Landlocked Country

A landlocked country is, to put it plainly, a nation devoid of any coastlines on the vast, indifferent expanse of the world ocean . As of this moment, a rather significant 44 countries find themselves in this peculiar geographical predicament. Two of these, Liechtenstein and Uzbekistan , have managed to achieve the rather dubious distinction of being “doubly landlocked,” entirely encased by other landlocked nations – a feat of geographical isolation, if nothing else. Additionally, there are three de facto states that share this lack of maritime access. Among this collection of geographically challenged nations, Kazakhstan stands out as the world’s largest landlocked country, a sprawling expanse without a direct path to the sea. Kyrgyzstan , for its part, holds the record for being the farthest landlocked country from any ocean, an impressive distance from salty air. And then there’s Ethiopia , which manages to be the most populous landlocked country on Earth, a testament to human resilience or perhaps just sheer numbers in the face of inconvenience. 1 2

Generally, this lack of ocean access isn’t just a minor inconvenience; it presents tangible political and economic disadvantages. The direct conduit to international waters that coastal nations enjoy simply isn’t there. This fundamental difference has, throughout recorded history, driven nations, whether grand empires or humble states, to engage in costly struggles—expending immense wealth, enduring significant bloodshed, and burning through considerable political capital —all in the pursuit of a coveted shoreline. One might almost call it an obsession, if one were prone to such theatrical pronouncements.

The economic hurdles inherent in being landlocked are not uniform. Their severity can fluctuate wildly, depending on a nation’s level of development , the efficiency and prevalence of surrounding trade routes , the degree of freedom of trade it can negotiate, linguistic commonalities with neighbors, and a host of other factors. It’s not always a death sentence, economically speaking. Indeed, some landlocked countries nestled in Europe are remarkably affluent, almost offensively so. Consider Andorra , Austria , Liechtenstein , Luxembourg , San Marino , Switzerland , and Vatican City . These nations, with the notable exception of Luxembourg (a founding member of NATO ), often opt for a stance of neutrality in global political affairs, perhaps because they’re too busy counting their money to bother with maritime squabbles.

However, this European affluence is not the universal experience. A starker reality faces many. A staggering 32 out of the 44 landlocked countries, encompassing significant portions of Africa , Asia , and South America , have been officially designated as Landlocked Developing Countries (LLDCs) by the ever-observant United Nations . 3 Furthermore, a rather grim statistic reveals that nine of the twelve countries with the lowest Human Development Index rankings are, in fact, landlocked. 4 Naturally, there are international initiatives, like the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 10 , which optimistically aim to “reduce inequality substantially by 2030.” One can only observe the effort. 5

History

The landscape of landlocked nations has been far from static. In 1990, the count was a mere 30. However, the tumultuous dissolutions of the Soviet Union and Czechoslovakia , coupled with the violent breakup of Yugoslavia , dramatically reshaped the geopolitical map. These events, alongside various independence referendums in places like South Ossetia (a de facto state), Eritrea , Montenegro , South Sudan , and the Luhansk People’s Republic (another de facto state), as well as the unilateral declaration of independence by Kosovo (yet another de facto state), collectively birthed 15 entirely new landlocked countries and five new landlocked de facto states. During this period of geopolitical fragmentation, the former landlocked country of Czechoslovakia simply ceased to exist on January 1, 1993, dissolving into two separate entities. 6

More recently, on September 30, 2022, the Luhansk People’s Republic , previously a de facto state, was annexed by Russia . With this act, it ceased its existence as an independent landlocked de facto state, effectively being absorbed. 7

Then, on September 19, 2023, Azerbaijan launched a decisive offensive against the Republic of Artsakh , another de facto state, securing a swift victory. 8 The Government of Artsakh subsequently announced its official dissolution, effective January 1, 2024. Consequently, Artsakh, once a landlocked de facto state, vanished from the map, its Nagorno-Karabakh region being fully reintegrated into Azerbaijan. 9

As of April 1, 2024, the world counts 44 sovereign landlocked countries and three landlocked de facto states : Kosovo , South Ossetia , and Transnistria . The map, it seems, is always subject to revision.

Significance

The historical record is quite clear: being landlocked has, more often than not, proven to be a significant impediment to a country’s development. It’s not merely about the lack of picturesque beaches. A nation cut off from the sea is deprived of vital maritime resources, such as fishing grounds, and its direct access to maritime trade —a cornerstone of economic and social progress throughout history—is either severely hampered or entirely blocked. Unsurprisingly, coastal regions, or those inland areas with navigable access to the World Ocean, have historically tended to accumulate more wealth and denser populations than their landlocked counterparts. Paul Collier , in his rather sobering book, “The Bottom Billion ,” identifies being landlocked within a poor geographical neighborhood as one of four primary development “traps” that can ensnare a country. He observed that while economic growth in a neighboring country typically has a positive spillover effect, this benefit is significantly diminished for landlocked nations, whose trading activities with the wider world are inherently constrained. His summation is succinct, if not entirely uplifting: “If you are coastal, you serve the world; if you are landlocked, you serve your neighbors.” 10

Of course, not everyone agrees with such a bleak assessment. Some contrarians have argued that being landlocked might even offer a peculiar advantage, creating a “natural tariff barrier” that, by default, shields a country from a deluge of cheap imports. In certain specific cases, this geographical isolation has been credited with fostering more robust, self-sufficient local food systems. 11 12 One might call it making a virtue of necessity, though the benefits are often outweighed by the sheer logistical nightmares.

For landlocked developing countries , the financial burden of international cargo transportation is demonstrably higher compared to coastal developing countries. In Asia, for instance, the ratio of these costs can be as high as 3:1. 13 A subtle tax on geographical misfortune, if you will.

Historically, traversing from a landlocked country to a non-contiguous nation required navigating multiple border controls. A tedious process, undoubtedly. However, the advent of air travel in modern times has largely rendered this particular impediment obsolete, allowing goods and people to simply fly over the inconvenient bits.

Actions to avoid being landlocked

The historical record is replete with examples of nations going to considerable lengths to either gain or preserve access to the sea, often with mixed results.

• The Republic of Ragusa , back in 1699, made the rather strategic decision to cede the town of Neum to the Ottoman Empire . Their motivation was simple: they wished to avoid sharing a land border with their rival, the Republic of Venice . This small strip of land was later inherited by Bosnia and Herzegovina and now provides it with a sliver of sea access, famously splitting the Croatian Adriatic coast in two. However, for a relatively new country, the necessary infrastructure, such as railways and freight ports, has not been adequately developed along its short coastline at Neum . This effectively leaves Bosnia and Herzegovina still largely landlocked for commercial purposes, despite its theoretical access. Consequently, the Port of Ploče in neighboring Croatia is predominantly utilized. A rather ironic outcome, one might observe. 14
• The International Congo Society , which laid claim to the territory that would become the Democratic Republic of the Congo , was granted a narrow, almost impossibly thin strip of land cutting through Angola during the Conference of Berlin in 1885. This seemingly arbitrary decision ensured the vast, resource-rich interior had at least some direct connection to the sea. A lifeline, however tenuous, forged by colonial decree.
• Following the cataclysm of World War I , the Treaty of Versailles carved out a section of Germany known as “the Polish corridor .” This territory was granted to the newly re-established Second Polish Republic , specifically to provide it with access to the Baltic Sea . While it did bestow upon Poland a short coastline, it lacked a substantial natural harbor. This led to the creation of the Free City of Danzig (modern-day Gdańsk ), with its existing port, to which Poland was supposed to have free access. Predictably, the Germans frequently obstructed this “free” access, particularly for military supplies. In response to these persistent hindrances, Poland rapidly developed and significantly enlarged the small fishing harbor of Gdynia into a major port. A proactive measure in the face of predictable obstruction.
• In a more contemporary and somewhat unusual move, Moldova , through a 2005 territorial exchange with Ukraine , acquired a modest 600-meter (650-yard) stretch of the Danube riverbank. Crucially, the Danube is designated as an international waterway . 15 Moldova subsequently capitalized on this acquisition by constructing its Port of Giurgiulești there, securing a limited but significant direct connection to a major European shipping artery.

Trade agreements

When direct territorial acquisition isn’t feasible, or simply too much trouble, nations often resort to the intricate dance of international agreements to facilitate the free transport of goods across their landlocked borders and through neighboring countries.

• The very same Treaty of Versailles that created the Polish corridor also imposed a requirement on Germany: it had to lease parts of the ports in Hamburg and Stettin to Czechoslovakia for a period of 99 years. This ingenious arrangement allowed Czechoslovakia, a landlocked nation, to conduct sea trade via the Elbe and Oder rivers. After World War II , Stettin was annexed by Poland . However, Hamburg, ever the pragmatist, continued the contract for its port section (now known as Moldauhafen ) until 2028, ensuring that a successor state to Czechoslovakia, the Czech Republic , could still utilize it for sea trade. A long-term commitment to a historical necessity. 17
• The Danube river, as previously noted, enjoys the status of an international waterway . This grants landlocked nations such as Austria , Hungary , Moldova , Serbia , and Slovakia secure, if indirect, access to the Black Sea . However, it’s worth noting that full-sized oceangoing ships cannot navigate the entire length of the Danube, necessitating the transloading of cargo. Consequently, a substantial portion of overseas imports destined for Austria and Hungary still relies on land transport from Atlantic and Mediterranean ports. A similar, though perhaps less impactful, situation exists for the Rhine river, where Switzerland has boat access. Yet, oceangoing vessels cannot reach it. Luxembourg benefits from such access via the Moselle , but Liechtenstein , despite its proximity to the Rhine, has no usable boat access, as the river becomes unnavigable that far upstream.
• The Mekong river, too, is an international waterway, providing landlocked Laos with a theoretical connection to the South China Sea ever since its independence from French Indochina . However, much like the Danube, its navigability is limited; it becomes impassable above the formidable Khone Phapheng Falls .
• The establishment of free ports offers another crucial mechanism. These designated zones allow for the transshipment of goods to smaller, short-distance vessels or river barges without incurring typical customs duties or delays, streamlining the flow of trade for landlocked nations.
• The TIR Convention is a rather practical international customs transit system, primarily utilized in Europe. It permits sealed road transport to pass through multiple countries without repeated customs checks and charges, significantly reducing bureaucratic hurdles for goods moving to and from landlocked states. 18

Political repercussions

The loss of access to the sea is almost universally regarded as a profound blow to any nation, carrying significant political, military, and economic consequences. The historical record is littered with examples of such geopolitical amputations.

• The independence of Eritrea , achieved after a brutal 30-year Eritrean War of Independence , 19 forcibly rendered Ethiopia landlocked. This occurred de facto in 1991 and de jure in 1993. The Ethiopian Navy , once a proud force, was subsequently dissolved in 1996, having operated from foreign ports in Djibouti and Yemen in its final years.
• Montenegro ’s decision to dissolve the State Union of Serbia and Montenegro directly resulted in the federal unit of Serbia becoming a landlocked current independent state . A choice with clear geographical consequences.
• Bolivia ’s enduring national grievance stems from the loss of its coastline to Chile during the War of the Pacific (1879–1884). This territorial shift was formally acknowledged in treaties signed in 1884 and 1904. While the latter treaty did grant Bolivia certain port storage facilities and special transit treatment for goods through Chilean ports and territory, and both Peru and Argentina have extended similar courtesies, the psychological impact remains profound. A fluvial Bolivian Navy , which ironically did not exist during the very war that cost them their sea, was later established and now trains and operates in Lake Titicaca and various rivers. The Bolivian people annually observe a patriotic “Dia del Mar ” (Day of the Sea) to mourn this territorial loss, which included not only the coastal city of Antofagasta but also what proved to be one of the world’s most significant and lucrative copper deposits. In the early 21st century, the very route for gas pipelines from Bolivia to the sea ignited popular uprisings , as the populace vehemently opposed any option that involved routing the pipes through Chilean territory. The wounds, it seems, run deep.
• Austria and Hungary similarly found themselves stripped of their direct access to the sea following the punitive terms of the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1919) and the Treaty of Trianon (1920), respectively. Prior to this, even though Croatia enjoyed limited constitutional autonomy within the Kingdom of Hungary , the city of Fiume /Rijeka on the Croatian coast was directly administered from Budapest as a corpus separatum by an appointed governor. This arrangement provided Hungary with its sole international port during the periods of 1779–1813, 1822–1848, and 1868–1918. For Austria, its most crucial ports were Trieste and Pula , now located in Italy and Croatia, respectively. The dismantling of empires often leaves many landlocked in its wake.
• In 1801, the Nizam ’s dominion of Hyderabad State assumed its current borders, becoming a landlocked princely state situated in central Deccan, entirely surrounded by British India . This was a significant shift, as for the preceding 150 years, it had possessed a considerable coastline on the Bay of Bengal , which was systematically annexed by the British. 20
• The Paraguayan War , a particularly brutal conflict, is often posited to have been influenced, at least in part, by Paraguay ’s inherent lack of direct ocean access. While this specific cause remains a subject of debate among historians, the strategic disadvantage is undeniable.
• When the Entente Powers carved up the former Ottoman Empire under the provisions of the Treaty of Sèvres at the conclusion of World War I , Armenia was promised a portion of the Trebizond vilayet, roughly corresponding to the modern Trabzon and Rize provinces in Turkey . This would have granted Armenia invaluable access to the Black Sea . However, the Sèvres treaty ultimately collapsed in the face of the Turkish War of Independence and was subsequently superseded by the Treaty of Lausanne (1923) , which firmly re-established Turkish sovereignty over the area. A promise, swiftly broken.
• In 2011, South Sudan formally seceded from Sudan , a move that rendered the newly independent nation landlocked. This separation has regrettably left a legacy of ongoing conflict between the two countries, particularly concerning the vital oil fields located within South Sudan. 21

The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea has, in a commendable if somewhat belated effort, established a right of access to and from the sea for landlocked countries. This includes the crucial provision that traffic through transit states should not be subject to taxation. The United Nations also maintains a dedicated program of action specifically aimed at assisting landlocked developing countries, 22 currently overseen by Undersecretary-General Anwarul Karim Chowdhury .

It’s also worth noting that a country can possess an extensive coastline, yet much of it might be unsuitable for practical trade and commerce. Historically, Russia , for instance, found its only ports primarily on the Arctic Ocean , which were frustratingly frozen shut for significant portions of the year. This perennial challenge to maritime access was a powerful driving force behind Russian expansionist policies, motivating its relentless push towards securing control of warm-water ports on the Baltic Sea , Black Sea , and Pacific Ocean . Conversely, some landlocked countries can actually enjoy a surprising degree of access to the ocean through wide, navigable river systems. Paraguay (and to a lesser extent, Bolivia ), for example, can reach the ocean via the extensive Paraguay and Paraná rivers. A workaround, but a workaround nonetheless.

Then there are those curious cases of countries with coastlines on ostensibly “landlocked” bodies of water, such as the Caspian Sea and the Dead Sea . Because these bodies of water are, in effect, immense lakes lacking a direct, natural connection to wider seaborne trade routes, nations like Kazakhstan are still officially classified as landlocked. While the Caspian Sea does have a man-made connection to the Black Sea via the Volga–Don Canal , this waterway is simply not deep or wide enough for large oceangoing ships to traverse. A technicality, perhaps, but a rather significant one for global commerce.

Finally, some countries, or at least vital parts of them, may boast coastlines or river ports that are theoretically reachable by oceangoing vessels, but only by passing through a strait or a river section that belongs to another country. This geographical dependency leaves them vulnerable, as the intervening nation can impose restrictions on passage. A historical example of this occurred between 1429 and 1857, when Poland , Sweden , Russia , and other Baltic countries were subjected to the infamous Sound Dues —a toll exacted by Denmark for passage through the Øresund strait to reach Western European waters. Sweden famously circumvented this by conquering Scania in 1658, thus gaining direct control over a portion of the strait.

By degree

The designation of “landlocked” isn’t a monolithic category. Countries can be landlocked to varying degrees, depending on the number and type of neighboring countries separating them from the high seas. From merely bordering a single coastal nation to being entirely enmeshed within a web of other landlocked states, the isolation can intensify.

Landlocked by a single country

A select few countries find themselves entirely surrounded by just one other nation, which conveniently happens to have direct access to the high seas . These are often referred to as enclaved countries, a rather neat geographical package.

• Lesotho , a mountainous kingdom, is completely encapsulated by South Africa .
• San Marino , one of the world’s oldest republics, is entirely surrounded by Italy .
• Vatican City , the smallest independent state, is a city-state entirely contained within Italy , specifically within the city of Rome .

Landlocked by two countries

A slightly larger group comprises seven landlocked countries that are bordered by only two mutually contiguous neighbors, both of which possess ocean access. These could be termed “semi-enclaved” countries, if one were inclined to invent such a term.

• Andorra is nestled between France and Spain .
• Bhutan finds itself situated between the colossal landmasses of China and India .
• Eswatini (formerly Swaziland) lies between Mozambique and South Africa .
• Liechtenstein , a tiny principality, is bordered by Austria and Switzerland . This is one of only two countries in the world to be “doubly landlocked,” a rare and inconvenient distinction.
• Moldova is positioned between Romania and Ukraine , if one chooses to overlook the complexities of Transnistria , a de facto state.
• Mongolia , the vast steppe nation, is situated between China and Russia .
• Nepal , another Himalayan nation, is also sandwiched between China and India .

To this particular grouping, one could also add three landlocked territories, two of which are de facto states with limited or no international recognition :

• Transnistria , a de facto state, lies between Moldova and Ukraine .
• South Ossetia , another de facto state, is positioned between Georgia and Russia .
• The West Bank , an Israeli-occupied territory partially administered by the State of Palestine , is situated between Israel and Jordan . 23 24 25 26

Doubly landlocked

A country earns the unenviable title of “doubly landlocked” or “double-landlocked” when it is entirely surrounded only by other landlocked countries. This means that to reach a coastline, one would need to traverse at least two national borders, an extra layer of geographical inconvenience. 27 28 Currently, there are precisely two such countries, a testament to their unique geographical isolation:

• Liechtenstein , located in Western Europe , is surrounded by Austria and Switzerland , both of which are themselves landlocked. 29
• Uzbekistan , situated in Central Asia , is encircled by Afghanistan , Kazakhstan , Kyrgyzstan , Tajikistan , and Turkmenistan —every single one of its neighbors is landlocked. 30

Historically, this status has shifted. After the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire , the Kingdom of Württemberg briefly became a doubly landlocked state, bordering Bavaria , Baden , Switzerland , the Grand Duchy of Hesse (specifically its Wimpfen exclave), Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen , and Hohenzollern-Hechingen . The latter two were themselves landlocked, sandwiched between each other, Württemberg, and Baden. Even when they became an exclave of Prussia in 1866, giving Württemberg a border with a coastal country, any path to a coast still necessitated crossing at least two borders. The Free City of Frankfurt , independent between 1815 and 1866, was also doubly landlocked, as it bordered the Electorate of Hesse , the Grand Duchy of Hesse , Hesse-Homburg , and Nassau . Within the German Confederation , several other landlocked states bordered only other landlocked states or landlocked exclaves of coastal states: the Grand Duchy of Hesse , Hesse-Homburg , Nassau (all until 1866), Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld , Saxe-Hildburghausen (both until 1826), and Reuss, elder line (until 1871). All of these bordered Prussia, but not the main territory with sea access, thus maintaining their doubly landlocked nature.

There was a period, from the unification of Germany in 1871 until the end of World War I , when no country held the doubly landlocked distinction. During this time, Liechtenstein bordered the expansive Austro-Hungarian Empire , which possessed an Adriatic coastline, and Uzbekistan was then part of the vast Russian Empire , which had both ocean and sea access.

With the dramatic dissolution of Austria-Hungary in 1918 and the subsequent creation of an independent, landlocked Austria , Liechtenstein found itself as the sole doubly landlocked country. This status persisted until 1938, when the Anschluss saw Austria absorbed into Nazi Germany , a nation with borders on both the Baltic Sea and the North Sea . After World War II, Austria regained its independence, and Liechtenstein once again reverted to its doubly landlocked status.

Uzbekistan , which had been part of the Russian Empire and later the Soviet Union , achieved its independence with the dissolution of the latter in 1991. It then joined Liechtenstein as the second doubly landlocked country in the world.

However, a rather pedantic but significant point of contention can arise regarding Uzbekistan’s doubly landlocked status. This hinges entirely on whether one considers the Caspian Sea to be a true sea or merely a very large lake. If it is classified as a sea, then Uzbekistan would technically not be doubly landlocked, as its neighbors, Turkmenistan and Kazakhstan , both have coastlines on the Caspian Sea. 31 Such are the complexities of geographical definitions and their geopolitical implications.

List of landlocked countries and landlocked de facto states

It’s a rather straightforward observation that North America and Oceania are entirely devoid of landlocked countries. In the case of Oceania, this is simply because all of its constituent countries are islands, with the singular exception of Australia which is, itself, an island continent.

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