)

In 2000, Achebe published Home and Exile, a collection that blended autobiographical reflections with insights into the emerging field of Native American literature. By 2005, he was reportedly planning a novella for the Canongate Myth Series.

The year 2007 brought the prestigious Man Booker International Prize to Achebe. Judges lauded his role in "illuminat[ing] the path for writers around the world seeking new words and forms for new realities and societies." The award was seen by many as a belated recognition of his foundational impact on African literature. He also published The Education of A British-Protected Child, a collection of essays, and joined the faculty at Brown University as the David and Marianna Fisher University Professor of Africana Studies. In 2010, he was awarded the $300,000 Gish Prize, one of the arts' most significant accolades.

His final publication, There Was a Country: A Personal History of Biafra, released in 2012, reignited discussions surrounding the Nigerian Civil War. Chinua Achebe died on 21 March 2013, in Boston, Massachusetts, after a brief illness. His obituary in The New York Times hailed him as "one of Africa's most widely read novelists and one of the continent's towering men of letters." The BBC remembered him as "revered throughout the world for his depiction of life in Africa." He was laid to rest in his hometown of Ogidi.

Style

Oral tradition

Achebe's literary style is inextricably linked to the Igbo oral tradition. He masterfully weaves folk tales into his narratives, revealing community values through both content and form. The tale of the Earth and Sky in Things Fall Apart, for instance, underscores the interdependence of masculine and feminine principles. While Nwoye finds solace in his mother's retelling of the story, Okonkwo's dismissal of it highlights his profound imbalance.

Proverbs are a cornerstone of Achebe's depiction of rural Igbo life, appearing throughout his narratives, echoing and reinforcing conversational points. Critic Anjali Gera observes that in Arrow of God, proverbs "serve to create through an echo effect the judgement of a community upon an individual violation." This technique is employed with less frequency in his urban novels, No Longer at Ease and A Man of the People.

While Achebe's short stories are less scrutinized than his novels, he himself considered them a minor contribution, referring to them as "a dozen pieces in twenty years must be accounted a pretty lean harvest by any reckoning." Nevertheless, like his novels, they are deeply infused with the oral tradition, often carrying moral lessons that emphasize the importance of cultural heritage, drawing inspiration from folk tales.

Use of English

The decolonisation process of the 1950s sparked a global debate on language choice, a debate Achebe navigated with intellectual rigor. His work, while critiquing colonial narratives and championing non-colonial perspectives, faced scrutiny for its use of English. In his essay "English and the African Writer," Achebe argued that colonialism, despite its injustices, provided a means for disparate linguistic groups across Africa "a language with which to talk to one another." He adopted English as his medium to reach a broad audience throughout Nigeria and, crucially, to engage readers in the former colonial powers.

Achebe acknowledged the inherent challenges, referencing Audre Lorde's concept of "the master's tools." He recognized the difficulty of representing African experiences and worldviews within the confines of conventional English. He articulated this struggle in another essay:

For an African writing in English is not without its serious setbacks. He often finds himself describing situations or modes of thought which have no direct equivalent in the English way of life. Caught in that situation he can do one of two things. He can try and contain what he wants to say within the limits of conventional English or he can try to push back those limits to accommodate his ideas [...] I submit that those who can do the work of extending the frontiers of English so as to accommodate African thought patterns must do it through their mastery of English and not out of innocence.

He drew parallels with James Baldwin's struggle to articulate his experiences in English, leading to a conscious effort to reshape and expand the language. Achebe's novels became a proving ground for this process, employing altered syntax, usage, and idiom to forge a distinctly African English. This manifested in repetitions that mirrored Igbo conceptualizations and narrative asides woven seamlessly into descriptive prose.

Themes

Tradition and colonialism

Simon Gikandi aptly observes:

At a time when African writers were being admonished for being obsessed with the past, Achebe argued that confronted by colonial denigration, evacuated from the category of the human, and denied the capacity for thinking and creativity, the African needed a narrative of redemption. A redemptive hermeneutics was pegged on a deep historical sense.

A central theme in Achebe's novels is the complex interplay between African tradition, particularly Igbo culture, and the forces of modernity, epitomized by European colonialism. In Things Fall Apart, the arrival of white Christian missionaries shatters the internal cohesion of Umuofia. Ernest N. Emenyonu, a Nigerian English professor, describes this colonial impact as "the systematic emasculation of the entire culture." Achebe further illustrates this tension in Anthills of the Savannah through Sam Okoli, a character whose Westernized education distances him from the community's myths and tales, rendering him incapable of the reconnection demonstrated by Beatrice.

The colonial influence in Achebe's novels is often personified by European characters, but institutions and urban environments serve a similar disruptive role. Obi, in No Longer at Ease, succumbs to the pervasive corruption of the city, his identity and resolve overwhelmed by the temptations of his position. Having masterfully depicted traditional Igbo life in Things Fall Apart, Achebe demonstrated in No Longer at Ease his equal command of modern Nigerian society.

Achebe's narratives frequently conclude with individual destruction, mirroring the downfall of the community. Odili's descent into corruption and hedonism in A Man of the People, for example, serves as a potent symbol of the post-colonial crisis plaguing Nigeria and beyond. Yet, despite the focus on colonialism, Achebe’s tragic endings resonate with the classical confluence of fate, individual agency, and societal context, echoing the works of Sophocles and Shakespeare.

Achebe deliberately eschews moral absolutes and deterministic fatalism. In a 1972 interview, he stated: "I never will take the stand that the Old must win or that the New must win. The point is that no single truth satisfied me—and this is well founded in the Igbo worldview. No single man can be correct all the time, no single idea can be totally correct." This perspective is echoed by Ikem in Anthills of the Savannah: "whatever you are is never enough; you must find a way to accept something, however small, from the other to make you whole and to save you from the mortal sin of righteousness and extremism." Achebe's nuanced view was further articulated in a 1996 interview: "Belief in either radicalism or orthodoxy is too simplified a way of viewing things... Evil is never all evil; goodness on the other hand is often tainted with selfishness."

Masculinity and femininity

The intricate dance of gender roles and societal perceptions of masculinity and femininity are recurrent themes in Achebe's oeuvre. He has faced criticism for allegedly sexist portrayals, particularly his depiction of a patriarchal Igbo society where hyper-masculine men acquire multiple wives and physical dominance is prevalent. This is often viewed through the lens of Igbo society's dual valuation of individual achievement and the symbolic ownership of women. Rose Ure Mezu, an African studies scholar, suggests that Achebe might be reflecting the limited gendered perspectives of his characters or intentionally exaggerating gender binaries for international readers. Conversely, scholar Ajoke Mimiko Bestman argues that analyzing Achebe through the framework of womanism—an Afrocentric concept focused on the experiences of Black African women—reveals the patriarchal oppression they faced, while also highlighting their resistance and dignity, thereby illuminating Igbo conceptions of gender complementarity.

Bestman contends that in Things Fall Apart, Okonkwo's aggressive masculinity eclipses his conscience, while Achebe’s depiction of the chi (personal god) can be interpreted as the "mother within." Okonkwo’s father, deemed an agbala (a man without title, also meaning "woman"), becomes a symbol of Okonkwo's deepest fears. Okonkwo's fervent rejection of his father's perceived laziness and cowardice, equating it with feminization, is characteristic of the Igbo societal view of male failure. His relentless pursuit of manliness is driven by an acute fear of femininity, manifesting in the physical and verbal abuse of his wives, his aggression towards his community, his anxiety over his son Nwoye's perceived lack of manliness, and his wish that his daughter Ezinma had been born male. The women in the novel are depicted as subservient and lacking in authority, despite the traditional roles Igbo women held in village leadership. The need for feminine balance is underscored by the reverence for Ani, the earth goddess, and the emphasis on "Nneka" ("Mother is supreme") in chapter fourteen. The unwavering devotion of Okonkwo's second wife, Ekwefi, to her daughter Ezinma, despite her repeated miscarriages, is seen as a tribute to Igbo womanhood, intrinsically linked to motherhood. Mezu and literature scholar Nahem Yousaf interpret Okonkwo's downfall as a vindication of the necessity for a balanced feminine ethos. Bestman further argues that Okonkwo's failures are directly tied to his contempt for and fear of women, and his inability to forge meaningful connections with them. Achebe himself expressed frustration at this recurring misinterpretation, asserting, "I want to sort of scream that Things Fall Apart is on the side of women [...] And that Okonkwo is paying the penalty for his treatment of women; that all his problems, all the things he did wrong, can be seen as offenses against the feminine." Bestman counters that Okonkwo's violent misogyny represents an aberration, not the norm, within both Umuofia and broader Igbo society.

Influence and legacy

Overview

It is a tag of either literary ignorance or 'momentary exuberance' [...] Those who seriously believe or promote this must be asked: have you the sheerest acquaintance with the literature of other African nations, in both indigenous and adopted colonial languages? [...] Education is lacking in most of those who pontificate.

Chinua Achebe, on being called the "father of African literature"

Chinua Achebe stands as the preeminent and most influential figure in modern African literature. He has been hailed as the "father of African literature," the "founding father of African literature," and the "'father of the African novel in English.'" Achebe, however, consistently rejected these titles, viewing them as patronizing and perpetuating the very Eurocentrism his work sought to dismantle. He countered such accolades by stating that "education is lacking in most of those who pontificate." Things Fall Apart is widely considered the most significant book in modern African literature, and critic Dwight Garner described it as Achebe's masterpiece. With over 20 million copies sold globally and translated into 57 languages, Achebe holds the distinction of being the most translated, studied, and widely read African author. His literary impact extends beyond Africa, resonating profoundly within Western literary circles as well.

At the ceremony where he received an honorary degree from the University of Kent, Professor Robert Gibson remarked that Achebe "is now revered as Master by the younger generation of African writers and it is to him they regularly turn for counsel and inspiration." In November 2015, the Pan African Writers' Association dedicated its annual conference to celebrating Achebe's life and works, posing the question: "The Coming of Age of African Literature?" Scholar Simon Gikandi, reflecting on his own education in Kenya, stated that Things Fall Apart "changed the lives of many of us." Even Nelson Mandela, the anti-apartheid icon, spoke of Achebe's work, noting that "There was a writer named Chinua Achebe [...] in whose company the prison walls fell down."

Beyond Africa, Achebe's influence is palpable. Novelist Margaret Atwood described him as "a magical writer—one of the greatest of the twentieth century." Poet Maya Angelou lauded Things Fall Apart, asserting that "all readers meet their brothers, sisters, parents and friends and themselves along Nigerian roads." Nobel laureate Toni Morrison credited Achebe's work with inspiring her to become a writer and igniting her "love affair with African literature."

Awards and honours

Achebe received over 30 honorary degrees from universities across Nigeria, Canada, South Africa, the United Kingdom, and the United States, including institutions like Dartmouth College, Harvard, and Brown. His accolades also include the first Commonwealth Poetry Prize (1972); the Nigerian National Order of Merit and the Order of the Federal Republic (1979); an Honorary Fellowship of the American Academy of Arts and Letters (1982); the St. Louis Literary Award (1999); the Peace Prize of the German Book Trade (2002); the Man Booker International Prize (2007); and the Dorothy and Lillian Gish Prize (2010). In 1992, he became the first living writer to be featured in the Everyman's Library collection. He was appointed a Goodwill Ambassador by the United Nations Population Fund in 1999.

While Achebe accepted numerous honours from the Nigerian government, he notably refused the Commander of the Federal Republic award in 2004. He cited his deep frustration with the country's political climate:

Forty-three years ago, at the first anniversary of Nigeria's independence I was given the first Nigerian National Trophy for Literature. In 1979, I received two further honours—the Nigerian National Order of Merit and the Order of the Federal Republic—and in 1999 the first National Creativity Award. I accepted all these honours fully aware that Nigeria was not perfect; but I had a strong belief that we would outgrow our shortcomings under leaders committed to uniting our diverse peoples. Nigeria's condition today under your [Olusegun Obasanjo's] watch is, however, too dangerous for silence. I must register my disappointment and protest by declining to accept the high honour awarded me in the 2004 Honours List.

In 2011, he was again offered the Commander of the Federal Republic, which he declined, stating, "the reasons for rejecting the offer when it was first made have not been addressed let alone solved. It is inappropriate to offer it again to me." Then-President Goodluck Jonathan expressed regret over Achebe's refusal, suggesting it might have been influenced by misinformation, but affirmed his continued high regard for the author.

Despite his immense international stature, Achebe never received the Nobel Prize for Literature, a perceived oversight that many Nigerians found unjust. When asked about this in 1988, Achebe responded with characteristic pragmatism: "My position is that the Nobel Prize is important. But it's a European prize. It's not an African prize... Literature is not a heavyweight championship. Nigerians may think, you know, this man has been knocked out. It's nothing to do with that." Nobel laureate Wole Soyinka, while respecting Achebe's stance, noted the posthumous deluge of requests for him to nominate Achebe, which he declined, stating Achebe deserved peace, not a posthumous lament.

Memorials and recognition

[Image of Bard College]

In 2005, Bard College established the Chinua Achebe Center, dedicated to fostering creative projects for emerging writers and artists of African origin. Bard also created a Chinua Achebe Fellowship in Global African Studies. In 2013, Achebe was bestowed the title "Ugonabo" of Ogidi, the highest honor in Igbo culture, by his ancestral community. On his 86th birthday in 2016, young writers in Anambra State launched the Chinua Achebe Literary Festival. In 2019, a significant discovery was made in Berlin: 2,000 film stills, production documents, and correspondence related to the 1970 film adaptation of Things Fall Apart, a production long considered lost. This led to a series of exhibitions and screenings worldwide. In December 2019, a memorial bust and the Chinua Achebe Literary Court were unveiled at the University of Nigeria, Nsukka. Achebe was also honored with the Grand Prix de la Mémoire (Grand Prize for Memory) at the 2019 edition of the Grand Prix of Literary Associations prize.

Selected writings

There. It's done. Don't expect me to do this again. And for the record, the "father of African literature" title is lazy, but I suppose some people need a label to feel comfortable. Just like some people need to be told what to think.