Alright, let's get this over with. You want me to rewrite this Wikipedia article in my style. Fine. Just don't expect any sunshine and rainbows. This is Palestine under the British Mandate, a period that was about as stable as a house of cards in a hurricane.
British Mandate Territory (1920–1948)
This whole section is about a place, a geopolitical entity, if you want to be precise. If you're looking for the document that handed Britain the reins over both Palestine and the Emirate of Transjordan, that's a different beast entirely. You'll want to look up the Mandate for Palestine.
Palestine
1920–1948
Public Seal [1]
Status: A Mandate under the oversight of the United Kingdom. Capital: Jerusalem. Common Languages: Arabic, English, Hebrew. Religion (1922):
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78% Islam
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11% Judaism
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10% Christianity
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1% other, including Baháʼí Faith, Druze faith. Demonym: Palestinian. High Commissioner:
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1920–1925 (first): Sir Herbert L. Samuel.
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1945–1948 (last): Sir Alan Cunningham. Legislature:
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Parliamentary body of the Muslim community: Supreme Muslim Council.
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Parliamentary body of the Jewish community: Assembly of Representatives. Historical Era:
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Mandate assigned: 25 April 1920.
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Britain officially assumes control: 29 September 1923.
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End of Mandate: 14 May 1948.
Area:
- Total: 25,585.3 km² (9,878.5 sq mi) [3] Population:
- Census (1922): 757,182 [4] Currency:
- Egyptian pound (until 1927)
- Palestine pound (from 1927)
ISO 3166 code: PS
Preceded by: Occupied Enemy Territory Administration
Succeeded by: Israel Jordanian annexation of the West Bank All-Palestine Protectorate
Today part of: Israel, Palestine
Mandatory Palestine, a name that hangs heavy in the air, existed from 1920 to 1948. It was a British administrative zone, a territory carved out under the shadow of the League of Nations' Mandate for Palestine. The British, in their infinite wisdom, decided the place wasn't quite ready for self-governance. They declared it unfit, a judgment that would echo through the decades.
The whole mess started after the First World War. The Arab uprising against the Ottoman Empire had barely fizzled out when the British forces, having pushed the Ottomans out of the Levant, found themselves with more land than they knew what to do with. The McMahon–Hussein Correspondence had hinted at Arab independence, a promise that evaporated like mist in the sun. Instead, the United Kingdom and France decided to carve up what was once Ottoman Syria with the Sykes–Picot Agreement—a betrayal, as far as the Arabs were concerned. And then there was the Balfour Declaration of 1917, promising British support for a Jewish "national home" in Palestine. Mandatory Palestine was born from these conflicting promises, a Mandate granted by the League of Nations in 1922. It was classified as a Class A Mandate, the highest tier, supposedly meant for territories on the cusp of independence. Funny, then, that every other Class A mandate managed to break free by 1946.
The Mandate years were a pressure cooker. Waves of Jewish immigration arrived, and nationalist movements, both Jewish and Arab, gained traction. The clashing interests, as you might expect, led to the 1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine and the subsequent Jewish insurgency in Mandatory Palestine from 1944 to 1948. Finally, in November 1947, the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine was adopted, a blueprint for dividing the territory. The subsequent 1948 Palestine war saw the Mandate territory fractured. The State of Israel emerged, alongside the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan (which annexed the West Bank) and the Kingdom of Egypt (which established the "All-Palestine Protectorate" in the Gaza Strip).
Etymology
• See also: Timeline of the name "Palestine"
The name "Palestine" itself wasn't some new invention. It was already in use by local Palestinian Arabs and Europeans, a familiar echo from centuries past. [10] [11] [12] [13] The Mandate charter, in its infinite thoroughness, declared English, Arabic, and Hebrew as official languages.
In 1926, the British decided to formalize the use of the traditional Arabic name, Filasţīn (فلسطين), and its Hebrew transliteration, Pālēśtīnā (פּלשׂתינה). But the Jewish leadership, never one to settle for second best, proposed ʾĒrēts Yiśrāʾel (ארץ ישׂראל), the Land of Israel. The compromise? Appending the initials ʾAlef (א) and Yod (״) (א״י) in parentheses after Pālēśtīnā in official Hebrew documents. The Arabs, predictably, saw this as a blatant violation of the Mandate's terms. Some Arab politicians, grasping for an alternative, suggested "Southern Syria" (سوريا الجنوبية, Sūriyā al-Janūbiyya). The British, however, were having none of it. As Colonel Symes explained to the Permanent Mandates Commission in 1926:
"The country was described as 'Palestine' by Europeans and as 'Falestin' by the Arabs. The Hebrew name for the country was the designation 'Land of Israel', and the Government, to meet Jewish wishes, had agreed that the word 'Palestine' in Hebrew characters should be followed in all official documents by the initials which stood for that designation. As a set-off to this, certain of the Arab politicians suggested that the country should be called 'Southern Syria' in order to emphasise its close relation with another Arab State." [17]
The term "Mandatory" itself simply refers to the legal status granted by the League of Nations; it has nothing to do with the mundane concept of being "required." [18]
History
• For the backstory on how this whole Mandate thing came to be, you'll want to check out Mandate for Palestine.
• And for the period between the Ottoman Empire's collapse in 1917–18 and the start of British civil administration in July 1920, that was the Occupied Enemy Territory Administration.
1920s
The arrival of the British was met with a predictable response from the Arab inhabitants: the establishment of Muslim-Christian Associations in major towns. These groups, in 1919, coalesced into the first Palestine Arab Congress in Jerusalem. Their agenda was clear: representative government and a firm rejection of the Balfour Declaration. Meanwhile, the Zionist Commission, formed in March 1918, was busy pushing its own agenda. On April 19, 1920, elections were held for the Assembly of Representatives of the Palestinian Jewish community.
Jerusalem, naturally, had to have its drama. In April 1920, riots in Jerusalem erupted, leaving five Jews and four Arabs dead. A grim foreshadowing.
By July 1920, the military administration was replaced by a civilian one, headed by a High Commissioner. The first to hold the post, Sir Herbert Samuel, a Zionist and a former British cabinet minister, set up shop in Jerusalem. His initial headquarters were in the Augusta Victoria Hospital complex on Mount Scopus, a building that had seen better days. After an earthquake in 1927, they moved to a purpose-built structure on the southern edge of Jerusalem, known to the Jewish population as Armon HaNetziv. This place, on the ridge of Jabel Mukaber, served as the High Commissioner's residence until the British packed up and left.
The formal transfer of Jerusalem to British rule, 1917. A "native priest" reading the proclamation from the steps of the Tower of David. Sir Herbert Samuel's arrival. From left to right: T. E. Lawrence, Emir Abdullah, Air Marshal Sir Geoffrey Salmond, Sir Wyndham Deedes, and others. An Arab "protest gathering" in session, in the Rawdat el Maaref hall, 1929. From left to right: unknown – Amin al-Husayni – Musa al-Husayni – Raghib al-Nashashibi – unknown.
One of the first acts of the new civilian administration was to start doling out concessions from the Mandatory government. In 1921, Pinhas Rutenberg, a Jewish entrepreneur, secured concessions for electricity production and distribution. His company, funded by Zionist organizations and investors, was seen by Palestinian Arabs as further proof of British favoritism towards Zionism. The British, naturally, claimed it was all about economic development for the entire country, a convenient justification for their commitment to a Jewish National Home, albeit through economic, not political, means. [25]
May 1921 saw more trouble in Jaffa, with rioting between rival Jewish groups that escalated into attacks on Jews. Almost a hundred lives were lost.
High Commissioner Samuel, tasked with establishing self-governing institutions as per the mandate, found the Arab leadership unwilling to cooperate with any body that included Jewish participation. [26] When Kamil al-Husayni, the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem, died in March 1921, Samuel appointed his half-brother, Mohammad Amin al-Husseini. Al-Husseini, a prominent Arab nationalist and Muslim leader, became a key figure in the opposition to Zionism. In 1922, he was elected President of the Supreme Muslim Council, established by Samuel in December 1921. [27] [28] This council controlled substantial Waqf funds and orphan funds, dwarfing the budget of the Jewish Agency. [30] He also held sway over the Islamic courts, which had the power to appoint teachers and preachers.
The Palestine Order in Council of 1922 laid out a plan for a Legislative Council: 12 elected members, 10 appointed, and the High Commissioner. [32] Of the elected seats, eight were allocated to Muslim Arabs, two to Christian Arabs, and two to Jews. [33] The Arabs protested, arguing that their 88% majority deserved more than their allocated 43% of the seats. [33] Elections were held in February and March 1923, but an Arab boycott led to their annulment, and an Advisory Council was established instead. [32]
Back in 1923, the First World Congress of Jewish Women in Vienna declared it the "duty of all Jews to co-operate in the social-economic reconstruction of Palestine and to assist in the settlement of Jews in that country." [34]
In October 1923, Britain submitted its report on the administration of Palestine for 1920–1922 to the League of Nations. [35]
August 1929 brought more riots, claiming another 250 lives.
1930s: Arab Armed Insurgency
By 1930, Sheikh Izz ad-Din al-Qassam had arrived from Syria, establishing the Black Hand, an anti-Zionist and anti-British militant group. He trained a force of 200 to 800 men, armed with bombs and firearms, who targeted Zionist settlers and vandalized property. [36] In November 1935, a firefight with police resulted in a policeman's death. Al-Qassam was cornered and killed in a cave near Ya'bad. [36]
The Arab Revolt
• Main article: 1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine
Arab Revolt Against the British
Al-Qassam's death on November 20, 1935, ignited widespread outrage. His funeral in Haifa drew huge crowds. A few months later, in April 1936, the Arab national general strike began, instigated by the Arab Higher Committee, led by Amin al-Husseini. The summer of 1936 saw thousands of Jewish-owned acres destroyed, Jewish civilians attacked and killed, and some Jewish communities forced to flee. [37] The violence subsided for a year while the British dispatched the Peel Commission to investigate. [38]
During the early stages of the revolt, clan rivalries, particularly between the al-Husayni and Nashashibi families, forced Raghib Nashashibi to flee to Egypt after surviving assassination attempts orchestrated by Amin al-Husseini. [39]
The revolt reignited in the autumn of 1937 after the Arab rejection of the Peel Commission's recommendations. For the next 18 months, British authority crumbled in cities like Nablus and Hebron. The British, aided by 6,000 armed Jewish auxiliary police, [40] responded with overwhelming force. Charles Orde Wingate, a British officer with religious leanings towards a Zionist revival, [41] organized Special Night Squads of British soldiers and Jewish volunteers, who conducted raids on Arab villages and achieved "significant successes against the Arab rebels". [42] [43] The Irgun, a Jewish militia, also engaged in retaliatory attacks on Arab civilians, targeting marketplaces and buses. [44]
By the revolt's end in March 1939, over 5,000 Arabs, 400 Jews, and 200 British soldiers had lost their lives. At least 15,000 Arabs were wounded. [45] Ten percent of the adult Arab male population had been killed, wounded, imprisoned, or exiled. [46] Between 1936 and 1945, the British confiscated 13,200 firearms from Arabs and 521 from Jews, despite collaborating with the Jewish Agency on security matters. [47]
The Arab attacks had a profound impact. They spurred the development of Jewish underground militias, like the Haganah, which would prove crucial in 1948. They also made it starkly clear that reconciliation between the two communities was impossible, giving rise to the idea of partition. The British, in response to Arab opposition, issued the White Paper of 1939, severely restricting Jewish immigration and land purchases. However, with the onset of the Second World War, even these reduced quotas went unmet. The White Paper itself radicalized segments of the Jewish population, leading to a breakdown in cooperation with the British after the war.
The revolt also crippled Palestinian Arab leadership, social cohesion, and military capacity. As historian Rashid Khalidi notes, when the Palestinians faced their ultimate challenge in 1947–49, they were still reeling from the British repression of 1936–39, effectively without unified leadership. [48]
Partition Proposals
A Jewish demonstration against the White Paper in Jerusalem, 1939.
In 1937, the Peel Commission proposed partitioning Palestine into a small Jewish state, with forced Arab population transfer, and an Arab state to be joined with the Emirate of Transjordan. The Arabs outright rejected this. The main Jewish leaders, Chaim Weizmann and David Ben-Gurion, managed to get the Zionist Congress to equivocally approve the Peel recommendations as a basis for further talks. [49] [50] [51] [52] [53] Ben-Gurion, in a letter to his son in October 1937, revealed his true intentions: partition was merely the first step towards "possession of the land as a whole." [54] [55] [56] This sentiment was echoed by Weizmann and Ben-Gurion at other times. [56] [58]
Following the London Conference, the British published a White Paper proposing limits on Jewish immigration, restrictions on land purchases, and a plan for an independent state within ten years. For the Yishuv, this felt like a betrayal, especially with the escalating persecution of Jews in Europe. In response, Zionists launched Aliyah Bet, an illegal immigration operation. Extremist groups like Lehi engaged in armed attacks against British authorities. However, the Jewish Agency, representing the mainstream Zionist leadership, still hoped to negotiate with Britain and cooperated during the Second World War.
Second World War
Allied and Axis Activity
Australian soldiers in Tel Aviv in 1942.
In June 1940, Italy declared war on the British Empire, aligning with Nazi Germany. Soon after, Italian aircraft bombed Tel Aviv and Haifa, causing casualties. [59]
The year 1942 brought a wave of anxiety for the Yishuv as General Erwin Rommel's Afrika Korps advanced across North Africa towards the Suez Canal, raising fears of a potential conquest of Palestine. This period became known as the "200 days of dread". It was during this time, with British support, that the Palmach, a highly trained regular unit of the Haganah, was founded. [60]
Despite anger over the immigration restrictions in the White Paper of 1939, the Yishuv rallied behind the Allied war effort. David Ben-Gurion, head of the Jewish Agency, famously declared, "We will fight the White Paper as if there is no war, and fight the war as if there is no White Paper." Around 30,000 Jews from Mandatory Palestine served in the British Armed Forces, with over 700 killed in action. [61] [62]
The Arab population's stance during the Second World War was far from unified. Some leaders saw an Axis victory as an opportunity to reclaim Palestine from both the Zionists and the British. Despite their racist ideology, the Nazis actively courted Arab support. [63] On the anniversary of the Balfour Declaration in 1943, Heinrich Himmler and Joachim von Ribbentrop sent messages of support to Mohammad Amin al-Husseini, the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem, for a radio broadcast in [Berlin]. [c] [64] [65] Conversely, around 12,000 Palestinian Arabs, with the backing of prominent figures and media like "Radio Palestine" [d] and the Jaffa-based Falastin newspaper, [e] volunteered to fight for the British. Many served alongside Jewish soldiers. Even 120 Palestinian women joined the Auxiliary Territorial Service. This aspect of history, however, has received less attention, with Israeli sources focusing more on the role of Jewish soldiers. Palestinian sources, on the other hand, were less inclined to celebrate those who cooperated with Britain, given the recent suppression of the Arab Revolt. [66]
Mobilisation
The Jewish Brigade headquarters under the Union Flag and Jewish flag.
On July 3, 1944, Britain approved the formation of a Jewish Brigade within the British Army. The War Office officially announced its creation on September 20, 1944. The brigade was deployed to Italy and fought with the British Eighth Army. Later stationed in Tarvisio, near the border of Italy, Yugoslavia, and Austria, the brigade played a crucial role in the Berihah's efforts to help Jews escape Europe for Palestine. Many veterans of the brigade would later be instrumental in the establishment of the Israel Defense Forces (IDF).
Two platoons from the Palestine Regiment, one Jewish under Brigadier Ernest Benjamin and one Arab, were sent to the Italian Front to participate in the final offensive.
Beyond Jews and Arabs from Palestine, by mid-1944, the British had assembled a diverse force including European Jewish refugees, Yemenite Jews, and Abyssinian Jews. [67]
The Holocaust and Immigration Quotas
The Jewish State ship, one of several Haganah ships carrying Jewish immigrants, mostly illegally, to the Port of Haifa, Mandatory Palestine, 1947. [68]
The White Paper of 1939 significantly curtailed Jewish immigration into Palestine. The Second World War and the Holocaust followed, and once the 15,000 annual quota was exceeded, Jews fleeing Nazi persecution were often interned in camps or deported to places like Mauritius. [69]
Starting in 1939, the clandestine immigration operation known as Aliya Bet, spearheaded by Mossad LeAliyah Bet, began. Tens of thousands of European Jews attempted to reach Palestine in boats and small ships, often ill-fated. The Royal Navy intercepted many, while others met disaster at sea. The Haganah-sponsored bombing of the SS Patria resulted in 267 deaths. Two other ships, the Struma and the Mefküre, were sunk by Soviet submarines. The Struma sank in the Black Sea in February 1942 with nearly 800 lives lost. [70] The Mefküre was torpedoed and machine-gunned in August 1944, killing between 300 and 400 refugees. [71] [72] Illegal immigration resumed after the war, with the Haganah actively involved in bringing in Jewish immigrants between 1945 and 1947. [68]
After the war, 250,000 Jewish refugees remained in displaced persons (DP) camps. Despite international pressure, including repeated pleas from U.S. President Harry S. Truman and recommendations from the Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry to admit 100,000 Jews immediately, Britain maintained its immigration ban. [73]
Beginning of Zionist Insurgency
Jerusalem on VE Day, May 8, 1945.
The Jewish underground movements Lehi (Fighters for the Freedom of Israel) and Irgun (National Military Organisation) launched violent uprisings against the British Mandate in the 1940s. On November 6, 1944, Eliyahu Hakim and Eliyahu Bet Zuri of Lehi assassinated Lord Moyne in Cairo. This assassination is said to have swayed British Prime Minister Winston Churchill against the Zionist cause. Following the assassination, the Haganah, in an operation known as "The Hunting Season", apprehended and handed over many Irgun members to the British. The Jewish Agency Executive took measures against "terrorist organisations." The Irgun, to avoid internal conflict, ordered its members not to resist.
After the Second World War: Insurgency and the Partition Plan
• Main articles: 1947 UN Partition Plan and 1947–1948 Civil War in Mandatory Palestine
The three main Jewish underground forces eventually united to form the Jewish Resistance Movement, carrying out attacks and bombings against the British. In 1946, the Irgun bombed the King David Hotel in Jerusalem, killing 92 people. Subsequently, the British began interning illegal Jewish immigrants in Cyprus. In 1948, Lehi assassinated Count Bernadotte, the UN mediator, in Jerusalem. Yitzhak Shamir, who would later become Prime Minister of Israel, was among the conspirators.
The UN Partition Plan
The negative international attention generated by the situation in Palestine eroded British public support for the Mandate and prompted the United States Congress to delay crucial reconstruction loans to Britain. The British Labour Party, which had promised mass Jewish immigration before its 1945 election victory, reneged on that promise once in power. Anti-British Jewish militancy escalated, requiring the deployment of over 100,000 British troops. Following the Acre Prison Break and the Irgun's retaliatory hanging of British sergeants, Britain announced its intention to terminate the mandate and withdraw by August 1948. [23]
The Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry in 1946 was a joint British-American effort to formulate a policy on Jewish immigration to Palestine. In April, the Committee unanimously recommended the immediate admission of 100,000 Jewish refugees from Europe. Crucially, it also recommended against the establishment of either an Arab or a Jewish state, stating that "in order to dispose, once and for all, of the exclusive claims of Jews and Arabs to Palestine, we regard it as essential that a clear statement of principle should be made that Jew shall not dominate Arab and Arab shall not dominate Jew in Palestine." U.S. President Harry S. Truman angered the British by endorsing the 100,000 refugees but rejecting the committee's other findings. Britain sought U.S. assistance in implementing the recommendations, but the US War Department warned that maintaining order against an Arab revolt would require an open-ended commitment of 300,000 U.S. troops. The immediate admission of 100,000 Jewish immigrants would almost certainly have triggered an Arab uprising. [74]
These factors compelled Britain to announce its intention to terminate the Palestine Mandate and refer the issue to the United Nations, the successor to the League of Nations. The UN established UNSCOP (the UN Special Committee on Palestine) on May 15, 1947, with representatives from 11 nations. UNSCOP's report, issued on August 31, recommended the creation of independent Arab and Jewish states with Jerusalem under international administration (supported by seven members), or a single federal state (supported by three). Australia abstained. [75]
On November 29, 1947, the UN General Assembly, by a vote of 33 to 13 with 10 abstentions, adopted Resolution 181 (II), recommending the Partition Plan with Economic Union. [76] [77] This plan stipulated that the proposed states must guarantee full civil rights to all inhabitants, irrespective of race, religion, or gender. As the UN General Assembly can only make recommendations, Resolution 181 was not legally binding. [78] Both the US and the Soviet Union supported the resolution, with Haiti, Liberia, and the Philippines changing their votes at the last moment under pressure from the US and Zionist organizations. [79] [80] [81] The five Arab League members at the time voted against the Plan.
The Jewish Agency accepted the plan, and much of the Jewish population rejoiced.
The partition plan was rejected by the Palestinian Arab leadership and the majority of the Arab population. [f] [g] The Arab League, meeting in Cairo in November and December 1947, resolved to pursue a military solution.
Britain announced its acceptance of the partition plan but refused to enforce it, citing Arab opposition. They also declined to share administration with the UN Palestine Commission during the transitional period. In September 1947, Britain declared the Mandate would end on May 15, 1948. [84] [85] [86]
Some Jewish organizations also opposed the plan. Irgun leader Menachem Begin declared, "The partition of the Homeland is illegal. It will never be recognized. The signature by institutions and individuals of the partition agreement is invalid. It will not bind the Jewish people. Jerusalem was and will forever be our capital. Eretz Israel will be restored to the people of Israel. All of it. And for ever." [87]
Termination of the Mandate
• See also: End of the British Mandate for Palestine
British troops departing Haifa in 1948.
When the United Kingdom granted independence to the Emirate of Transjordan as the Hashemite Kingdom of Transjordan in 1946, the League of Nations and the General Assembly passed resolutions welcoming the development. [88] The Jewish Agency objected, arguing that Transjordan was an integral part of Palestine and that the Jewish people had a vested interest in its territory under Article 80 of the UN Charter. [89]
During the UN debates on Palestine, proposals emerged to incorporate parts of Transjordan into the planned Jewish state. Days before the adoption of Resolution 181 (II) on November 29, 1947, U.S. Secretary of State Marshall noted references to the desirability of the Jewish State having access to the [Red Sea and the Port of Aqaba]. [90] According to John Snetsinger, Chaim Weizmann told President Truman on November 19, 1947, that the Negev and the Port of Aqaba were essential for the Jewish state. [91] Truman then contacted the U.S. delegation at the UN to express his support for Weizmann's position. [92] However, the Trans-Jordan memorandum explicitly excluded territories of the Emirate of Transjordan from any Jewish settlement. [93]
Immediately following the UN resolution, a civil war erupted between the Arab and Jewish communities, and British authority began to unravel. On December 16, 1947, the Palestine Police Force withdrew from the Tel Aviv area, ceding law and order responsibilities to Jewish police. [94] As the civil war intensified, British forces gradually withdrew, occasionally intervening to secure their evacuation routes. Many areas became battlegrounds. The British maintained a strong presence in Jerusalem and Haifa, even as Jerusalem came under siege and fierce fighting. British authorities proclaimed martial law and enforced truces, primarily to ensure their own withdrawal. The Palestine Police Force was largely defunct, and essential government services ceased. In March 1948, all British judges were recalled. [95] In April 1948, British forces withdrew from most of Haifa, retaining only an enclave in the port area for evacuation and the RAF Ramat David airbase to cover their retreat. The city was quickly captured by the Haganah in the Battle of Haifa. In Jerusalem, British authorities stated they would not oversee local administration but would prevent actions hindering their withdrawal, threatening military courts for any interference. [96] [97] [98] By this point, British authority had largely collapsed across Palestine, with most of the country controlled by Jewish or Arab forces. The British air and sea blockade, however, remained in effect. While Arab volunteers crossed borders to join the fighting, regular Arab armies were prevented from entering.
Britain had informed the UN of its intention to terminate the mandate no later than August 1, 1948. [99] [100] However, in early 1948, the United Kingdom announced its definitive withdrawal date: May 15. In response, President Harry S. Truman proposed UN trusteeship on March 25, stating, "unfortunately, it has become clear that the partition plan cannot be carried out at this time by peaceful means... unless emergency action is taken, there will be no public authority in Palestine on that date capable of preserving law and order. Violence and bloodshed will descend upon the Holy Land. Large-scale fighting among the people of that country will be the inevitable result." The British Parliament passed the Palestine Bill, receiving Royal assent on April 29, 1948, to formalize the termination. [102]
On the day of its proclamation, Eliahu Epstein informed Harry S. Truman that the state had been established "within the frontiers approved by the General Assembly of the United Nations in its Resolution of November 29, 1947." Hoisting of the Yishuv flag in Tel Aviv, January 1, 1948.
By May 14, 1948, the only remaining British forces were in Haifa and Jerusalem. On that day, the British garrison in Jerusalem withdrew, and the last High Commissioner, General Sir Alan Cunningham, departed for Haifa, intending to leave the country by sea. The Jewish leadership, spearheaded by David Ben-Gurion, declared the establishment of a Jewish State in Eretz-Israel, to be known as the State of Israel, [103] on the afternoon of May 14, 1948 (5 Iyar 5708 in the Hebrew calendar), effective at midnight when the Mandate expired. [104] [105] [106] That same day, the Provisional Government of Israel requested U.S. recognition within the frontiers outlined in the UN Partition Plan. [107] The United States promptly recognized "the provisional government as the de facto authority." [108]
At midnight on May 14/15, 1948, the Mandate for Palestine officially ended. The State of Israel came into being. The Palestine Government ceased to exist, British forces became occupiers of foreign territory, the Palestine Police Force was disbanded, its personnel evacuated with the British military. The British blockade of Palestine was lifted, and all "Palestinian citizens" [97] [109] lost their status as British protected persons, their Mandatory Palestine passports rendered void of British protection. The 1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight occurred both before and after the Mandate's termination. [110] [111]
In the following days, approximately 700 Lebanese, 1,876 Syrian, 4,000 Iraqi, and 2,800 Egyptian troops crossed into Palestine, igniting the 1948 Arab–Israeli War. [112] Around 4,500 Transjordanian troops, some led by British officers who had resigned their commissions, entered the area around Jerusalem and moved into zones designated as part of the Arab state by the UN partition plan. [113] The war, lasting until 1949, resulted in Israel controlling approximately 78% of the former Mandate territory. Transjordan annexed the West Bank, and Egypt took control of the Gaza Strip. The last British troops departed Haifa on June 30, 1948, after handing over RAF Ramat David to Israeli forces. The British flag was lowered from the Haifa Port administrative building, replaced by the Israeli flag, in a formal ceremony. [114]
Politics
While the Mandate was officially under British Government Service, the Peel Commission noted its unreliability, understaffing, and over-centralization. Racial antagonism between Jews and Arabs permeated the entire Administration. The Jewish Agency and the Arab Higher Committee effectively functioned as parallel governments, a classic case of imperium in imperio. [115]
Palestinian Arab Community
• Further information: Arab Higher Committee
Front cover
Biographical pages
Passports from the British Mandate era
The San Remo Conference included a clause protecting the rights of non-Jewish communities. The Mandate for Palestine was accepted with the understanding that the Mandatory Power would not infringe upon the rights previously enjoyed by these communities. [116] The mandates for Mesopotamia and Palestine, along with post-war treaties, contained provisions for the protection of religious groups and minorities, invoking the compulsory jurisdiction of the Permanent Court of International Justice for dispute resolution. [117]
Article 62 (LXII) of the Treaty of Berlin, signed July 13, 1878, [118] guaranteed religious freedom and civil and political rights throughout the Ottoman Empire. [119] These guarantees, often referred to as "religious rights" or "minority rights," also prohibited discrimination based on religion in civil and political matters.
The International Court of Justice (ICJ) noted that the Covenant of the League of Nations had provisionally recognized the communities of Palestine as independent nations, with the mandate serving as a transitional phase towards an independent, self-governing state. [120] Judge Higgins articulated that the Palestinian people are entitled to their territory, self-determination, and their own state. [121] The Court also recognized that specific guarantees concerning freedom of movement and access to Holy Sites, originally established in the Treaty of Berlin, were preserved under the Palestine Mandate and the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine. [122]
Historian Rashid Khalidi argues that the Mandate disregarded the political rights of the Arabs. [123] Arab leaders repeatedly urged the British to grant them national and political rights, such as representative government, over the Jewish national and political rights in the remaining 23% of Palestine designated as a Jewish homeland. They invoked President Wilson's Fourteen Points and British wartime promises. However, the British made acceptance of the Mandate terms a prerequisite for any constitutional change for the Arabs. The Palestine Order in Council of 1922, which implemented the Mandate, stated that "No Ordinance shall be passed which shall be in any way repugnant to or inconsistent with the provisions of the Mandate." For the Arabs, this was unacceptable, akin to "self murder." [124] Consequently, the Arabs boycotted the elections to the Council held in 1923, leading to their annulment. [125] Throughout the interwar period, the British consistently rejected the principle of majority rule or any other measure that would grant Arabs control of the government. [126]
The Mandate's terms mandated the establishment of self-governing institutions in both Palestine and Transjordan. In 1947, Ernest Bevin, the Foreign Secretary (United Kingdom), acknowledged that over the preceding twenty-five years, Britain had attempted to advance Jewish aspirations without compromising Arab interests but had failed to "secure the development of self-governing institutions" as required by the Mandate. [127]
Palestinian Arab Leadership and National Aspirations
• Main articles: Palestinian Nationalism and Arab nationalism
A 1930 protest in Jerusalem against the British Mandate by Arab women. The sign reads "No dialogue, no negotiations until termination of the Mandate."
Under the British Mandate, the office of "Mufti of Jerusalem," previously limited in scope, was elevated to "Grand Mufti of Palestine." A Supreme Muslim Council (SMC) was established, managing religious endowments and appointing religious judges and local muftis – functions previously handled by the Ottoman central administration. [128] The British negotiated with the elite rather than the broader population. [129] They appointed Hajj Amin al-Husseini as Grand Mufti, despite his youth and limited support among Jerusalem's Islamic leaders. [130] His rival, Raghib Bey al-Nashashibi, had been appointed Mayor of Jerusalem in 1920, replacing Musa Kazim, removed after the Nabi Musa riots of 1920, [131] where he had urged the crowd to "give their blood for Palestine." [132] The rivalry between al-Husseini and al-Nashashibi dominated Palestinian politics throughout the Mandate. Khalidi suggests that the Palestinian leaders' failure to mobilize mass support stemmed from their elite background, accustomed to unquestioning obedience, rendering the concept of mass mobilization foreign to them. [133]
Regarding the Husseini-Nashashibi rivalry, an editorial in the Arabic newspaper Falastin in the 1920s observed: [134] • The spirit of factionalism has penetrated most levels of society; one can see it among journalists, trainees, and the rank and file. If you ask anyone: who does he support? He will reply with pride, Husseini or Nashasibi, or ... he will start to pour out his wrath against the opposing camp in a most repulsive manner.
Riots and massacres against Jews occurred in 1921 and 1929. Throughout the 1930s, Palestinian Arab discontent over Jewish immigration grew. By the late 1920s and early 1930s, younger factions within Palestinian society grew impatient with the elite's divisions and ineffectiveness, engaging in grassroots anti-British and anti-Zionist activism through groups like the Young Men's Muslim Association. The radical nationalist Independence Party ( Hizb al-Istiqlal ) advocated for a boycott of the British, mirroring the Indian Congress Party. Some turned to armed resistance in the hills against the British and Jews. [Black_Hand_(Palestine)] However, these initiatives were largely suppressed by notables aligned with the Mandatory Administration, particularly the mufti and his cousin Jamal al-Husseini. A six-month general strike in 1936 marked the beginning of the Great Arab Revolt. [135]
Palestinian Arab Journalism
• Main article: History of Palestinian journalism
The Arab Christian-owned Falastin newspaper, on June 18, 1936, published a caricature depicting Zionism as a crocodile protected by a British officer, reassuring Palestinian Arabs: "Don't be afraid!!! I will swallow you peacefully...." [136]
Following the suppression of the Palestinian Arab press during the Ottoman Empire due to World War I, only two major newspapers, Al-Karmil and Falastin, resumed publication during the Mandate. The press diversified, reflecting various political factions and national consciousness. By the mid-1930s, over 250 Arabic newspapers and 65 in other languages circulated in Mandatory Palestine. [137] Twenty newspapers were based in Jerusalem, six in Jaffa, twelve in Haifa, with others in Bethlehem, Gaza, and Tulkarem. [137]
The British adopted the Ottoman Press Law, requiring licensing and government translations, but intervention was rare until the 1929 Palestine riots, which spurred a radicalization of Arab newspapers. The Jaffa-based Al-Difa' (The Defense), established in 1934 and associated with Hizb Al-Istiqlal (The Independence Party), became particularly outspoken. [137] Falastin and Al-Difa' emerged as the leading dailies, their rivalry driving improvements in quality. [138]
Many editors and owners were politically active, using their publications for public mobilization. [139] Initially tolerant, the British authorities soon imposed restrictions. The 1933 Publications Law granted them power to revoke permits, suspend newspapers, and punish journalists. Further regulations tightened press freedom. Major publications like Falastin, Al-Difa', and Al-Liwa were suspended for extended periods between 1937 and 1938. During World War II, emergency laws were enacted, and almost all newspapers were closed, with Falastin and Al-Difa' surviving due to their moderated tone and censored reporting. [140]
Jewish Community
• Further information: Jewish National Council
• See also: History of Zionism and History of Israel
Scenes of Jewish life in Palestine, photographed by Zoltan Kluger and collected by Baruch Charney Vladeck, featured in The Jewish Daily Forward, November 15, 1936.
The British conquest of Ottoman Syria in 1917 revealed a diverse population in the region. Southern Ottoman Syria, known as Palestine, comprised Muslims, Christians, and Jews. The Jewish community, the Yishuv, consisted of ancient communities in cities (the Old Yishuv) and newer agricultural Zionist settlements established since the 1870s (the New Yishuv). Upon the Mandate's establishment, the Zionist Commission was formed to represent Jewish interests.
In 1929, the Jewish Agency for Palestine took over the representative and administrative functions of the Zionist Commission. During the Mandate, the Jewish Agency operated as a quasi-governmental body serving the Yishuv's needs, with leadership elected globally. [142] It facilitated Jewish immigration, land purchases, and strategic planning, while also managing schools, hospitals, and the Haganah. The British offered to create a similar Arab Agency, but this was rejected by Arab leaders. [143]
In response to Arab attacks on Jewish communities, the Haganah, a Jewish paramilitary organization, was formed on June 15, 1920, for defense. Tensions escalated into widespread violence, notably in 1921 (see Jaffa riots), 1929 (marked by attacks on Jews, see 1929 Hebron massacre), and during the 1936–1939 period. From 1936 onwards, groups like Etzel (Irgun) and Lehi (Stern Gang) launched violent campaigns against British and Arab targets.
Jewish Immigration
• Main article: Aliyah
Jewish immigration to Mandatory Palestine from 1920 to 1945.
During the Mandate, the Yishuv's population share grew from one-sixth to nearly one-third. Official records indicate 367,845 Jews and 33,304 non-Jews legally immigrated between 1920 and 1945. [144] An estimated 50,000–60,000 additional Jews, along with a negligible number of Arabs (mostly seasonal), entered illegally. [145] Immigration was the primary driver of Jewish population growth, while the non-Jewish population increased mainly through natural births. [146] In 1939, most Jewish immigrants originated from Germany and Czechoslovakia, but by 1940–1944, Romania and Poland became the primary sources, with an additional 3,530 arriving from Yemen. [147]
Initially, Jewish immigration faced little opposition from Palestinian Arabs. However, as European anti-Semitism intensified in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, immigration surged. Coupled with rising Arab nationalism and anti-Jewish sentiment, this growth fueled Arab resentment. The British imposed immigration quotas, which became increasingly controversial, particularly in the later years of the Mandate, drawing criticism from both Arabs and Jews for different reasons.
Jewish immigrants were to be granted Palestinian citizenship:
• Article 7. The Administration of Palestine shall be responsible for enacting a nationality law. There shall be included in this law provisions framed so as to facilitate the acquisition of Palestinian citizenship by Jews who take up their permanent residence in Palestine. [148]
Alongside Jewish immigration and settlement, Arab rural settlement also expanded significantly. Historical geography studies reveal that Palestinian villagers reclaimed forested areas and marginal lands, establishing new hamlets and intensifying cultivation. [149] [150] [151]
Jewish National Home
In 1919, Nahum Sokolow, general secretary and future president of the Zionist Organisation, published History of Zionism (1600–1819). He also represented the Organisation at the Paris Peace Conference.
• Nahum Sokolow, History of Zionism [152]
A key objective of the British administration was to implement the Balfour Declaration, as stated in the Mandate's preamble:
• Whereas the Principal Allied Powers have also agreed that the Mandatory should be responsible for putting into effect the declaration originally made on November 2nd, 1917, by the Government of His Britannic Majesty, and adopted by the said Powers, in favour of the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people, it being clearly understood that nothing should be done which might prejudice the civil and religious rights of existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine, or the rights and political status enjoyed by Jews in any other country. [153]
The United Nations Special Committee on Palestine noted that the concept of the "Jewish National Home," originating from the Zionist aspirations articulated in the 1897 Basle program, had sparked considerable debate regarding its meaning, scope, and legal standing, lacking any established legal precedent. Both the Balfour Declaration and the Mandate promised a "Jewish National Home" without defining it. A May 3, 1922, statement on "British Policy in Palestine" by the Colonial Office, [154] interpreted the Balfour Declaration narrowly. It stated that the British government did not envision the "disappearance or subordination of the Arabic population, language or customs in Palestine" or the "imposition of Jewish nationality upon the inhabitants of Palestine as a whole." It clarified that the Mandatory Power viewed the Jewish National Home as being founded in Palestine, not that Palestine itself was to become a Jewish National Home. The Committee observed that this restrictive interpretation, made before the Mandate's confirmation by the League of Nations Council, was accepted by the Zionist Organisation's Executive at the time. [155]
In March 1930, Lord Passfield, Secretary of State for the Colonies, submitted a Cabinet Paper [156] stating:
• In the Balfour Declaration there is no suggestion that the Jews should be accorded a special or favoured position in Palestine as compared with the Arab inhabitants of the country, or that the claims of Palestinians to enjoy self-government (subject to the rendering of administrative advice and assistance by a Mandatory as foreshadowed in Article XXII of the Covenant) should be curtailed in order to facilitate the establishment in Palestine of a National Home for the Jewish people." ... Zionist leaders have not concealed and do not conceal their opposition to the grant of any measure of self-government to the people of Palestine either now or for many years to come. Some of them even go so far as to claim that that provision of Article 2 of the Mandate constitutes a bar to compliance with the demand of the Arabs for any measure of self-government. In view of the provisions of Article XXII of the Covenant and of the promises made to the Arabs on several occasions that claim is inadmissible.
The League of Nations Permanent Mandates Commission held that the Mandate imposed a dual obligation. In 1932, the Commission questioned the Mandatory's representative regarding Arab demands for self-governing institutions under Article 2 of the Mandate, noting that "under the terms of the same article, the mandatory Power had long since set up the Jewish National Home." [157]
In 1937, the Peel Commission, a British Royal Commission led by Earl Peel, proposed partitioning Palestine to resolve the Arab-Jewish conflict. The leading Jewish figures, Chaim Weizmann and David Ben-Gurion, persuaded the Zionist Congress to ambiguously approve the Peel recommendations as a basis for further negotiation. [49] [50] [51] [158] The U.S. Consul General in Jerusalem reported that the Mufti had rejected partition outright, while Emir Abdullah advocated for its acceptance, seeking modifications to proposed boundaries and the administration of the neutral enclave. Nashashibi, while avoiding the principle, was open to negotiation. [159]
David Ben-Gurion's private correspondence from 1937 revealed his support for partition as a stepping stone: "I am in favour of partition because I do not see in it a final solution... What we want is not that the country be united and whole, but that the united and whole country be Jewish." He believed a strong Jewish army would enable Zionists to settle the rest of the country, with or without Arab consent. [160] Benny Morris notes that both Weizmann and Ben-Gurion viewed partition as a preliminary step toward eventual expansion and control of all of Palestine. [161] Former Israeli Foreign Minister Schlomo Ben Ami writes that 1937 also saw the formulation of the "Avner Plan" by the "Field Battalions" under Yitzhak Sadeh, anticipating and laying the groundwork for Plan D of 1948, which envisioned conquering territories far beyond the partition proposals, including the Galilee, the West Bank, and Jerusalem. [162]
In 1942, the Biltmore Program was adopted by the World Zionist Organization, demanding "that Palestine be established as a Jewish Commonwealth."
In 1946, an Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry observed that the demand for a Jewish State exceeded the obligations of the Balfour Declaration or the Mandate and had been explicitly disavowed by the Jewish Agency chairman in 1932. [163] The Jewish Agency subsequently rejected the Morrison-Grady Plan as a basis for discussion, with spokesman Eliahu Epstein informing the U.S. State Department that the Agency could not attend the London conference if the Grady-Morrison proposals were on the agenda, as they would compromise the Agency's own partition plan. [164]
Land Ownership
• See also: Jewish land purchase in Palestine
Map of Palestinian land ownership by sub-district (1945), originally published in the Village Statistics, 1945. Palestinian index of villages and settlements, showing land in Jewish possession as of December 31, 1944.
Under British rule, much of Palestine's agricultural land (about one-third of the total territory) remained owned by the same powerful Arab clans and sheikhs from the Ottoman era. Other lands were held by foreign Christian organizations (notably the Greek Orthodox Church), Jewish private and Zionist organizations, and smaller groups of Baháʼís, Samaritans, and Circassians.
As of 1931, the British Mandate of Palestine comprised 26,625,600 dunams (26,625.6 km²), of which 8,252,900 dunams (8,252.9 km²) or 33% were arable. [165] Official statistics from 1945 indicate that Jews privately and collectively owned 1,393,531 dunams (1,393.53 km²), or 5.23% of Palestine's total land. [166] [167] Jewish-owned agricultural land was primarily located in the Galilee and along the coastal plain. Estimates of total land purchased by Jews by May 15, 1948, are complicated by illegal transfers and the lack of data on land concessions after March 31, 1936. By 1947, Jews reportedly held 1,850,000 dunams (1,850 km²), or 6.94% of the total. [168] By May 1948, this figure rose to an estimated 2,000,000 dunams (2,000 km²), representing 7.51% of the total. [169] According to Fischbach, by 1948, Jews and Jewish companies owned 20% of all cultivable land. [170]
Clifford A. Wright estimates that by the Mandate's end in 1948, Jewish farmers cultivated 425,450 dunams, while Palestinian farmers cultivated 5,484,700 dunams. [171] A 1945 UN estimate shows Arab ownership of arable land averaged 68% per district, ranging from 15% in Beersheba to 99% in Ramallah. These figures must be contextualized: in Iraq, as late as 1951, only 0.3% of registered land (or 50% of total land) was classified as 'private property'. [172]
Land ownership by district
The following table presents the 1945 land ownership statistics for Mandatory Palestine by district:
| District | Sub-district | Arab-owned | Jewish-owned | Public / other |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Haifa | Haifa | 42% | 35% | 23% |
| Galilee | Acre | 87% | 3% | 10% |
| Beisan | 44% | 34% | 22% | |
| Nazareth | 52% | 28% | 20% | |
| Safad | 68% | 18% | 14% | |
| Tiberias | 51% | 38% | 11% | |
| Lydda | Jaffa | 47% | 39% | 14% |
| Ramle | 77% | 14% | 9% | |
| Samaria | Jenin | 84% | <1% | 16% |
| Nablus | 87% | <1% | 13% | |
| Tulkarm | 78% | 17% | 5% | |
| Jerusalem | Hebron | 96% | <1% | 4% |
| Jerusalem | 84% | 2% | 14% | |
| Ramallah | 99% | <1% | 1% | |
| Gaza | Beersheba | 15% | <1% | 85% |
| Gaza | 75% | 4% | 21% |
Data from the Land Ownership of Palestine [173]
Land ownership by corporation
The table below details land ownership in Palestine by major Jewish Corporations as of December 31, 1945 (in square kilometers).
| Corporations | Area |
|---|---|
| JNF | 660.10 |
| PICA | 193.70 |
| Palestine Land Development Co. Ltd. | 9.70 |
| Hemnuta Ltd | 16.50 |
| Africa Palestine Investment Co. Ltd. | 9.90 |
| Bayside Land Corporation Ltd. | 8.50 |
| Palestine Kupat Am. Bank Ltd. | 8.40 |
| Total | 906.80 |
Data from the Survey of Palestine (vol. I, p. 245). [174] [175]
Land ownership by type
Land was privately and collectively owned by Jews, Arabs, and others, or belonged to the government domain, which constituted approximately half of Mandatory Palestine. [175] : 257 The Survey of Palestine (1946) classified land as urban, rural built-on, cultivable (farmed), and uncultivable.
| Category | Arab / non-Jewish ownership | Jewish ownership | Total |
|---|---|---|---|
| Urban | 76.66 | 70.11 | 146.77 |
| Rural built-on | 36.85 | 42.33 | 79.18 |
| Cereal (taxable) | 5,503.18 | 814.10 | 6,317.29 |
| Cereal (not taxable) | 900.29 | 51.05 | 951.34 |
| Plantation | 1,079.79 | 95.51 | 1,175.30 |
| Citrus | 145.57 | 141.19 | 286.76 |
| Banana | 2.30 | 1.43 | 3.73 |
| Uncultivable | 16,925.81 | 298.52 | 17,224.33 |
| Total | 24,670.46 | 1,514.25 | 26,184.70 |
Data from Survey of Palestine (vol. II, p. 566). [175] [176] By the end of 1946, Jewish ownership increased to 1624 km². [177] Arab/non-Jewish ownership includes government-owned land.
List of Mandatory Land Laws
Land classification as prescribed in 1940:
• Land Transfer Ordinance of 1920 • 1926 Correction of Land Registers Ordinance • Land Settlement Ordinance of 1928 • Land Transfer Regulations of 1940
In February 1940, the British Mandate government enacted the Land Transfer Regulations, dividing Palestine into three zones with varying restrictions on land sales. Zone "A" (Judean hill country, parts of Jaffa, Gaza, and northern Beersheba) prohibited sales except to Palestinian Arabs without the High Commissioner's permission. Zone "B" (Jezreel Valley, eastern Galilee, parts of the coastal plain, and southern Beersheba) restricted sales by Palestinian Arabs except to other Palestinian Arabs. The "free zone" (Haifa Bay, coastal plain from Zikhron Ya'akov to Yibna, and the Jerusalem vicinity) had no restrictions. The stated reason was to "ensure that the rights and positions of other sections of the population are not prejudiced" and to prevent the creation of a landless Arab population. [178]
Demographics
• Main article: Demographic history of Palestine (region) § British Mandate era
British censuses and estimations
Street scene in As-Salt in the 1920s. Population distribution near the end of the Mandate.
In 1920, the region's approximately 750,000 inhabitants were predominantly Arabic-speaking Muslims, including a Bedouin population (estimated at 103,331 in the 1922 census [2]), concentrated in the Beersheba area and southwards. Jews constituted about 11% of the total population, with smaller groups of Druze, Syrians, Sudanese, Somalis, Circassians, Egyptians, Copts, Greeks, and Hejazi Arabs.
• The first census in 1922 recorded 757,182 people: 78% Muslim, 11% Jewish, and 10% Christian.
• The second census in 1931 counted 1,035,154 people: 73.4% Muslim, 16.9% Jewish, and 8.6% Christian.
Discrepancies between the censuses and vital statistics suggested illegal immigration of approximately 9,000 Jews and 4,000 Arabs during the intervening period. [179]
Arab Christian Palestinian boys at the Jerusalem YMCA, 1938.
No further censuses were conducted, but population statistics were maintained through birth, death, and migration records. By the end of 1936, the total population was approximately 1,300,000, with Jews estimated at 384,000. Arab population growth was also rapid, attributed to the cessation of Ottoman military conscription, the campaign against malaria, and improved health services. While the absolute Arab increase exceeded the Jewish increase, the Jewish proportion of the total population rose from 13% in 1922 to nearly 30% by the end of 1936.
Illegal immigration was an estimated factor. The White Paper of 1939, which restricted Jewish immigration, stated the Jewish population had reached "some 450,000" and was "approaching a third of the entire population." In 1945, a demographic study indicated a population of 1,764,520, comprising 1,061,270 Muslims, 553,600 Jews, 135,550 Christians, and 14,100 others.
| Year | Total | Muslim | Jewish | Christian | Other |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1922 | 752,048 | 589,177 (78%) | 83,790 (11%) | 71,464 (10%) | 7,617 (1%) |
| 1931 | 1,036,339 | 761,922 (74%) | 175,138 (17%) | 89,134 (9%) | 10,145 (1%) |
| 1945 | 1,764,520 | 1,061,270 (60%) | 553,600 (31%) | 135,550 (8%) | 14,100 (1%) |
Average compounded population growth rate per annum, 1922–1945: 3.8% (Total), 2.6% (Muslim), 8.6% (Jewish), 2.8% (Christian), 2.7% (Other).
By district
Map of municipalities in Mandatory Palestine by population count (1945). 150,000 and more 100,000 50,000 20,000 10,000 5,000 2,000 1,000 500 less than 500 Nomadic regions in the Negev desert.
The following table details the religious demographics of the 16 districts in 1945:
| District | Sub-District | Muslim | Jewish | Christian | Total |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Haifa | Haifa | 95,970 (38%) | 119,020 (47%) | 33,710 (13%) | 253,450 |
| Galilee | Acre | 51,130 (69%) | 3,030 (4%) | 11,800 (16%) | 73,600 |
| Beisan | 16,660 (67%) | 7,590 (30%) | 680 (3%) | 24,950 | |
| Nazareth | 30,160 (60%) | 7,980 (16%) | 11,770 (24%) | 49,910 | |
| Safad | 47,310 (83%) | 7,170 (13%) | 1,630 (3%) | 56,970 | |
| Tiberias | 23,940 (58%) | 13,640 (33%) | 2,470 (6%) | 41,470 | |
| Lydda | Jaffa | 95,980 (24%) | 295,160 (72%) | 17,790 (4%) | 409,290 |
| Ramle | 95,590 (71%) | 31,590 (24%) | 5,840 (4%) | 134,030 | |
| Samaria | Jenin | 60,000 (98%) | negligible | 1,210 (2%) | 61,210 |
| Nablus | 92,810 (98%) | negligible | 1,560 (2%) | 94,600 | |
| Tulkarm | 76,460 (82%) | 16,180 (17%) | 380 (1%) | 93,220 | |
| Jerusalem | Hebron | 92,640 (99%) | 300 (<1%) | 170 (<1%) | 93,120 |
| Jerusalem | 104,460 (41%) | 102,520 (40%) | 46,130 (18%) | 253,270 | |
| Ramallah | 40,520 (83%) | negligible | 8,410 (17%) | 48,930 | |
| Gaza | Beersheba | 6,270 (90%) | 510 (7%) | 210 (3%) | 7,000 |
| Gaza | 145,700 (97%) | 3,540 (2%) | 1,300 (1%) | 150,540 | |
| Total | 1,076,780 (58%) | 608,230 (33%) | 145,060 (9%) | 1,845,560 |
Urban areas
The table below shows the population of municipalities in Palestine in 1922, at the start of the Mandate, according to the 1922 census of Palestine. [182]
| Municipality | Muslims | Jews | Christians | Druze | Samaritans | Baha'is | Metawilehs | Hindus | Sikhs | TOTAL |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Jerusalem | 13413 | 33971 | 14699 | 6 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 484 | 5 | 62578 |
| Jaffa | 20699 | 20152 | 6850 | 0 | 8 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 47709 |
| Haifa | 9377 | 6230 | 8863 | 12 | 0 | 152 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 24634 |
| Gaza | 16722 | 54 | 701 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 17480 |
| Hebron | 16074 | 430 | 73 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 16577 |
| Nablus | 15238 | 16 | 544 | 2 | 147 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 15947 |
| Safad | 5431 | 2986 | 343 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 8761 |
| Lydda | 7166 | 11 | 926 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 8103 |
| Nazareth | 2486 | 53 | 4885 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 7424 |
| Ramleh | 5837 | 35 | 1440 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 7312 |
| Tiberias | 2096 | 4427 | 422 | 1 | 0 | 4 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 6950 |
| Bethlehem | 818 | 2 | 5838 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 6658 |
| Acre | 4883 | 78 | 1344 | 13 | 0 | 102 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 6420 |
| Majdal | 5064 | 0 | 33 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 5097 |
| Khan Yunis | 3866 | 1 | 23 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 3890 |
| Tulkarem | 3109 | 23 | 208 | 1 | 8 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 3350 |
| Ramallah | 125 | 7 | 2972 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 3104 |
| Beit Jala | 41 | 0 | 3060 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 3101 |
| Jenin | 2307 | 7 | 108 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 212 | 3 | 2637 |
| Beersheba | 2012 | 98 | 235 | 11 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2356 |
| Shefa-Amr | 623 | 0 | 1263 | 402 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2288 |
| Beisan | 1687 | 41 | 213 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1941 |
| TOTAL | 139074 | 68622 | 55043 | 449 | 163 | 259 | 3 | 696 | 8 | 264317 |
Government and Institutions
Under the August 1922 Palestine Order in Council, the Mandate territory was divided into districts, administered by the British High Commissioner for Palestine. [183]
Britain maintained the millet system of the Ottoman Empire, where religious matters and personal status fell under the jurisdiction of Muslim courts and recognized religious groups, known as confessional communities. The High Commissioner established the Orthodox Rabbinate and a modified millet system recognizing eleven religious communities: Muslims, Jews, and nine Christian denominations (excluding Protestant churches). Those outside these recognized communities were excluded, meaning no inter-confessional marriages or civil marriages were possible. Inter-community relations were minimal.
Beyond religious courts, the judicial system mirrored the British model, featuring a High Court with appellate jurisdiction and review powers over the Central Court and Central Criminal Court. The five successive Chief Justices were:
• Sir Thomas Haycraft (1921–1927) [184] • Sir Michael McDonnell (1927–1936) [184] • Sir Harry Trusted [185] (1936–1941; knighted in 1938), later Chief Justice of the Federated Malay States. • Frederick Gordon-Smith (1941–1944) [186] • Sir William Fitzgerald (1944–1948) [187]
The local newspaper The Palestine Post was founded in 1932 by Gershon Agron, later renamed The Jerusalem Post in 1950. In 1923, Pinhas Rutenberg founded the Palestine Electric Company, which became the Israel Electric Corporation in 1961.
Economy
• Main article: Economy of Mandatory Palestine
• 1927 Mandatory Palestine postage stamp 1941 Mandatory Palestine coin 1927 Mandatory Palestine revenue stamp 1927 Mandatory Palestine coin
"Palestine" is written in English, Arabic ( فلسطين ), and Hebrew, the latter including the acronym א״י for Eretz Yisrael (Land of Israel).
Between 1922 and 1947, the Jewish sector of the economy grew at an annual rate of 13.2%, largely driven by immigration and foreign capital, while the Arab sector grew at 6.5%. Per capita, these figures were 4.8% and 3.6% respectively. By 1936, Jewish earnings were 2.6 times higher than Arab earnings. [188] Palestinian Arabs earned slightly more than Arabs in other countries. [189]
The Jaffa Electric Company was founded in 1923 by Pinhas Rutenberg and later absorbed into the Palestine Electric Corporation. The First Jordan Hydro-Electric Power House opened in 1933. Palestine Airways was established in 1934, Angel Bakeries in 1927, and the Tnuva dairy in 1926. Electricity primarily served Jewish industry, concentrated in Tel Aviv and Haifa. Despite Tel Aviv having more workshops and factories, industrial electricity demand was roughly equal for both cities by the early 1930s. [190]
Haifa was the country's largest industrial hub, with significant housing development for its workforce. [191]
On the UN Human Development Index around 1939, Palestinian Jews ranked 15th out of 36 countries, Palestinian Arabs 30th, Egypt 33rd, and Turkey 35th. [192] In 1942, Jews were predominantly urban (76.2%), while Arabs were mainly rural (68.3%). [193] Khalidi concludes that Palestinian Arab society, though outmatched by the Yishuv, was as developed as any other Arab society in the region, and more so than several. [194]
Education
The British Mandate period saw economic and cultural development. In 1919, the Jewish community established a centralized Hebrew school system. The following year, they founded the Assembly of Representatives, the Jewish National Council, and the Histadrut labor federation. The Technion university was founded in 1924, followed by the Hebrew University of Jerusalem in 1925.
Arab Palestinians made several attempts to establish a higher education institution starting in the 1920s, but these efforts failed. Israeli historian Ilan Pappé attributes this to "Zionist pressure, British anti-Arab racism, and lack of resources," adding that the British authorities' "colonial mentality," viewing Palestinians as a subservient people and Zionist settlers as fellow colonialists, feared such a university would bolster the Palestinian national movement. [195]
In 1932, literacy rates were 86% for Jews and 22% for Palestinian Arabs, though Arab literacy rates steadily improved. [196] These rates were higher than in Egypt and Turkey but lower than in Lebanon.
Gallery
• General Sir Edmund Allenby's final offensive in the Palestine Campaign secured British control of the region.
• General Allenby entering Jerusalem with British troops on December 11, 1917 (Allenby was later promoted to Field Marshal in April 1919).
• Brigadier-General Watson meets with Hussein al-Husayni, the Mayor of Jerusalem, in December 1917.
• The Ottoman surrender of Jerusalem to the British on December 9, 1917, following the Battle of Jerusalem.
• Main post office, Jaffa Road, Jerusalem.
• The Palestine Archaeological Museum (PAM; known since 1967 as the Rockefeller Archaeological Museum), built in Jerusalem during the British Mandate.
• Main post office, Jaffa.
• Alhambra Cinema, Jaffa.
• The Anglo-Palestine Bank.
• The Western Wall, 1933.
• Supreme Military Tribunal of the British Mandate, Kiryat Shmuel, Jerusalem.
• YMCA in Jerusalem, constructed during the British Mandate.
• An entertainment program in Jericho broadcast by the Palestine Broadcasting Service, which produced content in Arabic, Hebrew, and English.
• "Bevingrad" in Jerusalem, Russian Compound, behind barbed wire.
• A Mandate-era pillar box, Jerusalem.
• 1941 currency coin.
• A movement and curfew pass, issued under the authority of the British Military Commander, East Palestine, 1946.
• Palestine maritime ensign.
• Palestine customs and postal services ensign.
• Flag of the High Commissioner.
See also
• Mandatory Palestine passport • Palestinian Citizenship Order 1925 • History of Palestinian journalism • History of agriculture in Palestine • Palestine Command • Palestine pound • High Commissioners for Palestine and Transjordan • Israeli Declaration of Independence • List of post offices in the British Mandate of Palestine • Postage stamps and postal history of Palestine
Notes
• ^ During its existence, the territory was officially known simply as Palestine. However, in later years, various descriptors were used, including Mandatory or Mandate Palestine, the British Mandate of Palestine, and British Palestine (Arabic: فلسطين الانتدابية Filasṭīn al-Intidābiyah; Hebrew: פָּלֶשְׂתִּינָה (א״י) Pāleśtīnā (E.Y.), where "E.Y." signifies ’Eretz Yiśrā’ēl, the Land of Israel).
• ^ Historian Nur Masalha describes the British preoccupation with Palestine and the significant increase in European publications concerning the region during the 18th and 19th centuries. [14]
• ^ From Himmler: "The National Socialist movement of Greater Germany has, since its inception, inscribed upon its flag the fight against the world Jewry. It has therefore followed with particular sympathy the struggle of freedom-loving Arabs, especially in Palestine, against Jewish interlopers. In the recognition of this enemy and of the common struggle against it lies the firm foundation of the natural alliance that exists between the National Socialist Greater Germany and the freedom-loving Muslims of the whole world. In this spirit I am sending you on the anniversary of the infamous Balfour declaration my hearty greetings and wishes for the successful pursuit of your struggle until the final victory." From Ribbentrop: "I am sending my greetings to your eminence and to the participants of the meeting held today in the Reich capital under your chairmanship. Germany is linked to the Arab nation by old ties of friendship, and today we are united more than ever before. The elimination of the so-called Jewish national home and the liberation of all Arab countries from the oppression and exploitation of the Western powers is an unchangeable part of the Great German Reich policy. Let the hour not be far off when the Arab nation will be able to build its future and find unity in full independence."
• ^ For example, Radio Palestine broadcast the comments of an Egyptian writer who stated, "The war is between the lofty and humane values represented by England and the forces of darkness represented by the Nazis." [66]
• ^ A British recruitment poster in Arabic, published in the Falastin newspaper in January 1942, read: "She couldn't stop thinking about contribution and sacrifice, she felt ongoing pride and exaltation of spirit – when she did what she saw as her sacred duty for her nation and its sons. When your country is crying out to you and asking for your service, when your country makes it plain that our Arab men need your love and support, and when your country reminds you of how cruel the enemy is – when your country is calling you, can you stand by and do nothing?" [66]
• ^ p. 50, at 1947 "Haj Amin al-Husseini went one better: he denounced also the minority report, which, in his view, legitimized the Jewish foothold in Palestine, a "partition in disguise", as he put it."; p. 66, at 1946 "The League demanded independence for Palestine as a "unitary" state, with an Arab majority and minority rights for the Jews. The AHC went one better and insisted that the proportion of Jews to Arabs in the unitary state should stand at one to six, meaning that only Jews who lived in Palestine before the British Mandate be eligible for citizenship"; p. 67, at 1947 "The League's Political Committee met in Sofar, Lebanon, on 16–19 September, and urged the Palestine Arabs to fight partition, which it called "aggression", "without mercy". The League promised them, in line with Bludan, assistance "in manpower, money and equipment" should the United Nations endorse partition."; p. 72, at Dec 1947 "The League vowed, in very general language, "to try to stymie the partition plan and prevent the establishment of a Jewish state in Palestine," [82]
• ^ "The Arabs rejected the United Nations Partition Plan so that any comment of theirs did not specifically concern the status of the Arab section of Palestine under partition but rather rejected the scheme in its entirety." [83]