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Identity (Social Science)

For other uses of "Identity", see Identity (disambiguation).

Part of a series on The Self

(Outline)

Constructs

Theories

Processes

Value judgment

As applied to activities

Interpersonal

Social

Politics

Identity, in its most fundamental sense, is the collection of traits, beliefs, characteristics, and expressions that distinguish an individual or a group. It's the tapestry woven from the threads of who we are and how we present ourselves to the world. This sense of self doesn't materialize out of thin air; it emerges and solidifies as children begin to grasp their own existence and remains a dynamic, yet remarkably consistent, aspect of our being throughout life. It's not solely an internal construct; it’s deeply shaped by the social and cultural landscapes we inhabit, and crucially, by how others perceive and acknowledge our unique qualities. The very word "identity," tracing its roots back to the Latin "identitas," inherently emphasizes a kind of "sameness" – perhaps with oneself over time, or with a particular group. This multifaceted concept can encompass a vast array of dimensions, including our occupational roles, our religious affiliations, our national or ethnic belonging, our gender identity, our educational background, our generational cohort, and our political leanings, to name just a few.

Functions

Identity is far more than a mere label; it's a vital, active mechanism that performs several crucial functions. It acts as a "self-regulatory structure," providing meaning, direction, and a profound sense of control over one's own life. Think of it as an internal compass, guiding our actions, fostering inner harmony, and allowing us to orient ourselves toward future aspirations and establish long-term goals. This active process doesn't just shape our behavior; it significantly influences our capacity to adapt to life's inevitable shifts and challenges, ultimately contributing to our overall well-being. However, it's crucial to acknowledge that identity often draws from elements that are beyond our direct control, such as our family lineage or inherent ethnicity. These foundational aspects, while not chosen, become integral to the complex mosaic of who we are.

Sociology

In the realm of sociology, the focus often gravitates towards collective identity. Here, an individual's sense of self is intricately bound to their role-behaviors and the constellation of group memberships that define them. As sociologist Peter Burke aptly put it, "Identities tell us who we are and they announce to others who we are." These identities, in turn, act as powerful scripts, guiding our actions. A "father" is expected to behave like a father, a "nurse" like a nurse. The roles we inhabit imbue us with specific expectations and influence our conduct in social interactions.

Psychology

Within psychology, the term "identity" is most frequently employed to denote personal identity, the distinct constellation of qualities and traits that render an individual unique. Identities are inextricably linked to our self-concept – our overall perception of ourselves – our self-image (the mental model we hold of ourselves), our self-esteem (our evaluation of our worth), and our sense of individuality. While our identities are situated within specific contexts, they are also inherently contextual, adapting fluidly to different situations. Despite this inherent fluidity, we often perceive our identities as stable, overarching categories that define us. This perception is grounded in our sense of personal identity – the persistent feeling of being a continuous and enduring self over time.

Usage

The term "identity" itself has a fascinating trajectory. As noted by historian Mark Mazower in 1998, it was around the 1970s that the term, previously more confined to social psychology, began to be applied with considerable enthusiasm to broader entities like societies, nations, and various groups.

In psychology

Erik Erikson, a towering figure in psychology, was among the first to explicitly delve into the concept of identity. A cornerstone of his theory of psychosocial development was the notion of ego identity, often synonymous with the self, which he described as an individual's enduring sense of continuity. Erikson posited that this feeling of continuity is attained and maintained throughout life, a continuous process of development. Ego identity, in his view, comprises two key facets: one's unique personal characteristics and developmental trajectory, and the cumulative impact of social and cultural factors and roles that shape one's identity. Erikson's model outlines eight distinct stages across the lifespan, each defined by a conflict between an individual's inner, personal world and their external, social environment. He pinpointed the struggle for identity as a primary challenge during adolescence, with potential outcomes dependent on how this conflict is navigated. Those who fail to synthesize their childhood identifications may find themselves in a state of 'identity diffusion,' while those who rigidly adhere to their given identities without question are described as having 'foreclosed' identities. According to some interpretations of Erikson's work, the development of a robust ego identity, coupled with integration into a stable society and culture, fosters a stronger overall sense of identity. Conversely, a deficit in either of these areas can heighten the risk of an identity crisis or a state of confusion.

Emerging in 1966, the "Neo-Eriksonian" identity status paradigm, largely driven by the work of James Marcia, shifted the focus to the concepts of exploration and commitment. The core idea here is that an individual's sense of identity is significantly determined by the extent to which they have explored various possibilities and the degree to which they have made commitments to particular identities or paths. Individuals can exhibit varying degrees of strength or weakness in both exploration and commitment. This framework identifies four distinct identity statuses: identity diffusion (avoidance of both exploration and commitment), identity foreclosure (commitment without exploration), identity moratorium (exploration without commitment, often involving postponement), and identity achievement (successful exploration and commitment).

While the self and identity are distinct concepts, the principles of self-psychology offer valuable insights into how identity is sustained. From this perspective, two areas of focus are paramount: the processes through which a self is formed (the "I"), and the actual content of the schemata that constitute the self-concept (the "Me"). Theorists in the latter area have explored the relationship between self-concept and self-esteem, the distinctions between complex and simple organizational structures of self-knowledge, and how these organizational principles influence information processing.

Weinreich's identity variant offers a similar framework, incorporating categories like identity diffusion, foreclosure, and crisis, albeit with a nuanced emphasis. In this model, an optimal level of identity diffusion is considered the norm, acknowledging the inherent complexity of resolving all conflicting identifications. Individuals with levels significantly higher or lower than the norm are flagged as either highly diffused or foreclosed/defensive, respectively. Weinreich's approach also accommodates transitions between these states, driven by biographical experiences and the resolution of conflicted identifications within various contexts. For instance, an adolescent navigating a family breakup might be in one identity state, while later, in a stable marriage with a secure professional role, might be in another. This highlights both continuity and the potential for development and change in identity.

R.D. Laing's definition of identity aligns closely with Erikson's, emphasizing the past, present, and future dimensions of the experienced self. Laing also introduced the concept of the "metaperspective of self," which refers to the self's perception of how others view them – a crucial element, particularly in clinical settings like the study of anorexia nervosa. Harré further conceptualizes components of self/identity, distinguishing the "person" (the unique being an individual is to themselves and others) from aspects of the self, including beliefs about one's attributes and life history, and the personal characteristics presented to others.

In social psychology

At a broad level, self-psychology investigates the intricate relationship between the personal self and the social environment. Theories within "psychological" social psychology tend to explain individual behavior in group settings by focusing on mental events and states. However, some "sociological" social psychology theories extend this analysis, examining identity at both individual cognitive and collective behavioral levels. George C. Homans, a former President of the American Sociological Association, observed in his studies of group dynamics that social isolation could lead to increasingly erratic and unpredictable behavior. This idea was further explored during the 1970s, notably by cultural historian Christopher Lasch in his influential book, The Culture of Narcissism.

Collective identity

Many individuals derive a sense of positive self-esteem from their affiliation with identity groups, which in turn fosters a feeling of community and belonging. Another persistent question researchers have grappled with is the underlying cause of discrimination – why people tend to favor those they perceive as belonging to their "in-group" over perceived outsiders. The social identity tradition has dedicated significant attention to both these questions. For instance, research within social identity theory has demonstrated that the mere cognitive distinction between in-groups and out-groups can subtly influence people's evaluations of others.

Furthermore, different social situations can prompt individuals to adopt various self-identities. This can lead to feelings of marginalization, a switching between different groups and self-identifications, or a reinterpretation of certain identity components. These shifting selves contribute to constructed self-images, often dichotomized between what individuals aspire to be (the ideal self) and how they are perceived by others (the limited self). Educational background, occupational status, and roles significantly influence this process of identity formation.

Identity formation strategies

Another area of interest within social psychology concerns the various identity formation strategies individuals might employ to navigate the social world. Cote and Levine developed a typology that explores different behavioral patterns. Their typology includes:

Type Psychological signs Personality signs Social signs
Refuser Develops cognitive blocks preventing the adoption of adult role-schemas Engages in childlike behavior Shows extensive dependency on others and no meaningful engagement with the adult community
Drifter Possesses greater psychological resources (e.g., intelligence, charisma) Is apathetic toward the application of psychological resources Has no meaningful engagement or commitment to adult communities
Searcher Experiences dissatisfaction due to high personal and social expectations Shows disdain for imperfections within the community Interacts to some degree with role models, but ultimately abandons these relationships
Guardian Possesses clear personal values and attitudes, but fears change Sense of personal identity is almost exhausted by social identity Exhibits an extremely rigid sense of social identity and strong identification with adult communities
Resolver Consciously desires self-growth Accepts personal skills and competencies and uses them actively Is responsive to communities that offer opportunities for self-growth

Kenneth Gergen proposed additional classifications: the strategic manipulator, the pastiche personality, and the relational self. The strategic manipulator views all senses of identity as mere role-playing exercises, leading to alienation from their social self. The pastiche personality abandons the pursuit of an authentic or "essential" identity, instead seeing social interactions as opportunities to embody various roles. The relational self, in Gergen's view, represents a perspective where individuals relinquish a sense of exclusive self, perceiving all identity in terms of social engagement with others. Gergen posits that these strategies often unfold in phases, influenced by the rise of postmodern culture and telecommunications technology.

In social anthropology

Anthropologists have frequently adopted an approach to identity that echoes Erikson's, focusing on selfhood as a quality that distinguishes individuals. Identity gained prominence in anthropological discourse with the rise of concerns around ethnicity and social movements in the 1970s. This was further fueled by an increasing appreciation, mirroring sociological trends, of how the individual is shaped by and contributes to the broader social context. The Eriksonian framework remained influential, leading to identity often being discussed in a socio-historical sense, referring to qualities of sameness in relation to one's connections to others and specific groups.

Two primary approaches emerged: primordialism, which views the sense of self and belonging to a collective group as fixed and defined by objective criteria like common ancestry or biological characteristics; and social constructionism, which posits that identity is primarily a political choice based on selected characteristics, challenging the notion of identity as a natural, fixed entity. Both perspectives must be understood within their respective political and historical contexts, particularly concerning debates on class, race, and ethnicity. While subject to criticism, these approaches continue to inform contemporary conceptualizations of identity.

The diverse explorations of "identity" underscore its elusive nature. As an abstract concept, empirical definition proves challenging. Discussions often employ the term with varying meanings, ranging from fundamental, enduring sameness to fluidity and contingency. Scholars like Brubaker and Cooper have pointed out a tendency to conflate identity as a category of practice with identity as a category of analysis. Many researchers appear to rely on their pre-existing notions of identity, adhering to established frameworks rather than scrutinizing the mechanisms by which the concept solidifies into reality. In light of this, some analysts, including Brubaker and Cooper, have suggested abandoning the concept altogether. Others, conversely, advocate for alternative concepts to capture the dynamic and fluid aspects of human social self-expression. Stuart Hall, for instance, proposes viewing identity as a process, acknowledging the reality of diverse and ever-changing social experiences. Some scholars have introduced the notion of identification, where identity is seen as composed of various components that individuals "identify" and interpret. The construction of an individual sense of self is then achieved through personal choices about who and what to associate with, offering a liberating recognition of the individual's role in social interaction and identity construction.

Anthropologists have contributed by shifting research focus. A key challenge for empirical research is identifying suitable analytical tools. The concept of boundaries proves useful in illustrating how identity functions. Echoing Barth's emphasis on "the ethnic boundary that defines the group rather than the cultural stuff that it encloses," social anthropologists like Cohen and Bray have redirected analytical attention from identity itself to the boundaries used for identification. If identity is a virtual space where dynamic processes and markers of identification are revealed, boundaries provide the structural framework for this space. Their work concentrates on how the idea of community belonging is constructed differently by individual members and how individuals within a group perceive ethnic boundaries.

As a flexible, non-directive analytical tool, the concept of boundaries helps map and define the changeability and mutability characteristic of people's experiences of the self in society. While identity is volatile, fluid, and abstract, its manifestations and the ways it is exercised are often observable. Identity becomes evident through markers such as language, dress, behaviour, and choice of space, their impact contingent on recognition by others. These markers help establish boundaries that define similarities or differences between the wearer and perceivers, their effectiveness relying on a shared understanding of their meaning. Misunderstandings can arise in social contexts due to misinterpretations of specific markers. Conversely, an individual can strategically use identity markers to influence others without necessarily embodying all criteria an external observer might associate with that abstract identity.

Boundaries can be inclusive or exclusive, depending on perception. An exclusive boundary emerges, for example, when a person adopts a marker that restricts others' behavior. An inclusive boundary is created by using a marker with which others readily associate. However, an inclusive boundary also imposes restrictions by limiting inclusion within other boundaries. Consider a newcomer speaking a particular language in a room of multilingual individuals. Some may understand the language, perceiving it as an inclusive marker of shared identity. Others, unable to comprehend, might view it as an exclusive boundary, signaling separation. Alternatively, those who understand might still perceive the language use as an imposition, a negative boundary, especially if they prefer not to engage with that linguistic group. The newcomer's awareness of this dynamic, whether they themselves speak other languages or recognize the multilingual nature of the group, influences the boundary's impact.

In religion

Religious identity is defined by a set of beliefs and practices generally held by an individual, encompassing adherence to codified doctrines and rituals, and engagement with ancestral or cultural traditions, writings, history, mythology, and faith experiences. It refers to personal practices within a communal faith, including rituals and communication stemming from deeply held convictions. This identity typically begins with parental religious influences, but individuation requires the person to consciously choose to either maintain or diverge from their parents' religious identity.

The Parable of the Lost Sheep, a narrative attributed to Jesus, illustrates the shepherd's devoted search for a single straying sheep from a flock of ninety-nine. This parable serves as a potent metaphor for the rediscovery of identity, highlighting the divine response to the recovery of the lost, with the lost sheep symbolizing a lost human being.

Christian meditation is often viewed as a specific form of personality development, although its application is primarily associated with certain practitioners who use it to describe various forms of prayer and the process of contemplating God.

In Western culture, personal and secular identity have been profoundly shaped by the historical development of Christianity. Throughout history, influential Western thinkers who contributed to the formation of European identity often drew upon classical cultures, integrating elements of Greek culture and Jewish culture, which fueled movements such as Philhellenism and Philosemitism.

Implications

Given the multifaceted functions of identity—encompassing self-regulation, self-concept, personal control, meaning-making, and direction—its implications permeate nearly every aspect of human life.

Identity changes

Identity is not static; it's a fluid construct that can undergo significant transformations throughout an individual's life. These changes are often prompted by pivotal life events and can occur across various contexts:

Contexts Influencing Identity Changes

  • Career Change: A substantial shift in one's career path or occupational identity necessitates a process of self-redefinition within a new professional landscape. This can involve shedding old professional personas and embracing new ones, often requiring the acquisition of new skills and the adaptation of one's self-perception.

  • Gender Identity Transition: For individuals experiencing gender dysphoria, the journey towards aligning their life with their true gender identity represents a profound personal and social transformation. This process involves significant changes in self-perception, social roles, and often physical presentation, all aimed at establishing an authentic sense of self.

  • National Immigration: Relocating to a new country invariably involves adapting to unfamiliar societal norms, customs, and values. This process can lead to significant adjustments in cultural, social, and occupational identities, as individuals navigate the complexities of a new environment while potentially retaining aspects of their heritage.

  • Identity Change due to Climate Migration: As environmental challenges increasingly force displacement, individuals may find their identities shifting as they adapt to new geographical locations and cultural contexts. This can involve grappling with loss of homeland, adapting to different resource availability, and forging new community ties.

  • Adoption: The experience of adoption involves exploring alternative familial connections and reconciling with the unique circumstances of one's upbringing. This can profoundly impact an individual's self-identity, as they navigate questions of biological heritage alongside their adoptive family relationships.

  • Illness Diagnosis: Receiving a diagnosis of an illness can trigger a significant identity shift. It can alter an individual's self-perception, influence how they engage with the world, and necessitate adaptations in abilities, potentially impacting occupational identity and requiring a recalibration of life goals.

Immigration and identity

Immigration and subsequent acculturation processes frequently lead to shifts in social identity. The degree of this transformation is contingent upon the disparities between the individual's heritage culture and the host country's culture, as well as the extent to which the individual adopts the new culture versus retaining their heritage culture. However, the impact of immigration and acculturation on identity can be mitigated if the individual possesses a strong personal identity. This established personal identity can function as an "anchor," providing a stabilizing force and a "protective role" during the often-turbulent process of social and cultural identity transformations.

Occupational identity

Identity is not a fixed state but rather an ongoing, dynamic process that profoundly influences an individual's capacity to navigate life's challenges and cultivate a fulfilling existence. Within this dynamic, occupation emerges as a particularly significant factor, providing avenues for individuals to express and maintain their identity. Occupation extends beyond formal careers or jobs to encompass a wide range of activities, including travel, volunteering, participation in sports, and caregiving roles. Consequently, when individuals face limitations in their ability to engage in these meaningful activities, such as due to illness, it poses a direct threat to the active process and continued development of their identity. A pervasive feeling of social unproductivity can have deeply detrimental effects on one's social identity. Crucially, the relationship between occupation and identity is reciprocal: occupation shapes and contributes to identity formation, while identity, in turn, influences decisions regarding occupational choices. Moreover, individuals inherently seek a sense of control over their chosen occupations and actively strive to avoid stigmatizing labels that could undermine their occupational identity.

Navigating stigma and occupational identity

In the context of occupational identity, individuals often make employment choices influenced by the stigma attached to certain jobs. Similarly, those already employed in stigmatized occupations may resort to personal rationalizations to justify their career paths. Factors such as workplace satisfaction and overall quality of life play a significant role in these decisions. Individuals in such roles face the considerable challenge of forging an identity that resonates with their personal values and beliefs. Constructing a positive self-concept becomes notably more arduous when societal perceptions label their work as "dirty" or undesirable. As a result, some individuals deliberately choose not to define themselves solely by their occupation, instead striving for a more holistic identity that encompasses all facets of their lives, extending beyond their job or work. Conversely, individuals whose identity is heavily reliant on their occupation may experience a profound crisis if they become unable to perform their chosen work. Therefore, occupational identity necessitates an active and adaptable process, ensuring both adaptation and continuity amidst life's inevitable shifts and changing circumstances.

Factors shaping the concept of identity

The modern conception of personal identity as a distinct and unique individual characteristic is a relatively recent historical development. It began to take shape with the introduction of the first passports in the early 1900s and gained further traction as a term within the social sciences in the 1950s. Several key factors have contributed to its evolution:

  • Protestant Influence: In Western societies, the Protestant tradition placed a significant emphasis on individual responsibility for one's soul and spiritual well-being. This theological stance fostered a heightened focus on the individual and, consequently, on personal identity.

  • Development of Psychology: The emergence of psychology as a distinct field of knowledge and study, particularly from the 19th century onwards, has been instrumental in shaping our understanding of identity. Psychological theories provided frameworks for exploring the inner workings of the self and the development of identity.

  • Rise of Privacy: The Renaissance era marked a growing emphasis on privacy, leading to increased attention and value being placed on individual lives and identities. This cultural shift contributed to a greater sense of personal distinctiveness.

  • Specialization in Work: The Industrial Revolution introduced a significant change from the more undifferentiated roles prevalent in feudal systems to highly specialized worker roles. This occupational specialization impacted how individuals identified themselves, often linking their sense of self to their specific profession.

  • Occupation and Identity: The concept of occupation as a crucial component of identity was notably articulated by Christiansen in 1999, underscoring the profound influence of employment and work roles on an individual's sense of self.

  • Focus on Gender Identity: In recent decades, there has been a marked increase in the focus on gender identity, including discussions surrounding gender dysphoria and transgender experiences. These conversations have broadened the understanding of diverse identities, encompassing various sexual identities.

  • Relevance of Identity in Personality Pathology: The study and assessment of personality pathology have highlighted the significant role that identity problems play in comprehending an individual's psychological well-being. Difficulties in forming a coherent sense of self are often central to various psychological disorders.

See also