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Liturgical Year

The liturgical year, often referred to as the church year, Christian year, ecclesiastical calendar, or sometimes even kalendar, is the intricate and annually recurring sequence of Christian feast days and seasons. It dictates the observance of significant celebrations, including the commemoration of saints, and determines which passages of scripture are to be read during worship. This cyclical structure profoundly shapes the devotional life of believers, imbuing each period with distinct theological emphases and modes of prayer.

Distinct Liturgical Colours and Regional Variations

The seasons of the liturgical year are often visually distinguished by specific liturgical colours. These hues, ranging from the solemn violet of Lent to the triumphant white of Easter, are incorporated into church decorations, the paraments and vestments worn by clergy, and even personal devotional practices. While the fundamental rhythm and logic of the liturgical year are shared across various Christian traditions, the precise dates of festivals can differ somewhat among them, reflecting historical developments and differing calendrical calculations.

Liturgical Cycle: A Framework for Faith

The liturgical cycle is not merely a temporal arrangement; it is a dynamic framework that divides the year into distinct seasons. Each season possesses its own unique spiritual character, theological focus, and prescribed methods of prayer and worship. This structure guides the faithful through the unfolding narrative of salvation history, mirroring the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ.

For instance, the season of Advent in Western churches is a period of expectant waiting, preparing for both the celebration of Christ's birth and the anticipation of his final coming. In contrast, the Nativity Fast in the Byzantine tradition serves a similar preparatory purpose. These distinct seasonal emphases are reinforced through specific scriptural readings, thematic preaching, and even particular traditions and practices observed within homes and communities.

The specification of scripture passages for each Sunday, and in some traditions, for each day of the year, is managed through a lectionary. Following the Protestant Reformation, denominations like Anglicans and Lutherans largely maintained their adherence to the lectionary derived from the Roman Rite. Subsequent reforms, particularly those following the Second Vatican Council, led the Catholic Church to revise its lectionary, implementing a three-year cycle for Sundays and a two-year cycle for weekdays. This revision, in turn, influenced Protestant denominations, culminating in the publication of the Revised Common Lectionary in 1994. This ecumenical lectionary is now widely adopted by various Protestant denominations, including Methodists, United, and some Reformed churches, fostering a renewed appreciation for the traditional Christian year among a broader spectrum of believers, particularly within mainline denominations.

Biblical Calendars: Echoes of Ancient Practice

The study of biblical calendars reveals a fascinating complexity and ongoing scholarly debate. Scholars grapple with whether the calendars used by the Jews prior to the Babylonian exile were primarily solar, lunisolar, or lunar. The present-day Jewish calendar, for example, is lunisolar, incorporating adjustments to align with the solar cycle.

The earliest Hebrew months bore names reflecting their agricultural significance, such as אביב (Aviv), signifying the month of green ears of grain. This suggests an initial grounding in a tropical calendar, tied to the seasons. However, around the time of the Babylonian exile, the Jews adopted Babylonian month names, including ניסן (Nisan), which replaced Aviv. Thomas J Talley suggests this adoption may have occurred even before the exile. In earlier periods, many months were simply referred to by number, such as "the fifth month."

The Babylonian-derived month names still in use today include:

During Biblical times, several key Jewish religious feasts were observed:

  • Pesach (Passover) – marked by the sacrifice of a lamb on the 14th of Nisan, followed by the Passover seder on the 15th.
  • Chag HaMatzot (Unleavened Bread) – observed from the 15th to the 21st of Nisan.
  • Reishit Katzir (Firstfruits) – celebrated on the 16th of Nisan.
  • Shavuot (Weeks) – observed on the fiftieth day after Passover, typically falling on the 6th or 7th of Sivan.
  • Rosh Hashanah (Trumpets) – celebrated on the 1st and 2nd of Tishrei.
  • Yom Kippur (Atonement) – observed on the 10th of Tishrei.
  • Sukkot (Tabernacles) – celebrated from the 15th to the 21st of Tishrei.
  • Chanukah (Dedication) – instituted in 164 BC, observed from the 25th of Kislev to the 2nd or 3rd of Tevet.
  • Purim (Lots) – instituted around 400 BC, observed on the 14th and 15th of Adar.

Eastern Christianity: A Tapestry of Liturgical Traditions

East Syriac Rite

The liturgical calendar within the East Syriac Rite, observed by East Syriac Catholic churches, is meticulously structured around the progression of salvation history, with a particular focus on the earthly life of Jesus Christ. This arrangement guides believers toward the ultimate eschatological fulfillment, the heavenly bliss, through a series of distinct liturgical seasons. The year is typically divided into eight seasons, each lasting approximately seven weeks, though adjusted to accommodate the solar calendar. These seasons are anchored in seven pivotal events or celebrations within salvation history: the Nativity of Christ, the Epiphany of Christ, the Resurrection of Christ, Pentecost, the Transfiguration, the Glorious Cross, and Parousia (commemorating the dedication of the Church following Christ's second coming).

Historical records, such as the manuscript 'Preface to Hudra' by Rabban Brick-Iso from the 14th century, indicate a liturgical year divided into nine seasons, commencing with Subara and concluding with Qudas Edta. While Catholic churches of the East Syriac Rite largely maintain this calendar, some now consider the seventh and eighth seasons as a single unit. The biblical readings and prayers appointed for Mass and the Liturgy of the Hours are specific to each liturgical season.

Liturgical Calendar of the Syro-Malabar Church and Chaldean Catholic Church

  • Annunciation (Subara): This inaugural season commemorates the events leading to the annunciation and birth of Jesus, foretold in the Old Testament. It commences on the Sunday preceding December 1st and concludes with the feast of Epiphany, which is also the Feast of the Baptism of Jesus. The period from December 1st to 25th is observed as a fast, often referred to as the "25 days Lent," in preparation for Christmas. Key feasts during this season include the Feast of the Immaculate Conception of Mary, mother of Jesus (December 8), the Feast of the Miraculous Cross of Mylapore (Saint Thomas Christian cross) (December 18) in the Syro Malabar Church, the Nativity of Christ or Christmas (December 25), the Feast of the Holy Innocents (December 28), the Feast of the Name of Jesus (January 1), and a feast dedicated to Mary, mother of Jesus on the last Friday of the season.

  • Epiphany (Denha): Beginning on the Sunday closest to Epiphany and extending to the start of the Great Fast, this season's name, "denha," derives from the Syriac word for sunrise. The Church emphasizes the baptism of Jesus in the River Jordan as the pivotal moment when the Trinity was first revealed to humanity in the person of Jesus Christ. Consequently, this season celebrates the manifestation and revelation of Jesus and the Trinity to the world. Feasts observed include the Feast of Epiphany or Feast of Baptism of the Lord (January 6), followed by Fridays dedicated to Saint John the Baptist, the Apostles Peter (Kepha) and Paul, the Evangelists, Saint Stephen, the Fathers of the Church, and the Patron Saint of the Church. The season concludes with a feast commemorating all departed faithful on the last Friday.

  • Great Fast (Sawma Rabba): This season invites the faithful to meditate on Jesus' 40-day fast and the culmination of his public ministry in his passion, death, and burial. It commences 50 days prior to Easter on Peturta Sunday and encompasses the entirety of Great Lent, culminating on Resurrection Sunday. The Syriac word "Peturta" signifies "looking back" or "reconciliation." The faithful enter this season by celebrating the memory of the departed on the last Friday of Denha. Traditionally, this period is also dedicated to remembering loved ones through special prayers, acts of renunciation, and almsgiving, thereby preparing for a "good death and resurrection in Jesus Christ." During this fast, adherents of the Syro Malabar Church abstain from meat, fish, eggs, many dairy products, and favorite foods, and maintain abstinence from sexual relations on all days, including Sundays and feast days. Prior to European colonization, Indian Nasranis would partake in only one meal a day, after 3:00 PM, throughout the Great Fast. Key feasts within the Lenten season include Peturta Sunday (First Sunday), Ash Monday or Clean Monday, Lazarus Friday (Sixth Friday), Oshana Sunday (Seventh Sunday), Thursday of Pesha, Friday of Passion or Good Friday, and Great Saturday or Saturday of Light. Additionally, the feasts of Mar Cyril of Jerusalem (March 18), Saint Joseph (March 19), and the Feast of the Annunciation (March 25) consistently fall within the Lenten season.

  • Resurrection (Qyamta): Beginning on Resurrection Sunday and continuing until the feast of Pentecost, this season celebrates Christ's victory over death, sin, suffering, and Satan. The Church also commemorates events that transpired after the resurrection, such as Jesus' appearances to the Apostles and his ascension. Eastern Christianity regards the Feast of the Resurrection as the paramount feast of the liturgical year, making the season dedicated to it of prime importance. The first week is celebrated as the 'Week of weeks,' acknowledging the significance of Christ's resurrection. Feasts observed include the Feast of Resurrection of Christ, the Feast of All Confessors (Saints) on the first Friday, New Sunday or St. Thomas Sunday on the second Sunday, and the Feast of Ascension of Jesus on the sixth Friday. Additionally, the feasts of Saint George (April 24), Mark the Evangelist (April 25), Saint Joseph, the worker (May 1), and the Apostles Saint Philip and Saint James (May 3) always occur within this season.

  • Apostles (Slihe): Commencing on the feast of Pentecost, this season commemorates the founding of the Church and the ministry of the apostles and early church fathers. It reflects on the virtues of the early Christian community – fellowship, the breaking of bread, sharing of possessions, and the fruits and gifts of the Holy Spirit. The season also marks the expansion and growth of the Church worldwide. Feasts celebrated include Pentecost on the first Sunday, and the Friday of Gold, commemorating the first miracle performed by Saint Peter. Other commemorated feasts within this season include those of Mar Aphrem (June 10), the Apostles Peter and Paul (June 29), Mar Thoma, the founder of East Syriac churches (July 3), Mar Quriaqos and Yolitha (July 15), and others.

  • Qaita (Summer): This season celebrates the maturity and fruitfulness of the Church, with "Qaita" meaning "summer" in Syriac. It is a time when the fruits of holiness and martyrdom are recognized. While the 'Weeks of the Apostles' focused on the Church's infancy, Qaita highlights its development across different regions, reflecting the heavenly Kingdom and giving rise to numerous saints and martyrs. Fridays during this season are dedicated to honoring saints and martyrs. Celebrated feasts include the feast of the twelve apostles and Nusardeil on the first Sunday, and various Fridays dedicated to saints like Mar Jacob of Nisibis, Mar Mari, Marta Simoni and her Seven Children, Mar Shimun Bar Sabbai and Companions, and martyr Mar Quardag. Other commemorated feasts include those of the seventy disciples of Jesus (July 27), Saint Alphonsa in the Syro Malabar Catholic Church (July 28), the Transfiguration of Jesus (August 6), and the Assumption of Mary (August 15).

  • Eliyah-Sliba-Moses: Originating from the feast of the transfiguration of Jesus, these seasons revolve around the exaltation of the cross on the feast of the glorious cross (September 14). The seasons of Eliyah and Sliba remind the faithful of the heavenly bliss promised after earthly life, while the season of Moses focuses on the end times and the last judgment. The season of Moses is often treated as a distinct period due to its unique theme. Eliyah typically spans one to three Sundays, Sliba lasts three to four weeks starting on the Sunday on or after the feast of the glorious cross, and Moses always comprises four weeks. The Feast of the glorious Cross is celebrated, along with the Feast of the Nativity of Mary on September 8, which includes an eight-day fast.

  • Dedication of the Church (Qudas Edta): The final liturgical season in the East Syriac Rite consists of four weeks, concluding on the Saturday before the Sunday between November 27 and December 3. This season emphasizes the Church as Christ's eternal bride, presented to the Father in the heavenly bridal chamber. Its origins lie in the feast of the dedication of the church of Sephelcure or the Jewish feast of Hanukkah. Officially instituted by Patriarch Isho-Yahb III of Seleucia-Ctesiphon (647–657), it was separated from the season of Moses. Feasts celebrated include the Feast of dedication of the church on the first Sunday and the Feast of Christ the King on the last Sunday, a feast instituted by Pope Pius XI in the Roman Rite and observed in Eastern Catholic churches of the rite.

Eastern Orthodox Church

The liturgical year in the Eastern Orthodox Church is characterized by a cyclical pattern of fasts and feasts, bearing significant similarities to the Catholic year. However, the Church New Year, known as the Indiction, traditionally begins on September 1, rather than the first Sunday of Advent. The Orthodox calendar incorporates both feasts on the Fixed Cycle and the Paschal Cycle (also known as the Moveable Cycle). The most significant feast day is Pascha (Easter), referred to as the "Feast of Feasts," followed by the Twelve Great Feasts, which commemorate pivotal events in the lives of Jesus Christ and the Theotokos (Virgin Mary).

A considerable portion of Orthodox Christians, particularly Russians, adhere to the Julian Calendar for calculating their ecclesiastical feasts. However, many churches, including the Ecumenical Patriarchate and the Church of Greece, while preserving the Julian calculation for Paschal Cycle feasts, have adopted the Revised Julian Calendar (which currently aligns with the Gregorian Calendar) for feasts fixed to specific calendar dates.

The temporal divergence between the Julian and the Revised Julian/Gregorian calendars is thirteen days between 1900 and 2100. For instance, Christmas, celebrated on December 25 O.S. (Old Style), coincides with January 7 in the Revised Calendar. Crucially, the calculation of Pascha (Easter) is consistently based on a lunar calendar derived from the Julian Calendar, even by churches using the Revised Calendar.

Four principal fasting seasons punctuate the Orthodox year: Great Lent, an intensive period of fasting, almsgiving, and prayer, extending for forty days prior to Palm Sunday and Holy Week, serving as preparation for Pascha. The Nativity Fast, or "Winter Lent," prepares for the Feast of the Nativity of Christ (Christmas). Unlike the Western Advent, which lasts four weeks, the Nativity Fast spans forty days. The Apostles' Fast is variable, ranging from eight days to six weeks, in preparation for the Feast of Saints Peter and Paul (June 29). The Dormition Fast, lasting two weeks from August 1 to August 14, prepares for the Feast of the Dormition of the Theotokos (August 15). This structure ensures that each fasting season culminates in one of the Great Feasts, tempering the austerity with joy.

Beyond these main seasons, Orthodox Christians observe fasts on Wednesdays and Fridays throughout the year, with some monasteries also fasting on Mondays. Certain fixed days are perpetual fast days, even if they fall on a Saturday or Sunday, though the fast may be mitigated. These include the Decollation of St. John the Baptist, the Exaltation of the Cross, and the day before Epiphany (January 5). Conversely, several fast-free periods exist where fasting is prohibited, even on Wednesdays and Fridays. These include the week following Pascha, the week following Pentecost, the period from the Nativity of Christ until January 5th, and the first week of the Triodion (the week after the 17th Sunday before Pentecost).

Pascha

The apex of the liturgical year is Pascha, the celebration of Christ's Resurrection. The calculation of Pascha, for both Eastern and Western traditions, is based on the first Sunday following the full moon on or after March 21 (representing the vernal equinox). However, Orthodox calculations employ the Julian Calendar, where March 21 currently corresponds to April 3rd of the Gregorian Calendar, and utilize distinct full moon calculations. The date of Pascha is foundational to the entire ecclesiastical year, dictating the commencement of Great Lent and Pentecost, and influencing the cycle of moveable feasts, scriptural readings, and the Octoechos (the system of chanting according to eight ecclesiastical modes). Numerous lesser feasts are also directly linked to the date of Pascha. The moveable cycle commences with Zacchaeus Sunday (the first Sunday in preparation for Great Lent, or the 33rd Sunday after Pentecost), though the Octoechos cycle continues until Palm Sunday. The date of Pascha significantly impacts the liturgical periods of the Triodion (the Sundays preceding Great Lent, Cheesefare Week, Palm Sunday, and Holy Week) and the Pentecostarion (from Pascha Sunday to the Sunday after Pentecost, also known as the Sunday of all saints).

The Twelve Great Feasts

These feasts, some on the Fixed Cycle and others on the Moveable (Paschal) Cycle, represent significant moments in Christian history. Feasts on the Fixed Cycle often include a preparatory period known as a Forefeast and a celebratory period afterward, termed an Afterfeast, analogous to the Western Octave. Great Feasts on the Paschal Cycle, however, do not have forefeasts. The duration of these forefeasts and afterfeasts varies according to the specific feast.

Other Feasts

Beyond the Twelve Great Feasts, several other feasts are observed with similar solemnity:

Every day of the year commemorates a saint or an event from the lives of Christ or the Theotokos. When a feast from the moveable cycle coincides with a fixed date, the fixed feast is transferred, with its propers often chanted at Compline on a nearby day.

Cycles

Beyond the Fixed and Moveable Cycles, the ecclesiastical year incorporates other liturgical cycles, including the Daily Cycle, the Weekly Cycle, the Cycle of Matins Gospels, and the Octoechos.

Oriental Orthodox and P'ent'ay Evangelical Churches

These traditions, including the Armenian calendar, Ethiopian calendar, and Coptic calendar, possess their own distinct liturgical calendars, often rooted in ancient traditions and unique theological emphases.

Western Christianity

Western Christian liturgical calendars are largely structured around the cycle of the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church, a framework also adopted by many Protestant churches, including Lutheran, Anglican, and other traditions. The primary seasons typically include Advent, Christmas, Ordinary Time (following Epiphany), Lent, Easter, and another period of Ordinary Time (following Pentecost). Some Protestant traditions omit the designation of Ordinary Time, with every day falling within a specific season. Conversely, a minority within the Reformed tradition rejects the liturgical year entirely, arguing that its observance lacks explicit scriptural direction.

For denominations that observe the Western liturgical year, the Revised Common Lectionary provides a structured sequence of scriptural readings aligned with the seasonal patterns. Notable denominations utilizing this lectionary include Methodists, Anglicans/Episcopalians, Lutherans, Presbyterians, and various Baptist and Anabaptist groups. Professor Hoyt L. Hickman of Vanderbilt University notes that these calendars universally recognize the primacy of the Lord's Day and delineate two central cycles: the Easter cycle and the Christmas cycle. Each cycle comprises a festival season (Easter and Christmas) preceded by a season of preparation and anticipation (Lent and Advent). In most denominational versions and the Common Lectionary, Lent and Advent are immediately preceded by transitional Sundays (Transfiguration and Christ the King, respectively), and the Easter and Christmas seasons are followed by transitional Sundays (Trinity and Baptism of the Lord). Generally, Protestant churches, excluding Lutherans and Anglicans, observe fewer saint days compared to Catholic and Orthodox traditions.

Denominational Specifics

Catholic Church

The Catholic Church articulates its liturgical year as a unfolding of the "whole mystery of Christ, from the incarnation and birth until the ascension, the day of Pentecost, and the expectation of blessed hope and of the coming of the Lord." This cyclical remembrance allows the Church to present the "riches of her Lord's powers and merits," making them accessible to the faithful throughout time. The resurrection of Jesus is celebrated both weekly on Sundays and annually at Easter, in conjunction with his passion. The Second Vatican Council introduced significant revisions to the Catholic Church's liturgical year.

The calendar also incorporates the commemoration and celebration of various events in the lives of Christ and his saints on specific days and seasons.

  • Advent: In the Roman Rite, the liturgical year commences with Advent, a season of preparation for both the nativity of Christ and his anticipated second coming. This season extends until the first vespers of Christmas Eve on December 24. The liturgical colour is typically violet or purple, though blue is used in some traditions like Anglican/Episcopalian, Methodist, and Lutheran.

  • Christmastide: Following Advent, Christmastide begins with the First Vespers of Christmas on the evening of December 24 and concludes with the Feast of the Baptism of the Lord on the first Sunday after Epiphany (generally January 6). The liturgical colour is white.

  • Ordinary Time (First Period): This period bridges Christmastide and the commencement of Lent, encompassing days not specifically designated to a liturgical season. The readings focus on Christ's earthly ministry.

  • Lent: A season of purification and penance, Lent commences on Ash Wednesday and concludes on Holy Thursday. The liturgical colour is violet or purple.

  • Easter Triduum: The Mass of the Lord's Supper on the evening of Holy Thursday initiates the Easter Triduum, which includes Good Friday, Holy Saturday, and Easter Sunday. These days commemorate Christ's last supper, his passion, death, burial, and resurrection.

  • Eastertide: This seven-week liturgical season follows the Triduum, culminating on Pentecost, which recalls the descent of the Holy Spirit upon Jesus' disciples after the Ascension of Jesus. The liturgical colour is white, except for Pentecost, which is red.

  • Ordinary Time (Second Period): This extends from Pentecost until the beginning of Advent.

The Catholic Church encompasses diverse liturgical rites, including numerous Eastern rites. Even within the Latin liturgical rites, variations exist, such as the Ambrosian Rite, the Mozarabic Rite, and the Cistercian Rite, though many have been superseded by the Roman Rite. Historical liturgical forms, like those of the Anglo-Saxon Church, also represent significant variations. The General Roman Calendar of 1960 differs in certain aspects from the present form of the Roman Rite.

Lutheran Churches

The Lutheran tradition follows a distinct church year, elaborated upon in the article Liturgical calendar (Lutheran), which also includes a Calendar of saints (Lutheran).

Anglican Church

The Church of England, as the mother church of the Anglican Communion, utilizes a liturgical year closely mirroring the 1969 Catholic Common Lectionary. While earlier liturgical books like the Book of Common Prayer and the Alternative Service Book (1980) did not explicitly delineate "Ordinary Time," the Common Worship (2000) adopted the ecumenical 1983 Revised Common Lectionary. Minor divergences include the observance of Sundays following Christmas and Transfiguration on the last Sunday before Lent, rather than on Reminiscere. In some Anglican traditions, the Christmas season is succeeded by an Epiphany season, commencing on the Eve of Epiphany (January 6 or the Sunday following January 1) and concluding with the Feast of the Presentation (February 2 or the Sunday after January 27), after which Ordinary Time begins. The Book of Common Prayer contains a traditional Western Eucharistic lectionary tracing its origins to the Comes of St. Jerome in the 5th century, showing particular similarity to the ancient lectionary during Trinity season, reflecting an understanding of sanctification.

Reformed Churches

Reformed Christians place a strong emphasis on the weekly celebration of the Lord's Day. While some observe the five evangelical feasts, others forgo all holy days except the Lord's Day, viewing the liturgical year as non-scriptural and thus incompatible with the regulative principle of worship.

Liturgical Calendar: A Detailed Breakdown

Advent

Advent, derived from the Latin word adventus meaning "arrival" or "coming," marks the commencement of the liturgical year. It begins four Sundays prior to Christmas, on the Sunday that falls on or nearest to November 30, and concludes on Christmas Eve. Traditionally observed as a fast, Advent focuses on preparation for Christ's coming, encompassing both the nativity of the Christ-child at Christmas and, in its initial weeks, the eschatological final coming of Christ, thus rendering Advent "a period for devout and joyful expectation." Common devotional practices include the use of the Advent Wreath, a garland of evergreens with four candles, often imbued with themes of hope, faith, joy, and love, symbolizing the progression of time. The Advent Calendar and the Tree of Jesse are also popular methods for counting down to Christmas. The primary liturgical colour is violet or purple, though blue is also employed in some traditions like Anglican/Episcopalian, Methodist, and Lutheran.

Christmastide

The Christmas season immediately follows Advent. The traditional Twelve Days of Christmas commence on the evening of Christmas Eve (December 24) and extend through the feast of Epiphany. The liturgical season of Christmastide continues until the Feast of the Baptism of Christ, observed on the Sunday following January 6, or the subsequent Monday if January 6 is itself observed as Epiphany. In the pre-1970 Roman Rite, this feast was celebrated on January 13, unless that date fell on a Sunday, in which case the feast of the Holy Family was observed. The suppression of the Octave of the Epiphany in the 1960 reforms meant January 13 no longer served as the Octave day, thus altering the season's conclusion. Historically, Christmastide concluded on February 2, the Feast of the Presentation of the Lord, also known as Candlemas, commemorating Mary's purification and the presentation of Jesus in the Temple. In medieval times, Candlemas eve (February 1st) marked the removal of all Christmas decorations, including the Christmas tree and the Nativity scene. While this tradition has largely waned, it persists in some parts of the Hispanic world, where Candlemas remains an important feast and the unofficial end of the Christmas season. The liturgical colour for Christmastide is white.

Ordinary Time

"Ordinary" in this context relates to the "counted weeks" that do not belong to a specific liturgical season. In the Catholic Church and certain Protestant traditions, these are the common weeks of the year, referred to in Latin as per annum, meaning "through the year." The current form of the Roman Rite, revised after the Second Vatican Council, designates 33 or 34 Sundays for Ordinary Time, divided into two periods. The first period runs from the day after the Feast of the Baptism of Christ until the day before Ash Wednesday, encompassing three to eight Sundays depending on the timing of Easter. The scriptural readings during this time primarily focus on Christ's earthly ministry. The counting of Sundays resumes after Eastertide, with Pentecost and Trinity Sunday replacing two Sundays; depending on the year's length (52 or 53 weeks), one may be omitted. In the pre-1970 Roman Rite, the Time after Epiphany could have one to six Sundays, also centering on Christ's preaching and ministry, with many parables as Gospel readings. This season began on January 14 and concluded on the Saturday before Septuagesima Sunday. Omitted Sundays after Epiphany were transferred to the Time after Pentecost. Prior to the 1960 revisions, omitted Sundays were celebrated on the Saturday before Septuagesima Sunday or, in the case of the Twenty-Third Sunday after Pentecost, on the Saturday before the Last Sunday after Pentecost. The liturgical colour for Ordinary Time is green.

Pre-Lent

Gregory the Great is credited with documenting a preparatory period for Easter beginning with Septuagesima, signifying approximately seventy days before Easter. This pre-Lenten period spans two and a half weeks, encompassing Sexagesima and Quinquagesima, and culminates with Carnival and Shrove Tuesday. This time historically served as an educational period for the reception of catechumens at Easter. Old Testament mystery plays performed during this era reinforced this instructional aim, aligning with the traditional lectionary for the Canonical hours, which begins on Septuagesima with the Book of Genesis. The pre-Lenten liturgy introduces certain Lenten customs, such as the suppression of the Alleluia and its replacement with the Tract at Mass, and the omission of the Gloria on Sundays. The 1969 reform of the Roman Rite integrated these weeks into Ordinary Time, though Carnival continues to be widely observed. A pre-Lenten observance persists in many Anglican and Lutheran liturgies. The liturgical colour, where observed, is violet or purple.

Lent and Passiontide

Lent is a significant penitential season of preparation for Easter. It begins on Ash Wednesday and, if the penitential days of Good Friday and Holy Saturday are included, spans forty days, as the six Sundays within the season are not counted. In the Roman Rite, the Gloria in Excelsis Deo and the Te Deum are omitted from Mass and the Liturgy of the Hours, respectively, except on Solemnities and Feasts. The Alleluia and its accompanying verse, typically preceding the Gospel reading, are either omitted or replaced with another acclamation. Lutheran churches observe similar omissions. In the pre-1970 Roman Rite, during Lent, the deacon and subdeacon wear "folded chasubles" instead of their usual dalmatic and tunicle, symbolizing joy. The pre-1970 Roman Rite designates the two weeks before Easter as Passiontide, a subsection of Lent. Passion Sunday is renamed the First Sunday in Passiontide, and Palm Sunday becomes the Second Sunday in Passiontide. The Gloria Patri is omitted at the Introit and the Lavabo, as well as in the responds of the Divine Office, except on feasts. In the post-1969 Roman Rite, both "Passion Sunday" and "Palm Sunday" refer to the Sunday before Easter, officially named "Palm Sunday of the Lord's Passion." The former Passion Sunday is now the fifth Sunday of Lent. The earlier lectionary structure read Matthew's account on Sunday, Mark's on Tuesday, and Luke's on Wednesday; the post-1969 form reads the Passion only on Palm Sunday (with the three Synoptic Gospels arranged in a three-year cycle) and on Good Friday, when John's Passion account is read. The veiling of crucifixes and images of saints with violet cloth, mandatory before 1970, is now at the discretion of national bishops' conferences. In the United States, it is permissible but not required. Readings throughout Lent focus on the events leading to the Last Supper and Christ's betrayal, passion, and death. The week before Easter is known as Holy Week. In the Roman Rite, feasts occurring during Holy Week are omitted unless they possess the rank of Solemnity, in which case they are transferred. The only solemnities on the General Calendar that can fall within this week are those of Saint Joseph and the Annunciation. The liturgical colour for Lent is violet or purple, with rose permissible on Laetare Sunday (the 4th Sunday of Lent). On Palm Sunday, the colour is red since 1970; previously, it was violet or purple, with red used after 1955 for the blessing of palms.

Easter Triduum

The Easter Triduum comprises Good Friday, Holy Saturday, and Easter Sunday. Each day liturgically begins not in the morning but in the preceding evening. The Triduum commences on the evening before Good Friday with the Mass of the Lord's Supper, celebrated in white vestments, often including a ritual foot-washing. A traditional vigil of private prayer follows the evening service until midnight, sometimes renewed at dawn until the Good Friday liturgy. On Good Friday, Mass is not celebrated in the Catholic Church; instead, a Celebration of the Passion of the Lord takes place in the afternoon or evening, consisting of a Liturgy of the Word (including the reading of the Passion according to John), and concluding with a solemn Universal Prayer. Other churches also commemorate the Passion on this day. Vestment colours vary: no colour, red, or black are used in different traditions. Colourful hangings may be removed. Lutheran churches often remove or veil adornments and icons. The service is typically plain with somber music, ending in silence. In Catholic, some Lutheran, and High Anglican rites, a crucifix is ceremoniously unveiled. Other crucifixes are unveiled without ceremony. Holy Saturday commemorates Christ's time in the tomb. In the Catholic Church, there is no Mass on this day; the Easter Vigil Mass, though ideally celebrated at midnight, is often held in the evening and is considered an Easter Mass. With no liturgical celebration, there is no liturgical colour. The Easter Vigil takes place on the night between Holy Saturday and Easter Sunday to celebrate the resurrection of Jesus. The liturgical colour is white, often with gold. In the Roman Rite, the organ and bells are used for the first time in two days during the Gloria in Excelsis Deo, and statues, veiled during Passiontide, are unveiled. Lutheran churches also reintroduce colours and icons.

Eastertide

Easter celebrates Jesus' Resurrection. Its date varies annually based on a lunar-calendar dating system. In the Roman Rite, the Easter season extends from the Easter Vigil through Pentecost Sunday. The pre-1970 Roman Rite includes the Octave of Pentecost, extending Eastertide until the Saturday following. The Easter octave in the Roman Rite does not permit the celebration or commemoration of other feasts. Solemnities falling within this octave, such as the Annunciation, are transferred to the following Monday. If Easter Sunday or Monday falls on April 25, the Greater Litanies are moved to the following Tuesday. By a decree in 2000, the Second Sunday of Easter is designated as the Feast of the Divine Mercy in the Roman Rite. Ascension Thursday, commemorating Christ's return to heaven, is the fortieth day of Easter but, in places where it is not a Holy Day of Obligation, the post-1969 Roman Rite transfers it to the following Sunday. Pentecost, the fiftieth and final day of the Easter season, celebrates the sending of the Holy Spirit to the Apostles, marking the birth of the Church. The liturgical colour is white, except for Pentecost, which is red.

Ordinary Time, Time after Pentecost, Time after Trinity, or Kingdomtide

This season, known by various names, follows the Easter season and the feasts of Easter, Ascension, and Pentecost. In the post-1969 Roman Rite, Ordinary Time resumes on Pentecost Monday, omitting the Sunday that would have fallen on Pentecost. In earlier forms, where Pentecost is celebrated with an octave, the Time after Pentecost begins on the Saturday after Pentecost. Sundays resume their numbering to ensure the Sunday before Advent is the thirty-fourth, omitting any weeks for which there is no space (current Roman Rite) or are numbered as "Sundays after Pentecost" (pre-1970 Roman Rite, Eastern Orthodoxy, and some Protestants) or as "Sundays after Trinity" (some Protestants). This season concludes on the Saturday before the First Sunday of Advent. Feasts observed during this period include Trinity Sunday, the Solemnity of the Most Holy Body and Blood of Christ (Corpus Christi) (often celebrated on the following Sunday), the Solemnity of the Most Sacred Heart of Jesus, the Assumption of Mary (August 15), the Feast of Creation (September 1), and the Feast of Christ the King (last Sunday before Advent or last Sunday in October in the 1925–1969 Roman Rite). In the final weeks of Ordinary Time, many churches direct attention to the coming of the Kingdom of God, concluding the liturgical year with an eschatological theme, echoing the Advent season. While the Roman Rite lacks a specific designation for this final part of Ordinary Time, some denominations do, and may change the liturgical colour. The Church of England uses "Sundays before Advent" and permits red vestments. The United Methodist Church may refer to it as "Kingdomtide". The Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod (LCMS) uses "Third-Last, Second-Last and Last Sunday in the Church Year" and retains green vestments, without officially celebrating a "Feast of Christ the King." The Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod (WELS) calls it the "Period of End Times" and assigns red vestments to the first and second Sundays.

Calendar of Saints

The Calendar of saints commemorates numerous figures throughout the year.

Hierarchy of Feast Days

The solemnity of feast days of saints varies significantly. In the 13th-century Roman Rite, three ranks existed: simple, semidouble, and double, with corresponding differences in the recitation of the Divine Office or Breviary. A simple feast began with the chapter of First Vespers and ended with None, featuring three lessons and psalms from the ferial office. A semidouble feast had two Vespers, nine lessons in Matins, and concluded with Compline, with antiphons only intoned. In Mass, semidouble feasts typically had at least three collects. Double feasts featured full antiphons, and in Lauds and Vespers, lacked suffragia of saints, with Mass having only one collect (unless commemorations were prescribed).

Pope Clement VIII added further ranks of first-class and second-class doubles, some with octaves. This system persisted until Pope Pius X's 1911 reform of the Roman Breviary, which simplified matters by allowing lower-ranking feast days to become commemorations within higher-ranking celebrations in cases of occurrence. This reform permitted only the most important feast days to be celebrated on Sundays, though commemorations continued until Pope John XXIII's 1960 reform.

The division into doubles, semidoubles, and simples persisted until 1955, when Pope Pius XII abolished the rank of semidouble, reducing them to simples and further simplifying previous simples to mere commemorations. In 1960, Pope John XXIII introduced the Code of Rubrics, replacing the old ranking system with a classification of liturgical days into classes I, II, III, and IV. The 1969 revision by Pope Paul VI further refined this into "solemnities," "feasts," and "memorials," roughly corresponding to Pope John XXIII's classes I, II, and III. Commemorations were abolished. While some memorials are obligatory, others are optional, allowing for choices between different memorials or between memorials and the celebration of the feria. On days without obligatory celebrations, the Mass may be of any saint listed in the Roman Martyrology.

Assumption of Mary

The Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary, observed by Catholics and some Anglicans on August 15, coincides with the Eastern and Orthodox feast of the Dormition, commemorating the end of the Virgin Mary's earthly life and her bodily Assumption into heaven. This dogma was formally defined by Pope Pius XII in his bull Munificentissimus Deus in 1950. In other Anglican and Lutheran traditions, August 15 is celebrated as St. Mary, Mother of the Lord. The liturgical colour is white.

Secular Observance

The pervasive influence of Christianity throughout the Middle Ages led to the integration of many features of the Christian year into the secular calendar. Numerous Christian feasts, such as Christmas, Mardi Gras, and Saint Patrick's Day, remain public holidays, now celebrated by people of all faiths and none, sometimes globally. These secular observances often retain varying degrees of connection to their religious origins, occasionally incorporating elements from pagan festivals of similar dates.

Comparison of Liturgical Calendars

The table below offers a comparative overview of liturgical seasons and celebrations across different Christian traditions.

| Date Range | East Syriac Season/Celebration | Eastern Orthodox Season/Celebration | Western Season/Celebration