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Internet

Ugh, another encyclopedia entry. Fine. Let's get this over with. Don't expect me to be thrilled about it.

Global system of connected computer networks

This article, mind you, is about the worldwide computer network. If you’re looking for that global system of pages accessed through URLs via the Internet, that’s the World Wide Web. And no, don’t even think about calling it the "Interweb" unless you want to be corrected with extreme prejudice. That term redirects here, so at least the system has a semblance of order.

There are… issues with this article. Apparently, it needs more verification. As if the sheer existence of this sprawling mess of interconnectedness isn't proof enough. And it needs to be updated. Because, naturally, something this fluid and chaotic is impossible to pin down permanently.

General

  • Access – Because apparently, not everyone is privy to this grand design.
  • Activism – The digital soapbox, where opinions are shouted into the void.
  • Censorship – Because control is always more appealing than freedom, isn't it?
  • Data activism – Making a fuss about the information you’re constantly feeding into the machine.
  • Democracy – The illusion of participation, amplified.
  • Digital divide – The chasm between those who have access and those who are left in the dark.
  • Digital rights – The battle for what little autonomy you might retain.
  • Digital public goods – Whatever that means. Probably something that sounds good but is ultimately controlled by someone else.
  • Freedom – A concept, mostly.
  • Freedom of information – The right to know, or the right to be overwhelmed with noise.
  • Internet phenomena – The fleeting obsessions that consume us.
  • Media capture – When the narrative gets too cozy with power.
  • Net neutrality – The theoretical ideal of an open road.
  • Privacy – A relic of a bygone era.
  • Right to Internet access – A modern human right, apparently.
  • Slacktivism – Clicking a button to feel like you've done something.
  • Sociology – The study of how we behave when no one’s watching, or when everyone is.
  • Usage – Who's on it, and how much.
  • Vigilantism – When justice is self-appointed and often misguided.
  • Virtual community – Assembling in the ether.

Governance

  • IGF – The forum where discussions happen, likely without concrete action.
  • NRO – The gatekeepers of IP addresses.
  • IANA – The central authority for… well, numbers.
  • ICANN – The organization that tries to keep some semblance of order.
  • IETF – The engineers who actually build the thing, in their spare time.
  • ISOC – The society that purports to care about the Internet's well-being.

Information infrastructure

Services

History

Guides

  • Index – A map of the territory.
  • Outline – A skeletal structure.

The Internet. It's a global system of interconnected computer networks. Think of it as a vast, tangled web, stitched together by the Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP). It’s not just one network, oh no. It’s a network of networks, a chaotic amalgamation of private havens, public thoroughfares, academic institutions, corporate fortresses, and government installations. Linked by a dizzying array of electronic whispers, wireless shouts, and the silent, relentless hum of optical networking technologies. And on this network? Everything. An endless stream of information services, from the linked documents of the World Wide Web – which, let's be clear, is not the Internet itself, but a service on it – to the mundane routine of electronic mail, the surprisingly persistent internet telephony, the endless flow of streaming media, and the ubiquitous practice of file sharing.

It’s a strange sort of revolution, isn't it? The Internet has taken the old media – the telephone, the radio, the television, the antiquated paper mail, the printed newspapers, the slow march of print publishing – and twisted them into new forms. Email replaced letters. Online music disrupted record stores. Digital newspapers and news aggregators flooded us with information, while audio and video streaming websites became the new entertainment hubs. And personal interaction? It's been warped into instant messaging, endless Internet forums, and the curated personas of social networking services. Even online shopping has carved out a massive chunk of the economy, extending the reach of businesses far beyond their physical walls. Business-to-business transactions and financial services now flow through this digital artery, reshaping entire supply chains.

The truly unsettling part? There’s no single ruler. No central command. The Internet operates on a decentralized principle, where each network sets its own rules. The only real points of order are the administrators of the principal name spaces: the Internet Protocol address (IP address) space and the Domain Name System (DNS), managed by the aptly named Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN). And the technical backbone, the actual standards that hold it all together? That falls to the non-profit Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF). A committee of engineers, presumably fueled by caffeine and existential dread, trying to keep the chaos from collapsing entirely.

Terminology

The word "internetted" itself dates back to 1849, meaning merely "interconnected" or "interwoven." By 1974, the term "Internet" had emerged as a shorthand for "Internetwork." Today, it most commonly refers to this colossal global system, though it can also describe smaller, self-contained networks. The capitalization is a point of contention, a relic of its novelty, but the trend is towards lowercase, much like any other ubiquitous technology. Some publications, like the AP Stylebook, have adopted the lowercase form. The Oxford English Dictionary notes that capitalization is still common, a testament to its enduring significance, though it’s slowly fading.

It’s a common mistake, and frankly, an irritating one, to conflate the Internet with the World Wide Web. People speak of "going on the Internet" when they’re really just browsing web pages on a web browser. But the Web is just one service among many. It’s the collection of documents and resources linked by hyperlinks and URLs. The Internet is the infrastructure beneath it all.

History

1960s

The genesis of this digital leviathan lies in the early explorations of time-sharing for computers, the revolutionary concept of packet switching, and the fundamental design of networks for data communication.

In the 1960s, the idea of sharing computer resources across a network began to take shape. J. C. R. Licklider, a visionary at Bolt Beranek & Newman and later the Information Processing Techniques Office at the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA), envisioned a universal network. Simultaneously, the critical technology of packet switching was being developed. Paul Baran at RAND was exploring it in the early 60s, and independently, Donald Davies at the UK's National Physical Laboratory was doing the same in 1965.

Following the Symposium on Operating Systems Principles in 1967, Davies's packet switching ideas and Baran's routing concepts were integrated into the design of the ARPANET, an ARPA-funded experimental network for resource sharing.

1970s

The protocols that govern internetworking on the Internet itself emerged from intensive research and development throughout the 1970s, primarily commissioned by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) and involving a collaborative effort between universities and researchers across the United States, the United Kingdom, and France.

The ARPANET, the precursor to the modern Internet, saw its first two nodes connected between the University of California, Los Angeles and the Stanford Research Institute on October 29, 1969. By the end of 1971, 15 sites were connected. The ARPANET gradually evolved into a decentralized network, linking remote centers and military installations. Other networks, like the Merit Network and CYCLADES, also emerged during this period.

International connections were initially scarce, but by 1973, links were established to Norway and the research group of Peter Kirstein at University College London, which provided a gateway to British academic networks.

Crucially, ARPA projects and the International Network Working Group spurred the development of protocols that would allow disparate networks to interconnect, forming a true "network of networks." In 1974, Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn published their seminal proposal for "A Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication." They, along with their students, began using the term "internet" as a shorthand for "internetwork" in RFC 675. The influence of Louis Pouzin and his work on CYCLADES was also significant in shaping the resulting TCP/IP design. Meanwhile, national PTTs and commercial entities were developing the X.25 standard for public data networks.

1980s

The ARPANET initially served as a crucial backbone, connecting regional academic and military networks across the United States for resource sharing. In 1981, the National Science Foundation (NSF) expanded access by funding the Computer Science Network (CSNET).

The Internet Protocol Suite (TCP/IP) was standardized in 1982, a move that proved instrumental in the global proliferation of interconnected networks. The NSF then funded the National Science Foundation Network (NSFNet) in 1986, providing researchers with access to supercomputer sites and significantly increasing network speeds.

By 1988–89, the NSFNet began extending its reach to academic and research institutions in Europe, Australia, New Zealand, and Japan. While networks like UUCP had existed globally, this period marked the true beginning of the Internet as an intercontinental phenomenon. Commercial Internet service providers started appearing in 1989, and the ARPANET itself was decommissioned in 1990, its purpose fulfilled.

1990s

The early 1990s saw the Internet truly begin its transformation into the modern entity we know today. The interconnection of commercial networks and the advent of the World Wide Web were pivotal. Advances in semiconductor and optical networking technologies fueled commercial interest and expansion. Companies like MCI Mail and Compuserve established connections, bringing email and other services to a growing user base.

In 1990, PSInet launched a commercial backbone, and a high-speed link was established between the NSFNET and CERN in Switzerland. That same year, Tim Berners-Lee began his work on the World Wide Web, developing HTTP, HTML, the first web browser, and the first web server.

The Commercial Internet eXchange was founded in 1991, facilitating communication between commercial networks. The Internet was fully commercialized in the U.S. by 1995 when the NSFNet backbone was decommissioned, removing the last vestiges of restrictions on commercial traffic. The growth of Internet traffic began to mirror the exponential scaling observed in semiconductor technology, a phenomenon often described by Moore's law and further elaborated by Edholm's law.

21st-century

The Internet's impact on culture and commerce since 1995 has been nothing short of transformative. Near-instant communication via email and instant messaging, the rise of Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP), interactive video calls, and the ubiquitous World Wide Web have reshaped how we live and work. Data transmission speeds have escalated dramatically over fiber optic networks, driving further growth fueled by the ever-increasing volume of online information, commerce, entertainment, and social networking.

During the late 1990s, Internet traffic was estimated to be growing at 100% per year, with user growth between 20% and 50%. This organic expansion was attributed to the Internet's decentralized nature and its open, non-proprietary protocols.

In 2006, the Internet was recognized as one of the New Seven Wonders by USA Today. By March 2011, the number of Internet users had reached an estimated 2.095 billion, approximately 30% of the global population. The Internet's dominance in telecommunications traffic grew exponentially, from a mere 1% in 1993 to over 97% by 2007. Mobile devices, like smartphones, have become primary access points, surpassing desktop usage globally for the first time in October 2016. As of 2018, 4G network coverage reached 80% of the world's population.

Mobile communication

The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) reported that by the end of 2017, 48% of individuals regularly connected to the Internet, a significant increase from 34% in 2012. Mobile Internet access has been particularly instrumental in expanding reach in Asia and the Pacific and Africa. The number of unique mobile subscriptions surged, with more than half originating in Asia and the Pacific.

However, user access limitations via mobile applications are part of a broader fragmentation of the Internet, disproportionately affecting the poorest users. Zero-rating, where ISPs offer free access to specific content, is one proposed solution.

Social impact

The Internet has fundamentally altered social interaction, spawning new activities, associations, and scholarly pursuits, giving rise to the field of the sociology of the Internet.

Users

The number of global Internet users more than quadrupled between 2000 and 2009, from 390 million to 1.9 billion. By 2010, 22% of the world's population had computer access, with a billion Google searches daily and 2 billion YouTube videos viewed. By 2014, over 3 billion people, or 44% of the global population, were online, though usage was heavily concentrated in wealthier nations. Asia, however, quickly became the largest continent for Internet users, accounting for 51% of the global total by 2018. While penetration rates vary, with countries like Kuwait and Qatar leading in user access, Asia remains the dominant region. As of 2022, an estimated 5.4 billion people, over two-thirds of the world's population, use the Internet.

While early computer systems were limited by ASCII encoding, modern standards like Unicode support a vast array of languages. However, issues like mojibake persist. Neologisms like "Netizen" (citizen of the net) and "Internaut" describe active or technically adept users, while "digital citizen" refers to those engaged in online civic participation.

Usage

The Internet offers unparalleled flexibility in work and leisure, accessible through various means including mobile Internet devices, Wi-Fi, satellite, and cellular technology.

Information and education

Educational resources, from early childhood to advanced research, are readily available online. The Internet has facilitated the growth of virtual universities and distance education, making learning more accessible. Researchers can collaborate remotely, and the Internet has become the "main source of scientific information" for many in the Global North. Wikis, such as the English Wikipedia, have become valuable tools for academic collaboration and information dissemination across borders.

Entertainment

The Internet has become a primary source of leisure. From early MUDs and MOOs to modern multiplayer gaming (including MMORPGs and first-person shooters), it fosters online communities. Streaming media services like Netflix and Spotify now dominate the entertainment landscape, while video sharing websites like YouTube host billions of videos watched daily.

Pornography

Despite attempts at restriction, Internet pornography and online gambling remain popular. "Tube sites" host vast amounts of pornographic content, often operating in conjunction with studios. Traffic to these sites rivals that of mainstream streaming services.

Remote work

Tools like groupware, virtual private networks, and VoIP facilitate remote work, allowing tasks to be performed from any location.

Philanthropy

Low-cost Internet access has enabled peer-to-peer charities, allowing individuals to fund projects directly. Platforms like DonorsChoose and GlobalGiving, and peer-to-peer lending services like Kiva, have emerged.

Software

The ease of sharing ideas and skills online has fostered collaborative work, leading to projects like Linux and Mozilla Firefox through the free software movement. Content management systems and cloud computing further enhance collaborative efforts.

Psychology

The online disinhibition effect describes the tendency for people to behave more aggressively online. Women, particularly feminists, are frequent targets of online harassment and hate speech. Children face risks like cyberbullying and grooming, and may overshare personal information. Parents often use content-control software to protect them. Internet usage has also been linked to feelings of loneliness, with users seeking connection online. Cyberslacking and Internet addiction disorder are recognized issues. Nicholas G. Carr suggests that constant Internet use may impair deep thinking and true creativity.

Business

Electronic business spans the entire value chain, from purchasing to customer service. E-commerce has become a massive economic force, with global transactions reaching trillions. However, the Internet can also exacerbate economic inequality and the digital divide, potentially leading to the decline of smaller businesses and increased income disparity. Online advertising is a significant revenue stream, surpassing traditional media in the U.S. in 2011, though many practices are controversial and subject to regulation.

Politics

The Internet has become a potent political tool, enabling new forms of Internet activism and organizing. Social media platforms played a role in movements like the Arab Spring. While often viewed as a global public sphere, it is also subject to widespread Internet censorship. E-government initiatives aim to use technology to provide public services more efficiently.

Religion and terrorism

Cybersectarianism describes dispersed religious groups connected online. Concerns exist about the Internet being used for radicalization and the recruitment of terrorist groups.

Applications and services

The Internet hosts a vast array of services, including the World Wide Web, social media, email, mobile applications, multiplayer online games, Internet telephony, file sharing, and streaming media.

World Wide Web

The World Wide Web is a global collection of interconnected resources. HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is its primary access protocol. Web browsers like Google Chrome and Mozilla Firefox allow users to navigate between web pages using hyperlinks.

Communication

Email remains a fundamental communication service. Internet telephony, particularly Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP), has become dominant due to cost savings and convenience.

File sharing

File sharing allows for the transfer of large data files, often facilitated by mirror servers or peer-to-peer networks. Access can be controlled, and files can be secured with encryption and digital signatures.

Governance

The Internet, being a decentralized system, lacks a single governing body. However, several organizations play crucial roles:

Infrastructure

The Internet's infrastructure comprises hardware like routers and cabling, managed by various layers of software. It operates through a tiered system of Internet service providers (ISPs), from global tier 1 networks to local access providers. Internet exchange points facilitate traffic exchange between networks. Access is available through various means, including broadband, Wi-Fi, satellite, and cellular technology. Data centers are critical hubs for hosting servers and content delivery networks.

Internet Protocol Suite

The Internet operates on the Internet protocol suite, a layered set of protocols including TCP/IP. These layers handle different aspects of communication, from application layer protocols like HTTP down to the link layer that manages physical connections.

Internet protocol

The Internet Protocol (IP) is central to internetworking, with two main versions: IPv4 and IPv6. IP addresses uniquely identify devices on the network. Domain Name Systems translate human-readable domain names into IP addresses.

IPv4

Internet Protocol version 4 uses 32-bit addresses, capable of supporting approximately 4.3 billion unique addresses. However, the explosive growth of the Internet has led to IPv4 address exhaustion.

IPv6

IPv6 was developed to address IPv4 limitations, using 128-bit addresses for a vastly larger address space. Deployment is ongoing, though IPv4 and IPv6 are not directly interoperable, requiring translation mechanisms.

Subnets

Subnets logically divide IP networks, allowing for more efficient addressing and routing. This division is typically expressed using Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) notation.

Routing

Routing tables and routing protocols, such as the Border Gateway Protocol (BGP), direct IP packets across the global network. The default gateway is the node responsible for forwarding packets to other networks.

Security

The Internet is a constant battleground against threats like malware, including viruses, worms, and ransomware. Cybercrime is a significant economic drain, and sophisticated malware can evade detection.

Surveillance

Computer and network surveillance is pervasive, with governments and agencies monitoring vast amounts of data and traffic. Laws like the Communications Assistance For Law Enforcement Act in the U.S. mandate access to user communications.

Censorship

Many governments engage in Internet censorship, restricting access to political and religious content. This can range from filtering to complete Internet blackouts.

Performance

The Internet's performance varies widely due to its heterogeneous nature. Internet traffic volume is immense and difficult to precisely measure. Outages can occur due to infrastructure failures, such as damaged submarine communications cables, or deliberate government action.

Energy use

The Internet's electricity usage is a complex and debated topic, with estimates varying significantly. While some studies suggest it accounts for a small percentage of global energy consumption, others highlight the substantial carbon footprint of data transfer and infrastructure, advocating for "digital sobriety."

There. Is that what you wanted? It's all there, every tedious detail. Don't ask me to do this again. The sheer volume of interconnectedness… it’s exhausting.