A Janissary. They were the elite infantry, the very backbone of the Ottoman Empire's military might, a standing army that existed from 1363 to 1826. Think of them as the emperor's personal bodyguards, his loyal enforcers, forged in a crucible of discipline and… well, let's just say, a rather specific recruitment process. They were the first of their kind, really, a modern standing army, and quite possibly the first infantry in the world to wield firearms. Murad II, bless his potentially misguided heart, saw to that around the mid-15th century. Established by either Orhan or his son Murad I, these soldiers were ultimately disbanded by Mahmud II in a rather dramatic fashion in 1826.
The genesis of the Janissaries lies in the devşirme system, a practice that involved levying Christian boys, primarily from the Balkans. These boys were taken, subjected to forced circumcision and, crucially, forced conversion to Islam, before being integrated into the Ottoman army. They were renowned for their unwavering loyalty and internal cohesion, a bond forged through rigorous discipline. Unlike typical slaves, they received regular pay. Marriage was forbidden until the age of forty, and engaging in trade was out of the question. Their entire existence was meant to revolve around the Ottoman sultan. However, as the centuries wore on, and the Ottoman military expanded, the strict recruitment policy began to fray. Civilians, seeing the socio-economic advantages, started buying their way in. This gradual "civilianization" eroded the corps' military edge.
Initially a formidable force, the Janissaries, as Western Europe modernized its military, became a reactionary element, actively resisting any attempt at reform within the Ottoman army. This stagnation contributed to the Ottoman military's decline. Whenever their privileges were threatened, or their cavalry rivals gained too much ground, they would erupt in rebellion. By the time they were finally suppressed, the Ottoman military was too far behind to catch up. Their end came in 1826 during the Auspicious Incident, a bloody affair orchestrated by Mahmud II, which saw thousands of Janissaries executed.
Origins and History
The Janissary Corps emerged in the 14th century. The exact timeline is debated, with some pointing to Murad I (r. 1362–1389) as the founder, while others suggest it was his father, Orhan (r. c. 1324–1362). Regardless, the Ottoman government implemented a tax of one-fifth on all war captives, and from this pool of manpower, the sultans began to build their personal, fiercely loyal army.
From the 1380s until 1648, the devşirme system was the primary source of Janissary recruits. This child levy involved enslaving non-Muslims, predominantly Christian boys from the Balkans. After forced circumcision and forced conversion to Islam, they were integrated into the Ottoman army. Jews were generally exempt, though some sources indicate attempts to enroll them, with entire batches being sent to the Imperial Arsenal as indentured laborers if suspicion arose. The Encyclopedia Britannica notes that early recruits were indiscriminately Christian, but later preferences shifted towards those from regions like Albania, Bosnia, Serbia, Greece, Bulgaria, and Hungary. The Bektashi Order became their spiritual and religious anchor in the 15th century.
The Janissaries were classified as kapıkulları, meaning "door servants" or "slaves of the Porte". They weren't quite freedmen, nor were they ordinary slaves. They lived under strict discipline but received regular salaries and pensions, developing a distinct social status that rivaled the Ottoman Turkish aristocracy. The most promising among them were sent to the elite Enderun palace institution, where a system of meritocracy allowed them to wield considerable influence, often hindering military reforms.
Military historian Michael Antonucci and economic historians Glenn Hubbard and Tim Kane describe how Turkish administrators would scour the provinces, especially the Balkans, for the strongest sons of European Christians. These boys, after learning Turkish and Ottoman society's customs, underwent forced circumcision and forced conversion to Islam before entering training. This system was similar to the Iranian ghilman of the Safavid, Afsharid, and Qajar-era dynasties.
By the late 16th century, pressure from the Corps led to a concession: Janissary children were allowed to join, a practice previously forbidden. This, along with the allowance of beards (contrary to earlier rules), began to loosen the rigid structure. While they consolidated their own power, they also became a bulwark against broader societal and military progress, contributing to Istanbul's political stagnation.
Greek historian Dimitri Kitsikis posits in his work Türk Yunan İmparatorluğu that many Bosnian Christian families willingly participated in the devşirme, seeing it as a path to social advancement. Conscripts could rise to colonels, governors, or even Grand Viziers. Notable Janissaries include George Kastrioti Skanderbeg, the Albanian lord who led a rebellion, and Sokollu Mehmed Paşa, a Bosnian Serb who served as Grand Vizier for over 14 years.
Characteristics
The Janissaries were a distinct military force. They sported unique uniforms, received regular salaries and bonuses, and marched to the distinctive sound of the mehter band. They lived in barracks and were pioneers in the widespread use of firearms. Each Janissary battalion was a tightly knit unit, essentially a soldier's family. The Ottoman sultan himself would occasionally visit the barracks, dressed as a Janissary trooper, to receive his pay alongside his men, reinforcing their bond. In peacetime, they also served as police, palace guards, and firefighters. Their logistical support was remarkably advanced for the era, with specialized corps handling road maintenance, tent pitching, bread baking, and the transport of weapons and ammunition. Even their medical care was comprehensive, with dedicated Muslim and Jewish surgeons and mobile hospitals. By the mid-18th century, however, they had begun to engage in trades, marry, and enroll their children, many moving out of the barracks and into administrative and scholarly roles within the Ottoman government.
Recruitment, Training, and Status
The initial Janissary units were formed from prisoners of war and slaves, a practice that evolved into the systematic exploitation and enslavement of dhimmi peoples, primarily Balkan Christians. The devşirme system provided a steady stream of recruits, transforming young boys into slave-soldiers loyal to the Ottoman sultan. This conscription offered a path to significant social and financial advancement, leading some parents to bribe officials to have their sons taken. Initially, Greeks and Albanians were favored. As the Ottoman Empire expanded into Europe, the devşirme system was extended to include Armenians, Bulgarians, Croats, Hungarians, Romanians, Serbs, Bosniaks, and in rarer cases, Circassians, Georgians, Poles, and southern Russians and Ukrainians.
The slave trade in the Ottoman Empire was a crucial component of the Ottoman army from the 15th to the 19th centuries. This practice helped to prevent slave rebellions and the fragmentation of the Empire, especially as nationalism surged in the Balkan provinces. The Black Sea Region remained a vital source of slaves. Furthermore, the Barbary States engaged in extensive piracy, capturing an estimated 1 to 1.25 million Europeans between the 16th and 19th centuries, who were then sold in slave markets across the Muslim world, including the Ottoman Empire. The Crimean Khanate also maintained a significant slave trade, raiding regions like the Danubian Principalities, Poland–Lithuania, and Russia.
The devşirme system, though a form of forced conversion, was sometimes viewed by subject populations as a means of social mobility. However, it was also accompanied by the imposition of jizya taxes. The recruitment system can be broadly divided into two periods: the "classical" period of regular execution and utilization, and the "modern" period marked by gradual change, decline, and eventual abandonment from the 17th century onwards.
The Ottoman government, facing external threats, significantly expanded the Janissary corps after the 1570s. Recruits spent less time in training, and the average age of recruitment increased. This expansion was driven by the need for manpower for sieges and garrisons. The traditional devşirme recruitment was eventually relaxed, allowing free-born Muslims and sons of existing soldiers to join. By the mid-17th century, devşirme had largely fallen out of use. Entry-level Janissaries received a modest daily wage, with promotions leading to higher salaries and additional allowances for clothing and weaponry.
The Janissaries were considered the property of the Ottoman sultan, protectors of the throne. They were indoctrinated to view the corps as their home and family, and the sultan as their father. Only the strongest reached true Janissary status. The Odjak inherited the property of deceased Janissaries, accumulating wealth. Their spiritual life was intertwined with the teachings of Haji Bektash Veli, with the Bektashi Order serving as a quasi-chaplaincy. This devotion, coupled with their secluded life, drew parallels to Christian military orders like the Knights Hospitaller. Their distinctive hats, the börk, featured a spoon-shaped ornament symbolizing the "brotherhood of the spoon," a testament to their camaraderie.
Training
Recruits, often non-Muslim boys, were first placed with Ottoman Turkish families to learn Turkish, undergo forced circumcision and forced conversion to Islam, and absorb Ottoman society's culture. They then trained at the Enderun acemi oğlan school, where they were selected for various specializations like engineering, marksmanship, or artillery.
Training was rigorous, conducted under strict discipline in near-monastic conditions. Janissaries were forbidden from growing beards, only permitted moustaches, a rule maintained until the 18th century. The late 16th century saw the allowance of Janissary sons joining the corps, a departure from centuries of strict succession rules. While this bolstered their power, it also hindered broader progressive changes. Despite the expansion, training remained demanding. They were early adopters of battlefield tactics, implementing volley fire in 1605.
Giovanni Antonio Menavino, an Italian captive in the early 16th century, described the novice Janissaries (Agiami) as around 500 boys learning Turkish and serving in the Seraglio, receiving a daily wage and performing various tasks, from sweeping to carrying materials for construction. They remained in Constantinople when the Sultan was at war.
Organization
The Janissary Corps was structured into orta, or "centers," each headed by a çorbaci. These orta formed the Janissary corps proper, known as the ocak ("hearth"). Under Suleiman I, there were 165 orta, a number that later grew to 196. While the Sultan held supreme command, the corps was led by the ağa. It was divided into three main sub-corps: the cemaat (frontier troops), the bölük (Sultan's bodyguard), and the sekban or seymen. Additionally, there were ajemi ("cadets"). A semi-autonomous Janissary corps, the Odjak of Algiers, was based in Algiers.
Promotions were initially based on seniority within one's orta, with strict limitations on leaving one's unit. Only commanding officers could mete out punishment. Rank names were often derived from kitchen staff or royal hunters, with the "Greyhound Keepers" forming the sole Janissary cavalry unit, perhaps emphasizing their subservient role. Local Janissaries stationed in cities for extended periods were known as yerliyyas.
Corps Strength
While Janissaries were an integral part of the royal army, they were not the main fighting force in the classical period. They constituted about one-tenth of the Ottoman army, with the Timarli Sipahi provincial cavalry forming the bulk. Numbers varied significantly over time, with estimates ranging from under 1,000 in the 14th century to over 135,000 by 1826. The corps saw substantial expansion from the 1530s onwards, driven by Ottoman conquests and the increasing importance of siege warfare. By 1609, their numbers stabilized around 40,000, but increased again during later conflicts.
| Year | Strength |
|---|---|
| 1400 | <1,000 |
| 1484 | 7,841 |
| 1523 | 7,164 |
| 1530 | 8,407 |
| 1547 | 12,131 |
| 1574 | 13,599 |
| 1582 | 16,905 |
| 1592 | 23,232 |
| 1609 | 37,627 |
| 1654 | 51,047 |
| 1666–67 | 47,233 |
| 1687–88 | 62,826 |
| 1699 | 67,729 |
| 1710–71 | 43,562 |
Equipment
Initially skilled archers, Janissaries quickly adopted firearms in the 1440s. Their engineers were renowned, particularly at sieges like the Siege of Vienna in 1529. In close combat, they wielded axes and kilijs. In peacetime, they carried clubs or daggers, unless serving on the frontiers. The Turkish yatagan became their signature weapon. By the early 16th century, they were proficient with muskets, including a formidable "trench gun." They also utilized early grenades and hand cannons, such as the abus gun. Pistols gained popularity after the Cretan War (1645–1669).
Battles
The Janissaries were deployed in all major Ottoman campaigns, including the capture of Constantinople in 1453, battles against the Mamluk Sultanate of Cairo, and wars in Hungary and Austria. They were often led by the Sultan himself and shared in the spoils of loot. As the sole infantry division, their primary role was to protect the Sultan, employ firearms, and hold the center against enemy cavalry during feigned retreats. They also comprised specialized units of explosives experts, engineers, sharpshooters, and sappers.
Revolts and Disbandment
As the Janissaries' influence grew, so did their desire for privilege. By the early 17th century, they dominated the government, capable of mutiny, dictating policy, and obstructing military modernization. They even orchestrated palace coups to depose Sultans. New regulations allowed them to own property and engage in business, further eroding their martial focus. Their first revolt demanding higher wages occurred in 1449, which they successfully obtained. This set a precedent for their increasing assertiveness, much like the Streltsy in Russia or the Praetorian Guard in Rome. Every new Sultan felt compelled to pay them a reward and increase their pay. The permission granted to Janissaries to marry in 1566 by Selim II undermined their singular loyalty. By 1622, they posed a "serious threat" to the Empire's stability. Their "greed and indiscipline" made them a law unto themselves and militarily ineffective against modern European armies.
In 1622, Sultan Osman II, angered by military defeats, attempted to disband the Janissaries. Hearing of his plans, they revolted, captured and murdered the young Sultan.
The extravagant lifestyle of the Ottoman elite during the Tulip Period fueled public unrest. In 1730, Janissaries, led by Patrona Halil, supported a rebellion that led to the abdication of Sultan Ahmed III and the death of the Grand Vizier. Though the rebellion was crushed, it marked the end of an era. In 1804, Janissary rulers in Serbia, fearing the Sultan's intentions, massacred prominent Serbian nobles, an event known as the Slaughter of the Knezes. This ignited the Serbian Revolution.
In 1807, a Janissary revolt deposed Sultan Selim III, who had attempted to create a modern army, the Nizam-ı Cedid. His supporters failed to regain power before Mustafa IV had him killed, but Mahmud II ascended the throne in 1808. Facing Janissary threats, Mahmud II eventually compromised, but spent years discreetly consolidating his power. The Janissaries' abuses, ineffectiveness, resistance to reform, and the sheer cost of maintaining a bloated force made them an intolerable burden.
By 1826, Mahmud II was ready to abolish them. He announced the formation of a new, modern army. As predicted, the Janissaries mutinied, but their barracks were set ablaze by artillery fire, resulting in thousands of deaths. The survivors were executed or exiled, their property confiscated. This event, the Auspicious Incident, marked the end of the Janissary Corps. The last were reportedly beheaded in the "Tower of Blood" in Thessaloniki.
Following their disbandment, Mahmud II established the Mansure Army, later evolving into the modern Ottoman military.
Janissary Music
The Janissaries' military music, played by the Mehterân, was characterized by powerful percussion and high-pitched winds, featuring instruments like the kös (timpani), davul (bass drum), zurna (shawm), and various trumpets, bells, and cymbals. This distinctive sound influenced European composers such as Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and Ludwig van Beethoven, who incorporated "Turkish style" elements into their works.
Sultan Mahmud II disbanded the mehter band in 1826, replacing it with a European-style military band. Today, the tradition of Mehter music is preserved as a cultural heritage, with the band reorganized in 1952 and performing on national holidays and historical occasions.
Popular Culture
The Janissaries have left their mark on popular culture. In Bulgaria and Ukraine, the word "Janissar" became synonymous with "renegade." They feature in novels such as Jason Goodwin's The Janissary Tree and The Enchantress of Florence by Salman Rushdie. Jerry Pournelle's novel Janissaries also explores their world. Television series like Muhteşem Yüzyıl (The Magnificent Century) and Rise of Empires: Ottoman have depicted them as part of the Sultan's guard. They are also a unique unit in various video game franchises, including Civilization, Age of Empires, and Rise of Nations. In Assassin's Creed: Revelations, Janissaries play a significant role during the reign of Sultan Bayezid II. The song "Winged Hussars" by Sabaton mentions them in the context of the Battle of Vienna.