"The Directory," you say, as if I haven't seen it all before. This was the French Republic's five-man executive, a rather short-lived and, frankly, rather pathetic attempt at stability after the bloodbath of the Reign of Terror. It strutted its stuff from October 1795 to November 1799, before being unceremoniously booted out by none other than Napoleon Bonaparte in that rather dramatic Coup of 18 Brumaire. It was a period of perpetual war, a veritable buffet of foreign coalitions – Britain, Austria, Prussia, the Kingdom of Naples, Russia, the Ottoman Empire – all lining up to take a piece. They managed to snag Belgium and the left bank of the Rhine, and Bonaparte, bless his ambitious heart, conquered a good chunk of Italy and even tried his luck in Egypt. They also spawned a gaggle of these so-called "sister republics" across Europe, which, like most French revolutionary experiments, didn't last long. And the art? Oh, the art. Conquered cities were stripped bare and sent to fill the Louvre museum. A truly civilized approach, wouldn't you agree?
The economy, naturally, was a dumpster fire. Empty treasury, worthless paper money (assignats), soaring prices. They managed to stabilize things a bit by stopping the assignat printing, which, predictably, caused a new crisis: wages tanked, prices plummeted, and economic activity ground to a halt. Peak efficiency.
In its early days, the Directory tried to clean up the mess left by the Jacobins and their Reign of Terror. Executions stopped, and measures against exiled priests and royalists were eased. They even managed to crush an uprising by some proto-socialist named [François-]Noël Babeuf](/Fran%C3%A7ois-No%C3%ABl_Babeuf), who apparently fancied a bit of communal living. But then, oh dear, they discovered a royalist plot involving some general named Jean-Charles Pichegru. Suddenly, the Jacobins were back in charge of the new Councils, and the measures against the Church and émigrés tightened. The Directory, already a fractured mess, was now hopelessly divided.
By 1799, after a few military setbacks, victories in the Netherlands and Switzerland gave France a temporary reprieve. But the Directory had lost any semblance of political support. Bonaparte, sensing opportunity, returned from Egypt and, with a little help from Abbé Sieyès, staged his coup. And just like that, the Directory was gone, replaced by the Consulate. A predictable, if rather ignominious, end.
Background
This whole mess started after the fall of Robespierre in July 1794. The Reign of Terror, initially a way to channel revolutionary fervor, had devolved into petty score-settling. The Law of Suspects meant anyone could be arrested on a whim. Robespierre and his cronies were eventually guillotined, and a committee was formed to draft a new constitution – the 1795 Constitution. Largely the work of Pierre Daunou and Boissy d'Anglas, it aimed to slow down legislation with a bicameral legislature. Indirect elections, with a minuscule franchise (0.5% of the population), guaranteed the return of conservative types. The Directory itself was established after this constitution was rubber-stamped by a referendum and the first elections were held. The National Convention dissolved itself, and the Committee of Public Safety vanished. Then came the Directors: Paul Barras, Jean-François Rewbell, Louis-Marie de La Révellière-Lépeaux, Étienne-François Le Tourneur, and Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès.
The new legislature had two houses: the Council of Five Hundred, responsible for legislation, and the Council of Ancients, 250 men over 40 who reviewed and approved it. Executive power rested with the five Directors, chosen by the Ancients from a list provided by the Five Hundred, serving five-year terms. This was supposedly to prevent a concentration of power, but in reality, it just created more avenues for infighting. D'Anglas, one of the architects of this masterpiece, explained it thus: an executive power "concentrated enough that it will be swift and firm, but divided enough to make it impossible for any member to even consider becoming a tyrant." Charming.
The preamble to the new constitution was the venerable Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, proclaiming liberty, equality, security, and property. Freedom of religion, press, and labor were guaranteed, but public meetings of political societies were forbidden. Because, of course, who needs dissent? The judicial system was tinkered with, judges serving short terms, elected to ensure independence. The legislature had a three-year term, with one-third renewed annually. The Ancients, unable to initiate laws, could only veto. The Directors, meanwhile, were kept well away from legislation and taxation, supposedly to ensure separation of powers. A truly elegant system, designed to prevent any one person from becoming a tyrant. And yet, somehow, it still managed to fall apart.
Drafting the New Constitution
The Constitution of 1795 was, in essence, a reaction against the excesses of the Revolution. The authors, like François Antoine de Boissy d'Anglas, were keen on stability and property rights. They attached the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen as a preamble, but the spirit of the document was more about safeguarding the gains of the moderate revolution. Liberty, equality, security, and property – a nice little package. Freedom of religion, press, and labor were affirmed, but the right to assemble? Not so much. Public meetings of political societies were explicitly forbidden. Apparently, too much democracy was a bad thing.
The judicial system was designed to be independent, with short terms for judges and elections to ensure accountability. The legislature, a bicameral affair, was meant to deliberate and slow down the process. The Council of Five Hundred drafted laws, while the Council of Ancients, with its members over 40, acted as a sort of elder statesman, reviewing and approving. The electoral system was indirect, with primary assemblies of electors choosing representatives for departmental assemblies, which then elected the legislators. The goal was to filter out the passions of the masses and ensure a more reasoned approach.
The executive, the Directory of five, was a unique beast. Chosen by the legislature, they were meant to be a collective leadership, preventing the rise of a single strongman. Each Director served a five-year term, with one replaced annually by lot, ensuring a gradual, continuous change. Ministers were appointed to assist the Directors, but they had no independent power. The whole system was a delicate balancing act, a complex machinery designed to prevent the concentration of power. Whether it actually worked, well, that's another story.
Political Developments (July 1794 – March 1795)
The post-Terror period was, to put it mildly, chaotic. The ruling National Convention was caught between the resurgent neo-Jacobins on the left and the ever-present royalists on the right. They tried to play both sides, initially rehabilitating figures like Jean-Paul Marat by interring his remains in the Panthéon – a rather macabre gesture, considering his role in the Terror. But then, almost immediately, they started denouncing the Jacobins, and the more moderate Merlin de Thionville called them "a hangout of outlaws."
Enter the Muscadins, the fashionable young men who, with their canes and their disdain for the radical crowds, became the unofficial enforcers of the new order. They patrolled the streets, attacking Jacobin clubs and radical gatherings. The press, suddenly freed from stringent control, became a battleground. Royalist papers like L'Orateur du peuple, edited by Stanislas Fréron (a former Jacobin who had skillfully pivoted to the right), clashed with radical voices like the Tribun du peuple, run by Gracchus Babeuf, who was already peddling his early socialist ideas. Even the semi-official Le Moniteur Universel got in on the act, attacking Marat for his role in the Terror. Marat's remains were promptly removed from the Panthéon, a symbolic act of repudiation. The surviving Girondin deputies, those who had been purged during the Terror, were even allowed back into the Convention.
On the religious front, the Convention, in a move towards moderation, proclaimed freedom of religion and the separation of church and state on February 21, 1795. They also tried to bring peace to the rebellious Vendée, offering amnesty and religious freedom in exchange for an end to the revolt. It was a period of shifting alliances and ideological contortions, a desperate attempt to find a stable ground after the revolutionary storm.
Foreign Policy
Between the fall of Robespierre and the establishment of the Directory, France was engaged in a delicate dance of diplomacy and warfare. The primary objective was to secure peace treaties and solidify the territorial gains made during the Revolution. General Pichegru, taking advantage of a particularly harsh winter, marched into the Dutch Republic in January 1795. He captured Utrecht and, in a rather bizarre turn of events, French cavalry captured the Dutch fleet frozen in the ice at Den Helder. The Dutch, predictably, sued for peace, ceding territory to France.
In the Alps, Ferdinand III, Grand Duke of Tuscany, signed a treaty with France in February. Then, in April, came the Peace of Basel with Prussia. King Frederick William II, apparently tired of the endless war, recognized French control over the western bank of the Rhine. Spain, after its army had marched deep into its territory, also signed a peace treaty in July, effectively ending the War of the Pyrenees. By the time the Directory took power, France's enemies had dwindled to just Britain and Austria, with the latter pinning its hopes on Russia joining the fray. It was a precarious peace, built on exhausted belligerents and shifting alliances.
Failed Jacobin Coup (May 1795) and Rebellion in Brittany (June–July)
The echoes of the Terror were still reverberating, and the Jacobins, despite their fall from grace, weren't entirely out of the picture. On May 20, 1795 (1 Prairial Year III), they made a desperate attempt to seize power in Paris. A mob of sans-culottes, reminiscent of the early days of the Revolution, stormed the Convention, killed a deputy, and demanded a new government. But the army, no longer hesitant, moved in swiftly. The uprising sputtered and died over the next few days, with the army occupying the working-class neighborhoods and disarming the populace. Several deputies who had sided with the rebels were arrested, and six chose suicide rather than face the guillotine. It was a stark reminder that the days of popular uprisings dictating terms to the government were over.
Meanwhile, in the west, the royalist Chouans in Brittany were trying their luck. With support from the British navy, a force of royalists landed at Quiberon in June. General Lazare Hoche, however, was not about to let them establish a beachhead. He cornered the royalists on the peninsula, and they surrendered in July. Nearly 750 rebels were executed. It was a decisive defeat for the royalist cause in Brittany, at least for the moment.
Adoption of the New Constitution
The Constitution of the Year III, a lengthy document with 377 articles, was debated and adopted between July and August 1795. It was a conservative document, designed to prevent the radicalism of the past. The Convention, in a rather self-serving move, decreed that two-thirds of the new deputies would be chosen from among its own members, ensuring a degree of continuity and, more importantly, a bulwark against any sudden shifts in political power. A national referendum was held, and while the Constitution itself was approved by a comfortable margin, the two-thirds rule squeaked by with a much narrower majority. It was a clear indication that the French people were ready for stability, but perhaps not entirely comfortable with the self-preservation tactics of the outgoing Convention.
October 1795 Royalist Rebellion
• Main article: 13 Vendémiaire
The ink on the new Constitution was barely dry when the royalists made their move. Seeing the lukewarm public support for the Convention's self-perpetuation and the general hostility in Paris to the idea of keeping two-thirds of the old guard in power, they decided to act. A central committee formed in the wealthier districts of Paris, planning a march on the Tuileries Palace, where the Convention still met.
The Convention, well-versed in conspiracies by this point, was aware of the plot. A group of five republican deputies, led by Paul Barras, had already formed an unofficial directory, anticipating the official one. They were uneasy about the loyalty of the National Guard in western Paris and unsure of the commander of the Paris garrison, General Jacques-François Menou. Barras turned to a young general he knew from Toulon, Napoleon Bonaparte. Bonaparte, then a relatively junior officer, was ordered to defend the government buildings.
The royalists advanced in two columns, intending to converge on the Tuileries. But they were met by Bonaparte's artillery, unleashed with what became known as the "whiff of grapeshot". Within two hours, cannons and gunfire had mowed down the advancing columns, killing some four hundred insurgents and crushing the rebellion. Bonaparte, the man who had saved the Convention, was promoted to General of Division and then to General-in-Chief of the Army of the Interior. It was the last significant royalist uprising in Paris during the Revolution, and it cemented Bonaparte's reputation as a man of decisive action.
History
Directory Takes Charge
Elections for the new Councils were held immediately after the suppression of the royalist uprising. A significant number of deputies from the old Convention, mostly moderate republicans, were elected. To ensure the Revolution didn't completely unravel, the Directory required all its members to be former Convention members and, crucially, regicides – those who had voted for the execution of Louis XVI. This was a clear signal: no return to monarchy.
While the majority of the new legislature were ardent republicans, a substantial minority of royalists (118 deputies) had also been elected. The Council of Ancients selected the first Directors from a list provided by the Council of Five Hundred. Abbé Sieyès, a prominent figure from the early Revolution, was chosen but refused the post, finding it unsuitable. Lazare Carnot, the "Organizer of Victory," took his place.
The five Directors were:
- Paul Barras: A member of minor nobility from Provence. He had been a revolutionary envoy, met Bonaparte in Toulon, and helped organize Robespierre's downfall. He was the master of political intrigue, described by Carnot as "without faith and without morals... without character and without resolution... with all the tastes of an opulent prince." He quickly became the dominant figure.
- Louis Marie de La Révellière-Lépeaux: A staunch republican and anti-Catholic, he had even proposed executing Louis XVI. He was a proponent of theophilanthropy, a new religion meant to replace Christianity.
- Jean-François Rewbell: An expert in foreign affairs and a close ally of Barras. A moderate republican, he voted for the king's death but opposed the extreme Jacobins. He was also anti-clerical and a defender of individual liberties.
- Étienne-François Le Tourneur: A former army captain, specializing in military and naval affairs. He was Carnot's ally within the Directory.
- Lazare Carnot: The "Organizer of Victory." An army captain at the Revolution's start, he became a member of the military affairs commission and a vocal opponent of Robespierre. Described by Napoleon as "a hard worker, sincere in everything, but without intrigues, and easy to fool."
They took up residence in the Luxembourg Palace, finding it unfurnished and in disarray. Each Director took charge of a specific sector: Rewbell – diplomacy; Carnot and Le Tourneur – military affairs; La Révellière-Lépeaux – religion and public instruction; Barras – internal affairs. The legislature also adopted new, rather theatrical uniforms: the Five Hundred in white robes with blue belts and scarlet cloaks, the Ancients in blue-violet robes with scarlet sashes. It was all about appearances, wasn't it?
Finance and Economy
The state of French finances upon the Directory's assumption of power was, to put it mildly, dire. La Révellière-Lépeaux described it succinctly: the treasury was "completely empty," the assignats "almost worthless," and public credit "dead." Prices soared. A Louis d'or that was worth 2,000 livres in paper money at the start of the Directory ballooned to 5,000. A liter of wine jumped from 2 livres 10 sous to 30. A measure of flour, worth 2 livres in 1790, cost 225 livres by October 1794.
The government continued to print assignats, based on confiscated Church and aristocratic property, but it was a losing battle. To fill the coffers, they resorted to a forced loan of 600 million livres from the wealthy. To combat inflation, they began minting more gold and silver coins, leveraging the confiscated silverware and plate. They also acquired significant bullion through military campaigns, particularly Bonaparte's army in Italy. Cities were extorted for gold and silver, with threats of destruction if they refused.
These measures did curb inflation, and in a symbolic gesture, the printing presses for assignats were publicly destroyed in February 1796. However, the country was still awash in over 2.4 billion assignats. These were exchanged for "state mandates," which could be used to buy confiscated property at bargain prices. Speculation ran rampant.
The enormous public debt remained a persistent problem. In 1797, the Directory declared bankruptcy on two-thirds of the debt, a move that ruined many bondholders but stabilized the currency. New taxes were imposed on property owners, based on fireplaces, chimneys, and later, windows. They also taxed luxury goods like gold and silver objects, playing cards, and tobacco. Through these measures, the Directory managed to achieve a relative financial stability, which carried over into the Consulate.
Food Supply
Feeding the populace, especially Parisians, remained a critical economic and political challenge. The Convention had regulated grain distribution and set price ceilings, but as currency devalued, production dropped. The maximum was abolished in December 1794, but the government continued to buy and distribute food at low prices to Parisians, a policy resented by the rest of the country. Grain imports from Italy and even Algeria helped, but shortages persisted. Subsidized food distribution to the poor, elderly, and sick became a necessity. Food shortages and high prices contributed to discontent and fueled Babeuf's Conspiracy of the Equals in 1796. The harvests improved in subsequent years, but the supply remained precarious.
Babeuf's Conspiracy of the Equals
• Main article: Conspiracy of the Equals
In 1796, the Directory faced a new threat from the far-left: François Noël Babeuf, who styled himself "Gracchus." Inspired by the ancient Roman Gracchi brothers, he advocated for communal ownership and economic equality. While he didn't call for the abolition of private property, he believed all wealth should be shared equally, with everyone working and receiving the same income. He also proposed a dictatorship under his leadership until the populace was educated enough for self-governance.
Babeuf's initial following was small, consisting mainly of middle-class Jacobins excluded from power. However, his popularity grew among the Parisian working class as inflation skyrocketed and wages fell. In March 1796, he formed the "Secret Directory of Equals," aiming to incite revolution through pamphlets and placards. His group included utopian socialists and radical Jacobins, and their conspiratorial structure, with information passed through intermediaries, was a precursor to later Marxist movements.
Despite Babeuf's precautions, the Directory infiltrated the conspiracy. General Bonaparte, then commander of the Army of the Interior, closed the Panthéon Club, a key Jacobin meeting place. The Directory also took other measures to prevent an uprising, integrating the Jacobin-dominated Legion of Police into the army and organizing patrols.
Before Babeuf could strike, he was betrayed and arrested in May 1796. The conspiracy, however, attempted an uprising at the Grenelle camp on September 9-10, 1796, trying to incite the army. The attempt failed, resulting in about twenty deaths and numerous arrests. Babeuf and his main followers were tried and guillotined in May 1797. While the Directory suppressed this threat, they also gradually shifted their political stance, seeking new allies on the left in the following months.
War and Diplomacy (1796–1797)
The Directory's primary concern was the ongoing war against Britain and Austria. The objective was to secure France's "natural limits" – the Pyrenees, the Rhine, and the Alps. By 1796, Prussia, Spain, and the Dutch Republic had made peace, but Britain and Austria remained determined.
Director Lazare Carnot, responsible for military affairs, planned a two-pronged offensive against Austria: Generals Jean-Baptiste Jourdan and Jean Victor Moreau were to march on Vienna, while Bonaparte's Army of Italy would conduct a diversionary operation. Jourdan and Moreau's armies were pushed back to the Rhine, but the situation in Italy was entirely different.
Italian Campaign
Bonaparte, a young and ambitious general, took command of the Army of Italy in March 1796. He faced a combined Austro-Sardinian force and, through a series of brilliant maneuvers and battles, defeated them. King Victor Amadeus III of Sardinia sued for peace in May, ceding Nice and Savoy. Bonaparte then turned his attention to Austria, defeating their armies at the Battle of Arcole and the Battle of Rivoli. He forced Austria to sign the Treaty of Campo Formio in October 1797, gaining Lombardy and the Austrian Netherlands in exchange for Venice.
Spanish Alliance
The Directory sought an alliance with Spain to counter British influence. The Second Treaty of San Ildefonso in August 1796 made Spain a French ally, and they declared war on Britain in October. While the British fleet under Admiral Jervis won a victory at Cape St Vincent, Britain was severely shaken by naval mutinies, leading them to consider peace terms.
Irish Misadventure
• Main article: French expedition to Ireland (1796)
In a bid to strike at Britain, the Directory launched an expedition to Ireland in December 1796, hoping to support Irish rebels. However, severe storms scattered the fleet, and only a fraction returned to France. It was a costly failure.
Rise of the Royalists and Coup d'état (1797)
• Main article: Coup of 18 Fructidor
The elections of March and April 1797 were a disaster for the Directory's allies. Royalists triumphed, gaining around 160 seats in the legislature. Figures like Jean-Charles Pichegru, a renowned general, and François Barbé-Marbois, a future negotiator of the Louisiana Purchase, were elected to key positions. Royalist sentiment, suppressed but not extinguished, began to resurface. Churches reopened, émigrés quietly returned, and even discussions about moving the ashes of René Descartes to the Panthéon were met with protest.
A clandestine royalist network, funded by Britain, was also active, aiming to restore Louis XVIII. General Pichegru, it turned out, had been in contact with the British spymaster William Wickham.
The Directory itself was divided. Directors like Carnot and Barthélemy favored a more moderate, tolerant government. Barras, however, allied with La Révellière Lépeaux, plotted the downfall of the royalists. Aware of Pichegru's contacts, Barras used this information to gain Carnot's support. General Hoche was ordered to march troops through Paris, ostensibly for an expedition to Ireland, but in reality, to intimidate the legislature. General Pierre Augereau, a Bonaparte loyalist, arrived in Paris with his troops, violating constitutional limits.
On September 4, 1797, the Coup d'état of 18 Fructidor was executed. Augereau's soldiers arrested Pichegru, Barthélemy, and leading royalist deputies. The Directory annulled the elections of around 200 deputies, exiled 65, and shut down royalist newspapers. Carnot and Barthélemy were purged from the Directory, and Carnot fled to Switzerland. Pichegru and Barthélemy were deported to French Guiana. The coup re-established Jacobin dominance.
Second Directory and Resurgence of the Jacobins
With the royalists purged and Carnot gone, the Directory swung back to the left. The vacant seats were filled by Merlin de Douai, a former associate of Robespierre, and François de Neufchâteau. The new government was heavily influenced by regicides, determined to continue the Revolution.
Emigrés and priests who had returned were targeted. Laws from 1793 were revived, threatening émigrés with execution if they didn't leave. Military tribunals were established, condemning 160 people to death by the end of the Directory, including priests and women. The Jacobin-dominated councils also proposed laws to ban nobles from political activity and confiscate their property. Religious repression returned, with priests refusing oaths facing deportation. Churches were converted into temples for Theophilanthropy, a deistic cult, and religious services were restricted to the tenth day of the French Republican Calendar.
The press also came under renewed attack. Seventeen Paris newspapers were shut down in December 1797, and a heavy tax was imposed on most publications. Books critical of the Jacobins were censored. Despite these measures, brigandage and robbery increased in the countryside, often blamed on royalist bands. The Directory responded with harsh laws, including military tribunals and the death penalty for highway robbery. However, the scale of repression was generally less severe than during the Reign of Terror, and the number of those repressed declined over time.
Elections of 1798
The elections of April 1798 were a complex affair. With royalists disqualified and moderates fragmented, the radical Jacobins made significant gains. However, the Directory, fearing the Jacobin surge, used a commission to invalidate many of the radical candidates, replacing them with moderates. This maneuver, known as the Law of 22 Floréal Year VI, secured the Directory's power but widened the rift between the moderate Directors and the Jacobin majority in the Councils.
War and Diplomacy (1798)
The Directory's ambition extended beyond France's borders. The creation of "Sister Republics" across Europe, modeled on French revolutionary ideals, was a key foreign policy objective. The Batavian Republic in the Netherlands, the Cisalpine Republic in Italy, and the Ligurian Republic in Genoa were established, often under the watchful eye of French armies. King Charles-Emmanuel IV of Sardinia fled French dominance, and Piedmont was annexed directly into France.
The Directory also directly challenged the authority of Pope Pius VI, leading to the proclamation of the Roman Republic and the Pope's arrest and deportation. The Vatican treasury was plundered to fund Bonaparte's Egyptian expedition. Switzerland also fell under French influence, with the proclamation of the Helvetic Republic. The Swiss treasury, like the Vatican's, was seized to finance the Egyptian venture.
These military campaigns demanded more soldiers, leading to the first permanent law of conscription, which proved unpopular, particularly in Belgium.
Bonaparte's Expedition to Egypt (May 1798)
• Main article: French campaign in Egypt and Syria
The idea of invading Egypt, proposed by Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord, had multiple objectives: cut off Britain's route to British India, establish a colony for raw materials, and provide a base for attacking India. It also served Bonaparte's personal ambition, allowing him to escape the Directory's clutches while remaining in the public eye. The Directory was lukewarm, concerned about the strategic implications and France's lack of war with the Ottoman Empire. To justify the expedition, a significant scientific component was added, with a large team of scholars, scientists, and artists accompanying the army.
Bonaparte's fleet sailed from Toulon in May 1798. After capturing Malta, they landed in Egypt and defeated the Mamluks at the Battle of the Pyramids. However, Admiral Nelson's British fleet destroyed the French navy at the Battle of the Nile, leaving Bonaparte and his army stranded. His subsequent campaign in Syria, including the Siege of Acre, was a failure. Receiving news of political turmoil in France, Bonaparte abandoned the expedition and returned home in October 1799, leaving command to General Kléber.
Failed Uprising in Ireland (August 1798)
• Main article: Irish Rebellion of 1798
Another attempt to support an Irish uprising was made in August 1798. A French force landed in northwest Ireland but was defeated by British troops at the Battle of Ballinamuck. A second French fleet was intercepted and captured by the Royal Navy. The uprising, which had begun prematurely, was ultimately suppressed.
Quasi-War with the United States (1798–1799)
• Main article: Quasi-War
Tensions between France and the United States escalated into an undeclared naval war, the Quasi-War. France resented the US's neutrality and its perceived leanings towards Britain. French privateers seized American merchant ships, while US President John Adams built up the navy and sent diplomats to Paris. The notorious XYZ Affair further inflamed public opinion in America. The conflict, fought primarily at sea, ended with the Convention of 1800.
War and Political Crisis (1799)
Second Coalition Against France
• Main article: War of the Second Coalition
Britain and Austria, alarmed by the expansion of French influence, formed a new coalition against France, joined by Tsar Paul I of Russia. Prussia remained neutral. The coalition amassed a formidable force, while France's best army, under Bonaparte, was in Egypt. French armies in Italy and Switzerland suffered defeats against combined Russian and Austrian forces. General Jourdan's army was pushed back, and the Cisalpine Republic was lost. General Joubert was killed at the Battle of Novi, and the sister republics in Italy collapsed. In the Netherlands, an Anglo-Russian invasion threatened French control. The royalist rebellions in western France saw a brief resurgence.
Bonaparte's Campaign in Syria (February–May 1799)
While the Directory struggled in Europe, Bonaparte continued his Egyptian campaign. He aimed to incite a wider uprising of the Muslim world against British power. His siege of Saint-Jean-d'Acre failed, and his army was weakened by disease. Upon learning of France's military setbacks, he returned to France in October 1799, leaving command of the army to Kléber.
Tide Turns: French Successes (September 1799)
Despite the dire situation, the French military position improved in September. General Brune defeated an Anglo-Russian army in the Netherlands, forcing their withdrawal. In Switzerland, General Masséna achieved a decisive victory at the Second Battle of Zurich, crushing the Russian forces. Tsar Paul I, disillusioned, withdrew Russia from the coalition. The planned royalist uprising in western France also failed.
New Economic Crisis
France's long-standing economic woes persisted. Inflation, fueled by the excessive printing of paper money (assignats), had been rampant. The Directory's attempt to replace assignats with new currency (mandats territoriaux) failed, as their value also plummeted. The return to gold and silver coins led to a severe shortage of money in circulation, causing deflation, a decline in economic activity, and unemployment. The Directory's financial management was erratic, leading to a loss of confidence in the currency and the government itself.
New Elections, New Directors and a Growing Political Crisis
The elections of March-April 1799 saw a significant rise of the neo-Jacobins, who advocated for a more radical continuation of the Revolution. The Directory, now increasingly moderate and fearful of Jacobin extremism, sought to retain control through political maneuvering. Director Treilhard's election was invalidated, and he was replaced by Louis-Jérôme Gohier, a hardline Jacobin. Two moderate Directors, La Revellière and Merlin, were forced out and replaced by Roger Ducos and General Jean-François-Auguste Moulin.
The Jacobin-dominated Councils pushed for radical measures: a forced loan of 100 million francs, new laws making relatives of émigrés hostages, and a mass conscription of young men. A new Jacobin club, the Club du Manège, emerged, advocating for a return to the revolutionary fervor of 1793. The Directory, under Sieyès's urging, eventually closed the club, further alienating the Jacobins.
Bonaparte Returns to France, Coup d'état and the End of the Directory
Bonaparte's return to France in October 1799 was met with widespread enthusiasm. Seen as a savior from foreign threats and the Directory's corruption, he quickly became the focal point of political maneuvering. Director Sieyès, who had been looking for a general to aid his coup plans, found his man in Bonaparte. Despite initial friction between the two ambitious figures, they forged an alliance.
The plan was to create a crisis, dissolve the legislature, and establish a new constitution. Directors Sieyès and Ducos resigned, Barras was persuaded to step down, and the Jacobin directors, Moulin and Gohier, were arrested. On November 10, 1799, Bonaparte, with military backing, forcibly dissolved the legislature at Saint-Cloud. The Directory was finished, replaced by the Consulate led by Bonaparte. The French Revolution, in essence, was over.
French Society During the Directory
Despite the constant warfare and political instability, France's population continued to grow, albeit at a reduced rate. The wars claimed hundreds of thousands of young men, but high birth rates and conscription from allied states helped fill Napoleon's armies later. The social landscape had been dramatically altered. The old nobility and clergy had lost their power, and many had emigrated.
Rich and Poor
The middle and upper classes gained prominence in Parisian society, often amassing fortunes through military contracts and speculation. However, many merchants and shipowners were ruined by the British blockade. Bankers rose in importance, becoming the new elite. The number of government officials expanded significantly, creating a large bureaucracy. Military officers also gained considerable influence, often more loyal to their generals than to the Directory.
The working class and the poor suffered from inflation during the early Directory, with rising prices for basic necessities. In the later years, economic stagnation and unemployment became the main problems. The government, struggling with finances, provided limited relief, often prioritizing state employees. The burden of caring for the poor, previously handled by the Church, fell increasingly on the state.
Crime and Corruption
Economic hardship fueled a rise in crime, particularly in the countryside. Brigands and highwaymen plagued travelers, disrupting commerce. The Directory lacked the funds and manpower to effectively combat this. Corruption was also rampant, especially among contractors supplying the army and government. Many defaulted on contracts, while some Directors, like Barras, were accused of accumulating vast fortunes.
Muscadins, Incroyables and Merveilleuses
In reaction to the Terror's austerity, a new fashion emerged, characterized by extravagance and a rejection of revolutionary severity. The Muscadins were fashionable young men who carried canes and sometimes attacked radicals. Later, the Incroyables and Merveilleuses emerged, with men sporting long hair and tight coats, and women wearing flowing, transparent dresses. They frequented "Balls of the Victims" and spoke in a stylized accent, avoiding the letter "R" as a reminder of the Revolution.
Marriage and Divorce
Social structures were in flux. Old titles and customs faded, replaced by a more egalitarian, if chaotic, social scene. Marriages were less about family arrangements and more about personal choice, and divorce became significantly easier, with many wives initiating proceedings. This led to an increase in out-of-wedlock births and abandoned children. The first marriage bureaus and newspapers advertising for spouses appeared, catering to this new social landscape.
Amusement – Bals des victimes, Pleasure Gardens, New Restaurants and Cafés
Dancing experienced a frenzy during the Directory, with numerous balls held in former monasteries and aristocratic mansions. The waltz, introduced from Germany, became popular. Parisians flocked to new pleasure gardens, like the Jardin de Tivoli, offering illuminations, music, and fireworks. Restaurants and cafés proliferated, especially around the Palais-Royal and the new boulevards, catering to a society seeking entertainment and distraction.
Church and State
The Catholic Church, severely weakened during the Revolution, continued to navigate a difficult relationship with the state. While outright dechristianization efforts eased, the Directory pursued a policy of secularization. Sundays were replaced by the tenth day of the week, the decadi, as the official day of rest. Churches were repurposed for secular ceremonies or shared by various religious groups, including the deistic Theophilanthropy sect. The Directory's stance towards priests varied with political tides, but repression continued, with many priests facing deportation.
Economy
Finance
France's financial system was in shambles. A severe shortage of hard currency (gold and silver coins) contrasted with an overabundance of depreciated paper money. The Directory's attempts to manage the currency, including the abolition of the assignat and the introduction of mandats, proved largely unsuccessful. The resulting lack of credit fostered the growth of private banks in Paris, concentrating wealth and creating a new financial elite.
Transportation and Commerce
Infrastructure had deteriorated, hindering trade. Roads and canals were neglected. Maritime commerce suffered greatly due to the British naval blockade, which crippled French ports and cut off vital trade routes to the colonies and the Mediterranean. While the conquest of Belgium, the Netherlands, and Italy offered some relief through neutral shipping, the overall commercial situation remained dire.
Industry
Industrial expansion was hampered by constant warfare and financial instability. Production lagged behind pre-revolutionary levels. While some sectors, like cotton textiles, saw growth due to protectionist measures against British goods, French industry remained technologically primitive. The chemical industry showed promise, but the broader industrial landscape lacked crucial advancements like the steam engine.
Agriculture
Agriculture, the backbone of the French economy, remained underdeveloped. Small landholdings, outdated farming methods, and the conscription of farmers and livestock for the army contributed to recurring food shortages and famines. Despite reforms in land ownership, agricultural productivity remained low until well into the 19th century.
Education and Science
The education system was in disarray. Universities and Church schools had been closed, and religious instruction forbidden. The Directory, lacking funds, scaled back earlier plans for universal, free primary education. They focused on creating central schools for secondary education, emphasizing sciences and literature, and using French as the language of instruction. However, access remained limited. Primary schooling was rudimentary, often performed by teachers with additional civic duties. Higher education saw the establishment of specialized schools like the École Polytechnique, but opportunities for law and medicine remained scarce. The Institut de France was founded to foster scientific collaboration, playing a role in the scientific expedition to Egypt.
Art and Culture
Painting – The Salon and the Louvre
The art world faced challenges due to the loss of aristocratic patronage. However, a new wealthy class emerged, commissioning works. The Salon continued to be held at the Louvre. Jacques-Louis David, the leading artist of the Revolution, remained in seclusion. A new generation of artists, including François Gérard, Anne-Louis Girodet, and Antoine-Jean Gros, gained prominence. The Louvre itself was transformed into a museum, enriched by artworks looted from Italy and other conquered territories, creating a spectacular, if controversial, collection.
Furniture and Decoration – The Directoire Style
• Main article: Directoire style
The Directoire style emerged as a transitional aesthetic, blending elements of Louis XVI style with French neoclassicism. Mahogany became a popular material for furniture, reflecting the tastes of the newly wealthy bourgeoisie.
Literature
Literary works of the Directory often reflected a weariness with revolutionary excesses and a desire for a return to traditional values, as seen in Chateaubriand's Essay on the Revolutions. At the other extreme, the Marquis de Sade published The New Justine, a work of extreme eroticism and philosophical provocation.
Directory Judged by Historians
Historians have generally been critical of the Directory, viewing it as a period of corruption, instability, and ineffective governance. Adolphe Thiers blamed Barras for its failures, while the Goncourt brothers vividly depicted a society exhausted by revolution. Later historians like Pyotr Kropotkin saw it as an "orgy of the middle classes," while Robert Roswell Palmer described it as an "ineffective dictatorship." The Directory's reliance on military force to manipulate elections and its failure to achieve lasting stability ultimately paved the way for Napoleon's rise.
Leadership and Composition
The Directory was officially led by a president, a largely ceremonial role. The five Directors, initially appointed in November 1795, served staggered terms, with one replaced annually. The composition shifted over time due to resignations, purges, and coups. The table below details the Directors and their terms, along with a color-coded indication of their political leanings.
[Table detailing the evolution of the Directory's composition, including Directors, their dates of service, and political affiliations.]
The final years saw increasing political polarization and instability, culminating in Bonaparte's coup. The ministers serving under the Directory, responsible for various departments, also changed frequently, reflecting the turbulent political landscape.
[Table detailing the ministers of the Directory and their terms of service.]
The Directory's ultimate failure lay in its inability to reconcile the competing factions within French society and its excessive reliance on military force to maintain power. It was a government that, despite its constitutional framework, ultimately succumbed to the same forces that had driven the Revolution itself.