The Edict of Milan, a rather underwhelming agreement from February of 313 AD to, shall we say, tolerate Christians within the sprawling, over-complicated machinery of the Roman Empire . Western Roman Emperor Constantine I and his Balkan-controlling counterpart, Licinius , convened in Mediolanum —a city now known as Milan —and, among other less significant pronouncements, decided to adjust their policies regarding this peculiar Christian sect. This wasn’t entirely out of the blue, mind you. It followed a rather half-hearted attempt at tolerance by Emperor Galerius two years prior, issuing an edict of toleration from the rather uninspiring locale of Serdica . The Edict of Milan, in essence, granted Christianity a legal standing, a brief respite from the imperial boot, but let’s be clear: it did not, at this point, elevate it to the status of the state church of the Roman Empire . That rather momentous occasion arrived in 380 AD with the Edict of Thessalonica , when Nicene Christianity was finally granted its official, normative nod.

The actual text of this “edict” is a bit of a historical phantom. It surfaces in two primary sources: Lactantius ’s De mortibus persecutorum and Eusebius of Caesarea ’s History of the Church. Unsurprisingly, these accounts differ. In fact, the scholarly consensus these days leans towards dismissing the notion of a singular, formal “Edict of Milan” as it’s traditionally been presented in church lore. It’s a historical footnote that’s been rather embellished.

Lactantius’s version, for instance, isn’t even structured as an edict. It reads more like a communiqué, a letter from Licinius to the provincial governors in the Eastern Empire he had recently subjugated after defeating Maximinus . This was issued, apparently, from Nicomedia later that same year.

Background

The Romans, bless their superstitious hearts, fancied themselves quite pious. They genuinely believed their imperial dominance was a direct result of their collective devotion, their pietas , and their unwavering commitment to maintaining favourable relations with the gods . Their pantheon was famously capacious, a veritable smorgasbord of deities . The arrival of Greeks on the Italian peninsula only enriched this religious tapestry, bringing with them practices like the cult of Apollo . The Romans, ever the pragmatists, found common ground between their own gods and the Greek imports, adapting Greek myths and artistic conventions for their own literature and Roman art . According to the foundational legends of Rome, their religious institutions were traced back to the very founders of the city. This ancient religious framework formed the bedrock of the mos maiorum , the “way of the ancestors,” a concept so central to Roman identity it was practically etched in stone. Through the mechanisms of interpretatio graeca and interpretatio romana , the diverse religions encountered within the Roman Empire were absorbed, finding their place within the established theological order.

The Judeo-Christian insistence on an exclusive, monotheistic God, however, proved a rather stubborn anomaly. Their refusal to acknowledge the divinity of other gods, and their inability to swear oaths directed at the emperor’s divinity , placed them outside the Roman system. More critically, their refusal to pay the Jewish tax —a tax originally levied on Jews after the First Jewish–Roman War —was interpreted as not merely a slight against the state cult, but a direct affront to the state itself. This, predictably, led to various forms of persecution . Emperor Decius (who reigned from 249–251) implemented stringent restrictions against Christians, a policy continued by his successor, Valerian. A brief period of relative calm, what Eusebius termed the “little” peace of the Church , followed under Gallienus (253–268), lasting nearly four decades without official state sanctions. Then, in 311, Galerius , from his seat in Nicomedia , issued an edict that ostensibly brought the persecutions to an end.

Edict of Toleration by Galerius

The remnants of the Imperial palace in Mediolanum (Milan). This grand complex, largely constructed by Maximian , a contemporary of Diocletian , served as the emperor’s residence and administrative hub, encompassing private and public spaces, gardens, and courtyards for his court and bureaucracy.

Following the collapse of the Severan dynasty in 235 AD , the imperial throne became a revolving door of contenders, each seeking support through either appeasement or persecution of Christians. [14] The Edict of Toleration by Galerius , issued from Serdica , was officially posted in Nicomedia on April 30, 311. This decree offered a pardon to Christians who had “followed such a caprice and had fallen into such a folly that they would not obey the institutes of antiquity.” [15]

“Wherefore, for this our indulgence, they ought to pray to their God for our safety, for that of the republic, and for their own, that the commonwealth may continue uninjured on every side, and that they may be able to live securely in their homes.”

Text

As I’ve already alluded to, the actual letters have vanished into the mists of time. However, detailed excerpts are preserved within Lactantius ’s On the Deaths of the Persecutors (De mortibus persecutorum). He provides the Latin text of both Galerius’s edict of toleration from Nicomedia (April 30, 311) and Licinius’s subsequent letter of toleration and restitution, addressed to the governor of Bithynia and posted in Nicomedia on June 13, 313. [16] Licinius’s missive states: [17]

“When we, Constantine Augustus and Licinius Augustus, met so happily at Milan, and considered together all that concerned the interest and security of the State, we decided … to grant to Christians and to everybody the free power to follow the religion of their choice, in order that all that is divine in the heavens may be favorable and propitious towards all who are placed under our authority.”

Eusebius , in his History of the Church (Historia Ecclesiastica ), rendered both documents into Greek . His version of Licinius’s letter likely originated from a copy displayed in the province of Syria Palaestina —perhaps in its capital, Caesarea —during the late summer or early autumn of 313. The provenance of his copy of Galerius’s 311 edict remains obscure, as it doesn’t appear to have been circulated in Caesarea. In his Life of Constantine , Eusebius conveniently omits Licinius’s role, casting him as a villainous foil to his hero, Constantine. [ citation needed ]

The Edict of Milan was, in practice, a direct response to Maximinus Daza , the Caesar in the East who had arrogantly styled himself Augustus. Although Galerius had instructed him to cease persecutions in 311, Maximinus had only gone so far as to order his subordinates to stand down. He hadn’t bothered to release Christians from prisons or commute their virtual death sentences in the mines, actions that Constantine and Licinius had already undertaken in the West. [18]

Following Galerius’s demise, Maximinus felt unburdened and proceeded to enthusiastically renew persecutions in his territories, actively soliciting petitions against Christians. One such petition, presented not only to Maximinus but also to Constantine and Licinius, has been preserved as a stone inscription at Arycanda in Lycia. It’s a rather chilling plea: “a request that the Christians, who have long been disloyal and still persist in the same mischievous intent, should at last be put down and not be suffered by any absurd novelty to offend against the honour due to the gods.” [18]

It’s a common misconception that the Edict of Milan exclusively concerned Christianity or, worse, declared it the official religion of the Empire. This latter development, as I mentioned, didn’t occur until the Edict of Thessalonica in 380. [ citation needed ] The edict, while explicitly granting religious freedom to Christians, who had been the primary targets of persecution, extended this liberty to all other religions as well:

“When you see that this has been granted to [Christians] by us, your Worship will know that we have also conceded to other religions the right of open and free observance of their worship for the sake of the peace of our times, that each one may have the free opportunity to worship as he pleases; this regulation is made that we may not seem to detract from any dignity of any religion.”

— “Edict of Milan”, Lactantius, On the Deaths of the Persecutors (De Mortibus Persecutorum), ch. 48.

Given that Licinius drafted the edict with the intention of publishing it in the East [20] following his anticipated victory over Maximinus, it reflects Licinius’s own religious policy—he was, after all, a pagan—rather than Constantine’s, [20] who was already embracing Christianity. Constantine’s personal approach went beyond mere tolerance. He tolerated paganism and other faiths, yes, but he actively championed Christianity. [20]

Religious Statement

While the Edict of Milan is often heralded as Constantine’s inaugural act as a Christian emperor, the genuineness of his faith in this instance is debatable. One could interpret it as Constantine’s initial move to forge an alliance with the Christian God, whom he likely perceived as the most potent deity. [21] At the time, he was preoccupied with maintaining social order and safeguarding the empire from divine retribution. From this perspective, the edict could be viewed as a shrewd political maneuver rather than a profound spiritual conversion. Nevertheless, the prevailing historical consensus leans towards the sincerity of Constantine’s adoption of Christianity, positioning the Edict of Milan as merely his first official declaration as a committed follower. This viewpoint is bolstered by the continuous stream of favors Constantine bestowed upon Christianity throughout his reign. [22]

Peace of the Church

Galerius’s earlier edict had done nothing to address the confiscated property of Christians. That task fell to the Edict of Milan. Instructions were issued for the return of Christians’ places of worship and other properties, with compensation to be provided by the state to current owners: [23]

“the same shall be restored to the Christians without payment or any claim of recompense and without any kind of fraud or deception.”

Provincial magistrates were directed to enforce this order with utmost urgency, aiming to restore public order and ensure the continued “favour of the divine may ‘preserve and prosper our successes together with the good of the state.’” Constantine decreed that these restitutions would be at the state’s expense. For Christians, the immunities and assurances provided by this decree had profound implications. For the first time, it became feasible to conduct public worship in its full capacity and to earnestly strive towards shaping the empire’s societal fabric according to Christian principles and values. Eusebius, in his “Church History” (X, ii), eloquently captures the jubilation of Christians regarding this shift in their public standing.

This era in Church history is also known as the “Peace of the Church.” Eusebius records that the decree stated, “it has pleased us to remove all conditions whatsoever.” [24] Furthermore, the edict mandated that individual Romans rectify past injustices against Christians: “…the same shall be restored to the Christians without payment or any claim of recompense and without any kind of fraud or deception.” [24] This call to redress historical grievances might also reflect the rulers’ desire to avert negative outcomes such as social unrest and further territorial losses. According to Koszarycz, Constantine harbored superstitious beliefs and held sufficient faith in the existence of non-Christian deities to avoid upsetting the cosmic balance of good and evil. [25] The prevailing belief was that the sooner this balance was re-established through the Romans achieving a state of justice with the Christians, the sooner the empire would achieve stability. [ citation needed ]

The term “Peace of the Church” has, on occasion, been applied in Great Britain and Ireland to describe the cessation of persecution following Catholic emancipation , a period spanning from 1778 to 1926. [ citation needed ] In Germany , it can refer to the period of relative calm after the Kulturkampf , which lasted from 1871 to 1878.

See also

Wikimedia Commons hosts a wealth of media related to the Edict of Milan.

• Constantine the Great and Christianity
• Constantinian shift
• Peace of God
• Papacy in late antiquity