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The Province (and later State) of Georgia's involvement in the American Revolution was a complex and often fractious affair, a significant battleground in the broader war for independence. Initially, the colony's population found itself deeply divided regarding the burgeoning revolutionary fervor and the escalating tensions with Great Britain. This hesitation was particularly pronounced, as Georgia was the only colony not represented at the First Continental Congress in 1774. Its relative prosperity under British rule and a palpable dependence on British protection against the ever-present threat of Native American incursions contributed to a prevailing sense of inertia. However, the eruption of hostilities in 1775 proved to be a catalyst. Radical Patriots, often referred to as Whigs, gradually asserted control over the provincial government, leading to the expulsion of numerous Loyalists and, eventually, Georgia's reluctant embrace of the Second Continental Congress.
Georgia's strategic position rendered it a crucial theater in the southern campaign of the war. It served as a staging ground for daring Patriot raids into the neighboring British-controlled Florida in both 1776 and 1778. The tide turned, however, with the British capture of Savannah in 1778. Despite concerted efforts by American and French forces during the subsequent Siege of Savannah in 1779, the city remained under British occupation. Georgia endured this period until the British evacuation of Savannah in 1782. The state's soil bore witness to numerous significant engagements and skirmishes, including the notable Battle of the Rice Boats, the decisive clashes at Kettle Creek and Brier Creek, and the prolonged sieges of Augusta. The ultimate British withdrawal from Savannah signaled the restoration of Georgian self-governance and its reintegration into the nascent United States as a newly independent state.
Beginning of the Revolution
Lyman Hall, a figure of singular dedication, stood as the sole Georgia delegate to attend the Continental Congress.
Despite a general opposition to British trade regulations, a significant portion of Georgia's populace remained hesitant to fully commit to the revolutionary movement that was gaining momentum across the American colonies in the early 1770s, a movement that would ultimately ignite the American Revolutionary War (1775–83). The colony had, in many respects, prospered under royal rule, and a prevailing sentiment held that the protection offered by British troops was indispensable against potential Indian attacks. This cautious stance was reflected in Georgia's decision not to send representatives to the First Continental Congress when it convened in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, in 1774. The Congress had urged all colonies to establish groups, collectively known as the Association, to enforce a complete ban on trade with Great Britain. In response, Georgian delegates convened a provincial congress at Tondee's Tavern in Savannah on January 18, 1775. The primary agenda was to deliberate on the colony's adherence to the Association and to select representatives for the upcoming Second Continental Congress. However, the delegates elected to the latter body ultimately declined to travel to Philadelphia, a reflection of the deep divisions within the province concerning the appropriate course of action. In a solitary act of defiance, St. John Parish, acting independently, dispatched Lyman Hall to represent Georgia at the Second Continental Congress. [1]
The news of the battles of Lexington and Concord in Massachusetts served as a critical turning point for many Georgians who had wavered in their loyalties. This event galvanized them into joining the radical cause. In a bold act of defiance, a group identified as the Sons of Liberty breached the powder magazine in Savannah on May 11, 1775. The seized powder was subsequently distributed to revolutionaries in neighboring South Carolina. [1]
While toasts to the king's health may have persisted, the reins of government were effectively seized by the colonists themselves when the Second Provincial Congress convened in Savannah on July 4, 1775. This Congress not only appointed delegates to the already assembled Second Continental Congress in Philadelphia but also formally adopted the Association's trade embargo against Britain. Perhaps the most significant democratic action undertaken by the Congress was the establishment of local committees tasked with rigorously enforcing the trade ban. This devolution of political power empowered artisans and farmers, individuals whom the royal governor, James Wright, considered unworthy of governmental authority. Upon adjournment, the Congress vested executive power in a standing Council of Safety. [1]
Violence in the Backcountry
The heavy-handedness of the local committee operating in Augusta precipitated the initial outbreak of violence in the backcountry. On August 2, 1775, members of this committee confronted Thomas Brown at his residence, situated on the South Carolina side of the Savannah River, upstream from Augusta. Brown, who had arrived in Georgia in November 1774 with approximately seventy indentured servants, was responding to Governor Wright's enticement of advantageous opportunities in the newly Ceded Lands north of Augusta. He had established a settlement named Brownsborough. His public denunciation of the Association and his summoning of "friends of the king" to form a counter-association ignited the ire of the Whigs. When Brown refused to pledge his adherence to the Association, a mob of "Liberty men" subjected him to brutal torture. They reportedly scalped him, fractured his skull, burned his feet, and then, in his unconscious state, dragged him through the streets of Augusta as a stark warning to any who dared to oppose the Association. [1]
Upon recovering, Brown retreated to the Carolina backcountry. There, he and other like-minded individuals rallied hundreds of Loyalists and threatened a march on Augusta. Following considerable maneuvering and a series of skirmishes in the vicinity of the town of Ninety Six, Brown and his associates were persuaded by the South Carolina governor, Sir William Campbell, to await the arrival of British forces. Brown subsequently withdrew to East Florida and convinced its governor, Patrick Tonyn, to authorize the recruitment of a corps of rangers. This unit was intended to spearhead Indian allies in frontier warfare, coordinating with an anticipated British landing on the coast. Concurrently, pervasive rumors of a British plot to incite slaves and Native Americans against the American patriots sent waves of alarm through Georgia and the Carolinas. Despite their likely falsehood, these rumors were widely believed. John Stuart, the British Indian Commissioner, was compelled to flee Charleston, South Carolina, to Florida, fearing for his life. [1]
Battle of the Rice Boats
Main article: Battle of the Rice Boats
Colonel (later General) Lachlan McIntosh
The arrival of British warships in the Savannah River in January 1776 precipitated the first significant crisis in Savannah. The Council of Safety, convinced that Savannah was the target of an imminent British assault, placed Governor Wright under house arrest and entrusted Colonel Lachlan McIntosh with the responsibility of defending the city. What followed was the engagement known as the Battle of the Rice Boats on March 2–3, 1776. During this confrontation, British marines seized rice-laden merchant vessels docked in Savannah harbor, some of which were subsequently set ablaze by the militia. The true objective of the British fleet, however, was to procure provisions for the beleaguered British army then besieged in Boston. The fleet ultimately departed with a portion of the rice, along with the fugitive Governor Wright and his principal councilors. [1]
In the ensuing absence of the governor, the next provincial congress convened in Augusta. This body proceeded to draft a rudimentary framework of government, designated "Rules and Regulations," which was enacted on May 1, 1776. The congress elected Archibald Bulloch as president and commander-in-chief of the militia. George Walton joined Lyman Hall and Button Gwinnett as Georgia's delegates to the Philadelphia convention, arriving in time to affix their signatures to the Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776. [1]
Three Invasions of Florida
By August, Major General Charles Lee, the military commander in the South, was persuaded by Georgians to initiate an invasion of British East Florida. Lee harbored little expectation of outright conquest but believed a military demonstration might serve to influence the Native American tribes. Regrettably, his recall to the North, which removed his Virginia and North Carolina troops, curtailed the expedition. It advanced no further than Sunbury, just south of Savannah, before South Carolina ordered its militia to return. Georgians, under the command of Lachlan McIntosh, who had recently been promoted to brigadier general, engaged in skirmishes with the Florida Rangers and their Indian allies along the Satilla River before abandoning the southern borderlands. [1]
Congress subsequently recommended that the newly independent states adopt permanent frames of government. In accordance with this, Georgians elected delegates to a state constitutional convention that convened in Savannah in October 1776. The convention was largely dominated by radical leaders from local committees, who produced a constitution that was among the most democratic of any state at the time. The electorate encompassed all men over twenty-one years of age who possessed property valued at ten pounds or were employed as artisans. Legislation was enacted by a unicameral assembly, which also held the power to elect the governor, judges, and other officials. Georgia's constitution, ratified on February 5, 1777, established the state's inaugural counties: Burke, Camden, Chatham, Effingham, Glynn, Liberty, Richmond, and Wilkes. With the exception of Liberty, which was named in honor of St. John Parish's early commitment to American rights, these counties were named in tribute to friends of the colonies within the British Parliament. [1]
Button Gwinnett served as the speaker of the convention. He and his fellow radical Whigs harbored suspicions that many conservative Whigs were secretly Loyalists. Gwinnett's subsequent arrest of George McIntosh, brother of General Lachlan McIntosh, intensified the animosity between the radical and conservative factions within Georgia. At the zenith of this controversy, Gwinnett resolved to launch an invasion of Florida. Considering himself the commander-in-chief of the Georgia militia, Gwinnett refused to cooperate with General McIntosh, who commanded the Continental brigade. The expedition's failure led to a bitter dispute between the two principals over blame. They engaged in a duel, resulting in wounds for both, and ultimately, Gwinnett's death. The ensuing outcry from the radical Whigs against McIntosh was so intense that Congress transferred him out of Georgia to serve under General George Washington at Valley Forge, Pennsylvania. [1]
The initial two failed attempts did not deter the Georgians from a third invasion of Florida in 1778. This time, Governor John Houstoun led the Georgia militia, Major General Robert Howe commanded the Continentals, and General Andrew Williamson oversaw the Carolina militia. The expedition suffered from the same critical lack of coordination that had plagued previous assaults on the southern frontier. Howe's regulars managed to dislodge Lieutenant Colonel Thomas Brown and his East Florida Rangers from Fort Tonyn on the St. Marys River. The Georgia militia engaged in skirmishes with the Rangers and a company of Royal Americans at Alligator Creek. With this limited success achieved, the invaders returned to Georgia. [1]
Beyond these three unsuccessful forays into Florida and the ongoing task of patrolling the western frontier, the Whigs achieved little in the first three years of independence other than sheer survival. However, they gained invaluable experience in self-governance and a resolute determination not to relinquish their newfound independence, which was no small feat. The Native American tribes likely would have inflicted far greater devastation upon the backcountry, spurred by the machinations of John Stuart and Thomas Brown, had it not been for the diligent efforts of the Continental Indian Commissioner, George Galphin. Galphin wielded considerable influence, successfully persuading many of the Lower Creeks to maintain a stance of neutrality. [1]
Return of the British Army
• Main article: Capture of Savannah
By 1778, the war in the North had devolved into a stalemate. The British high command, seeking a strategic shift, decided to implement a southern strategy. Loyal Southern governors, such as Sir James Wright, had assured Lord George Germain, Britain's American Secretary, that numerous Loyalists were poised in the backcountry, awaiting the arrival of the king's troops. In New York, General Sir Henry Clinton issued orders for Lieutenant Colonel Archibald Campbell to invade Georgia with a force of 3,000 troops, with the explicit objective of restoring the state to British rule and thereby setting a precedent for the reintegration of other former colonies. [1]
Prior to Campbell's offensive against Georgia, General Augustine Prévost conducted a cattle raid into the southern counties of Georgia. As a diversionary tactic, Lieutenant Colonel Lewis Fuser advanced towards Fort Morris at Sunbury. When Fuser demanded the fort's surrender, its commander, Lieutenant Colonel John McIntosh, issued a defiant reply: "Come and take it!" Fuser subsequently withdrew, and Georgia lauded McIntosh as a hero for his bravery. [1]
On December 28, 1778, Campbell's army landed unopposed on a bluff situated below Savannah. Utilizing an unguarded path through the swamps, they advanced and overwhelmed General Robert Howe's defending forces in Savannah. Campbell awaited the arrival of Prevost's Royal Americans and Brown's Rangers from Florida until January 12. On January 24, he commenced a march with Brown's Rangers towards Augusta, situated in the backcountry. Aside from a minor skirmish at the Burke County courthouse involving Brown's Rangers, Campbell encountered no significant opposition. Approximately ninety of George Galphin's enslaved individuals sought their freedom by joining Campbell's forces and were subsequently escorted to Savannah. [1]
Campbell officially took possession of Augusta on January 31, 1779. The British southern strategy initially appeared successful, with 1,400 men enlisting in the royal militia in Augusta. However, the arrival of British Indian allies was significantly delayed. On February 14, several hundred Loyalists found themselves isolated at Kettle Creek in Wilkes County, where they were decisively defeated by South Carolinians under the command of Andrew Pickens and Georgians led by Elijah Clarke and John Dooly. Simultaneously, alarmed by the approach of 1,200 North Carolinians led by General John Ashe, Campbell commenced a withdrawal from Augusta on the very same day as the Battle of Kettle Creek. Ashe's troops, Samuel Elbert's Georgia Continentals, and Andrew Williamson's South Carolina militia pursued the retreating British. On March 3, the British, now under the command of Lieutenant Colonel James Mark Prevost, turned on their pursuers and inflicted a decisive defeat upon them at the Battle of Brier Creek. [1]
While the Battle of Kettle Creek ensured the continued independence of upper Georgia, the defeat at Brier Creek signaled the return of the lower portion of the state to British control. Campbell appointed Prevost as acting governor until the eventual arrival of Sir James Wright. Campbell then departed for England, having fulfilled his pledge to diminish the number of stars on the American flag. [1] With the re-establishment of military authority, the British writs of 1779 restored elected representative civil government to the Georgia colonial Assembly, which continued to function until the departure of Governor Sir James Wright in 1782. [2]
General Benjamin Lincoln marched his Continental forces to Augusta to support the organization of civil government there. This move prompted General Augustine Prevost to threaten an attack on Charleston, compelling Lincoln to withdraw his troops with all haste. [1]
Whig Government in Augusta
On July 10, 1779, an ad hoc committee convened in Augusta and appointed several of its members to form a "Supreme Executive Council." The council's mandate was to administer the government until January, when a full assembly was scheduled to convene. The Supreme Executive Council held its inaugural meeting on July 24. The following month, the council elected John Wereat as its president. Wereat, a known associate of the McIntosh family, had previously expressed criticism of Georgia's constitution, deeming it excessively radical. Militia colonel George Wells, who had served on the committee that drafted the constitution and had acted as Gwinnett's second in the fatal duel, refused to acknowledge Wereat's council and called for regular elections. [1]
In October, Major General Benjamin Lincoln issued an order for George Walton to proceed to Augusta, conduct an election, and establish a constitutional government. This was a prerequisite for receiving a subsidy from the Continental Congress. Walton complied, aligning himself with Wells and the radical faction. Elections were subsequently held, and an assembly convened in late November. This assembly elected Walton as governor. However, Wereat's Supreme Executive Council refused to recognize Walton's administration. Consequently, war-torn Georgia found itself with two competing Whig governments in Augusta and a royal regime in Savannah, a situation it could scarcely afford. [1]
In what proved to be the most contentious action of his brief tenure, Governor Walton dispatched a letter to Congress requesting the second removal of General Lachlan McIntosh from Georgia. McIntosh had returned to the state during the summer to assume command of Georgia's Continental forces. However, he was residing at the home of Andrew McLean, an individual suspected of Loyalist sympathies. The Assembly passed the resolution, but the Speaker, William Glascock, departed Augusta before the clerk could transcribe the letter. Walton never denied affixing Glascock's signature to the document, and he subsequently dispatched another letter under his own name. Nevertheless, Wereat and other supporters of McIntosh would later pursue an acrimonious investigation into the incident of the "forged letter." [1]
The radical faction maintained dominance in the new Assembly that convened in January 1780. The delegates elected Richard Howley as governor and as a delegate to Congress. The Assembly enacted legislation aimed at fostering the rapid expansion of the backcountry. This included the establishment of a commission government for Augusta, the creation of a new town to be named Washington in Wilkes County, and the provision of generous land grants for entrepreneurs willing to construct ironworks, grist mills, and sawmills. Howley and Walton subsequently traveled to Philadelphia as delegates, leaving George Wells, the president of the executive council, to serve as acting governor. The notoriously irascible Wells soon found himself embroiled in a dispute with Major James Jackson, an associate of John Wereat. The two men engaged in a duel, resulting in Wells's death. Thus, the two principal leaders of the radical faction in Georgia, Gwinnett and Wells, met their end in duels. Despite their tragic fates, they set Georgia on a democratic trajectory that would have enduring repercussions on the state's historical development. [1]
Siege of Savannah
• Main article: Siege of Savannah
An attack on Savannah by A. I. Keller.
Governor Sir James Wright made his return to Georgia on July 14, 1779. Upon his arrival, he proclaimed the restoration of Georgia to the crown, accompanied by the privilege of exemption from taxation. This effectively made Georgia the first, and ultimately the only, of the thirteen rebelling states to be brought back under royal allegiance. Governor Wright had barely settled into his duties when, on September 3, 1779, a French fleet, comprising twenty-five ships, unexpectedly appeared off the Georgia coast. Admiral Charles Henri Hector, Count of Estaing, acting on a directive from George Washington, had intended to stop and recapture Savannah on his return voyage to France. He disembarked an army of 4,000–5,000 men at Beaulieu on the Vernon River and proceeded to besiege Savannah. Major General Benjamin Lincoln rapidly advanced from South Carolina with his army to join the siege. [1]
D'Estaing formally demanded the surrender of Savannah on September 16. General Augustine Prevost, however, requested twenty-four hours to formulate a response. During this crucial interval, Lieutenant Colonel John Maitland managed to bring 800 British regulars from Beaufort, South Carolina to reinforce the British defenses. Following this reinforcement, Prevost formally declined to surrender. [1]
On October 9, 1779, the allied forces launched a massive assault on the British fortifications. The attack proved disastrous, resulting in 752 casualties among the allies, while the British defenders sustained minimal losses, with only 18 killed and 39 wounded. Count Casimir Pulaski, a Polish nobleman who had volunteered his services to the American cause, perished while leading his men. Sergeant William Jasper, a hero of the 1776 Battle of Sullivan's Island, also lost his life in the engagement. The battered French army retreated to its ships, and Benjamin Lincoln's troops returned to Charleston. [1]
Fall of Charleston
• Main article: Siege of Charleston
Buoyed by the successful defense of Savannah, General Sir Henry Clinton transported his army from New York, establishing Tybee Island as his base of operations and commencing the siege of Charleston. Lincoln, failing to seize an opportunity for escape, was compelled to surrender the city and its defenders on May 12, 1780. Clinton then returned to New York, leaving General Lord Cornwallis in command of the operations to subdue the South. Cornwallis dispatched units to secure critical backcountry posts, including Augusta, Camden, and Ninety Six. Lieutenant Colonel Thomas Brown assumed command in Augusta. [1]
On July 10, 1780, the Royal Council in Savannah declared that peace had been restored in Georgia, and indeed, it appeared so, with a British garrison under Lieutenant Colonel Alured Clarke stationed in Savannah and British posts established throughout the backcountry. However, a number of Whigs refused to capitulate and sought refuge in the mountainous regions. [1]
Two Battles of Augusta
• Main article: Siege of Augusta
The region between Savannah and Augusta became plagued by roving bands of marauders. [1] More significantly, Lieutenant Colonel Elijah Clarke emerged from his sanctuary in North Carolina, rallying approximately 600 men who had recently sworn an oath of allegiance to the king. On September 14, 1780, Clarke launched an assault on Augusta. In a desperate four-day battle, Clarke besieged Brown and his Rangers, along with their Indian allies, at the Mackay House, located just outside the town. Lieutenant Colonel John Harris Cruger, commanding New York Loyalists from Ninety-Six, arrived to relieve Brown's garrison. While tradition often attributes the hanging of thirteen prisoners to Brown, it was likely Cruger who gave the order to carry out the punishment mandated by Cornwallis for those who had taken up arms after pledging allegiance to the king. [1]
Clarke executed a hasty retreat back to North Carolina, pursued relentlessly by Indians and Loyalists. Cornwallis dispatched a Loyalist force under Lieutenant Colonel Patrick Ferguson with the objective of intercepting Clarke's band. Instead, Clarke's allies from the mountains descended upon Ferguson's forces, trapping them at Kings Mountain and achieving a decisive victory on October 7, 1780. Clarke's raid on Augusta thus served as the catalyst for the pivotal events that culminated at Kings Mountain. [1]
Alarmed by the resurgence of Whig activity under leaders such as Clarke, Benjamin Few, and John Twiggs, Brown undertook the construction of Fort Cornwallis on the grounds of St. Paul's Church. In April, Clarke returned to the Georgia backcountry to harass Loyalists and threaten Augusta. Major General Nathanael Greene, the newly appointed Continental commander in the South, ordered General Andrew Pickens and his South Carolina militia, along with Lieutenant Colonel Henry "Lighthorse Harry" Lee and his Legion, to join Clarke in besieging Augusta. Lee successfully captured valuable supplies at Galphin's plantation, situated at Silver Bluff. Subsequently, in conjunction with Pickens and Clarke, he initiated the siege of Augusta on May 22, 1781. Over the course of a two-week engagement, Lee's engineers constructed a wooden tower from which a cannon could effectively bombard the interior of Fort Cornwallis. Faced with overwhelming odds, Brown was left with no alternative but to surrender on June 5, 1781. The capture of Augusta provided American peace negotiators in Paris with crucial leverage to demand the independence of Georgia, even as Savannah remained under British control for another year. [1]
Whig Government Restored
For the first time in over a year, the dispersed members of the legislature reconvened in Augusta on August 17. They proceeded to elect Nathan Brownson as governor to serve the remainder of the year. General Greene authorized the formation of a unit designated the "Georgia State Legion," comprising 100 horsemen and 100 infantry, placing Lieutenant Colonel James Jackson in command. On January 9, 1782, Greene dispatched Brigadier General Anthony Wayne to Georgia with a regiment of dragoons. General Wayne engaged in a protracted war of attrition against the British defenders of Savannah. Concurrently, Andrew Pickens carried the fight to the Cherokees, while John Twiggs's Georgians waged campaigns against the Creeks. [1]
On January 2, 1782, the legislature elected John Martin as governor. He subsequently issued a proclamation offering a pardon to all Loyalists who pledged their support for independence by joining either the Georgia Legion or the militia. On May 4, 1782, the legislature enacted the Confiscation and Banishment Act, which declared 277 individuals guilty of treason and ordered the seizure of their property. The property of Loyalists who had already departed the state was also subject to confiscation. [1]
Governor Wright vehemently criticized the British military leadership for its perceived failure to adequately support the royal cause in Georgia. On June 4, 1782, he orchestrated an elaborate celebration in Savannah to commemorate the king's birthday and to sustain the morale of Georgia's Loyalists. However, on June 14, 1782, Wright received orders from General Sir Guy Carleton mandating the evacuation of Savannah. Thomas Brown had, by this time, recruited a new regiment of rangers and, on May 19, engaged in skirmishes with Lieutenant Colonel James Jackson's Legion in the marshes just outside Savannah. At Wright's earnest request, Brown had dispatched a final, desperate appeal to the Upper Creeks for assistance. On June 23, the distinguished Creek leader Emistisiguo successfully penetrated the American lines to reach Savannah. Although the majority of his contingent joined Brown, Emistisiguo himself was killed. [1]
Evacuation of Savannah
The British forces completed their evacuation of Savannah on July 11, 1782. Lieutenant Colonel James Jackson had the distinct honor of leading Wayne's triumphant troops into the city. Governor Martin convened the Georgia Assembly in Savannah on July 13, 1782. A significant exodus followed, with as many as 2,000 white Georgians and twice that number of Black individuals resettling in British East Florida. Approximately 400 whites and 5,000 Black individuals migrated to Jamaica, where Sir Archibald Campbell, the very individual who had overseen Georgia's return to the crown, was serving as governor. The Loyalists in Florida had barely begun to acclimate to their new existence when they received the news that the peace treaty of 1783 had returned Florida to Spanish control. This led to another mass migration, this time to the Bahamas, Jamaica, and other islands of the West Indies, as well as to Great Britain itself. [1]
On January 7, 1783, the Georgia General Assembly elected Lyman Hall as governor. John Twiggs, now elevated to the rank of general in the Georgia militia, and Elijah Clarke continued their campaigns to assert control over the Cherokee and Creek Indians, thereby securing land, which was a primary objective of the revolution for many Georgians. News of the signing of the preliminary peace treaty reached Savannah in late May 1783, triggering widespread celebrations. The newly independent state of Georgia, despite its considerable poverty in virtually all other respects, laid claim to a vast territory extending to the Mississippi River, a claim fiercely disputed by the Creek Indians, who were the actual inhabitants of the land. [1]