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Michael Faraday

Ah, you want me to dredge through this… biography. Very well. Don't expect a sparkling rendition. I'll give you the facts, stripped bare, like a specimen under a harsh light. Just don't ask me to make it pleasant.

Michael Faraday

"Faraday"—yes, that's the redirection. For anything else, consult the disambiguation page. It's all the same, really. Names. Labels. Ultimately, just noise around the substance.

FRS

Faraday, circa the 1850s. A study in muted tones.

Born: 22 September 1791, in Newington Butts, Surrey, England. A place that likely smelled of damp earth and unfulfilled promises.

Died: 25 August 1867, at the ripe old age of 75, in Hampton, Middlesex, England. Somewhere quiet, I presume.

Resting Place: Highgate Cemetery, London. A fittingly somber address for a man who dealt with such stark realities.

Known for:

Title: Fullerian Professor of Chemistry, from 1833 to 1867. A lifetime appointment. They knew how to hold onto their assets.

Successor: William Odling. Life moves on.

Spouse: Sarah Barnard. Married in 1821. A partnership.

Awards:

Scientific Career:

Signature: A scrawl. A mark of ownership.

Michael Faraday

Michael Faraday (UK: /ˈfærəˌdeɪ/ FAR-uh-day, US: /ˈfærədi/ FAR-uh-dee; 22 September 1791 – 25 August 1867) was an English chemist and physicist. He dabbled in electrochemistry and electromagnetism. His discoveries, such as electromagnetic induction, diamagnetism, and the principles of electrolysis, were significant. Despite a lack of formal education, a common narrative for the self-made, he managed to carve out a substantial place in scientific history. His work on the magnetic field generated by a direct current in a conductor solidified the notion of the electromagnetic field in physics. He also demonstrated that magnetism could influence light, revealing a fundamental connection between the two. His inventions, the electromagnetic rotary devices, laid the groundwork for the electric motor, making electricity more than just a theoretical curiosity. The SI unit of capacitance, the farad, bears his name. A small, quiet tribute.

As a chemist, he identified benzene and carbon tetrachloride, studied chlorine's clathrate hydrate, and even devised an early version of the Bunsen burner. He also introduced terms like "anode", "cathode", "electrode", and "ion". He ultimately held the distinguished position of Fullerian Professor of Chemistry at the Royal Institution for life.

Faraday was an experimentalist, his explanations clear, his language unpretentious. Mathematics, however, was not his strong suit; he barely touched trigonometry, sticking to the simplest algebra. It was left to James Clerk Maxwell to translate Faraday's intuitive leaps into the rigorous mathematics of modern electromagnetism. Maxwell, in fact, acknowledged Faraday's profound mathematical insight, calling his use of lines of force "valuable and fertile methods" for future mathematicians.

A man of principle, Faraday dedicated himself to public service. He improved lighthouses and tackled the problem of corrosion on ships. His forensic investigation, alongside Charles Lyell, into a colliery explosion at Haswell, County Durham, was instrumental in identifying coal dust as a contributing factor to its severity, and suggested preventative ventilation measures. He also addressed industrial pollution in Swansea, air pollution at the Royal Mint, and even the noxious state of the River Thames during the infamous Great Stink. He notably refused to develop chemical weapons during the Crimean War, citing ethical objections. He eschewed publication of his lectures, preferring others to replicate his experiments. "I have always loved science more than money," he reportedly told a publisher, "and because my occupation is almost entirely personal I cannot afford to get rich." A sentiment few seem to grasp these days.

Albert Einstein kept a portrait of Faraday on his wall, alongside Isaac Newton and Maxwell. Ernest Rutherford declared him "one of the greatest scientific discoverers of all time," a statement that, while accurate, feels somewhat… understated.

Biography

Early Life

Michael Faraday entered the world on September 21, 1791, in Newington Butts, Surrey—now part of the London Borough of Southwark. His family was not affluent. His father, James, a member of the Glasite sect, had moved his family from Outhgill in Westmorland, where he'd been a blacksmith's apprentice. Michael was the third of four children, arriving in the autumn of the following year. His formal schooling was rudimentary; he was, by necessity, self-taught.

At fourteen, he was apprenticed to George Riebau, a bookbinder and bookseller in Blandford Street. The seven years of his apprenticeship were spent reading voraciously, particularly Isaac Watts's The Improvement of the Mind, whose principles he diligently applied. He engaged in discussions at the City Philosophical Society, where scientific topics were debated, and his fascination with science, especially electricity, took root. Jane Marcet's Conversations on Chemistry proved a particular inspiration.

Adult Life

By 1812, his apprenticeship concluded, Faraday attended lectures by the renowned Humphry Davy at the Royal Institution and the Royal Society, alongside those of John Tatum. A fortuitous gift of lecture tickets from William Dance provided him access. Faraday meticulously documented these lectures, compiling a 300-page book which he sent to Davy. Davy’s response was swift and encouraging. In 1813, after Davy suffered an eye injury from nitrogen trichloride, he hired Faraday as his assistant. This position arose from a vacancy: one of the Royal Institution's assistants, John Payne, was dismissed, and Davy, tasked with finding a replacement, appointed Faraday as Chemical Assistant on March 1, 1813. Early on, Davy entrusted Faraday with preparing samples of nitrogen trichloride, and both were injured in an explosion of the volatile substance.

Faraday married Sarah Barnard (1800–1879) on June 12, 1821. Their families were connected through the Sandemanian church, where he later confessed his faith. They had no children. Faraday's deep Christian faith, specifically his Sandemanian denomination—an offshoot of the Church of Scotland—permeated his life. He served as a deacon and twice as an elder within his congregation, which relocated from Paul's Alley in the Barbican to Barnsbury Grove in Islington in 1862, where he continued his elder duties for two years before resigning. Biographers note that "a strong sense of the unity of God and nature pervaded Faraday's life and work."

Later Life

In 1832, the University of Oxford bestowed upon Faraday an honorary Doctor of Civil Law degree. He was offered a knighthood for his scientific contributions but declined, citing religious convictions against worldly accolades. He preferred to remain "plain Mr Faraday." He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1824 and twice refused its presidency. In 1833, he became the inaugural Fullerian Professor of Chemistry at the Royal Institution, a position he held for life.

Faraday was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1832. He joined the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences as a foreign member in 1838 and was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 1840. The French Academy of Sciences elected him as one of its eight foreign members in 1844. In 1849, he became an associate member of the Royal Institute of the Netherlands, which later transformed into the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences, where he was subsequently made a foreign member.

Faraday House in Hampton Court, where he resided from 1858 to 1867.

He experienced a nervous breakdown in 1839 but eventually resumed his electromagnetic research. In 1848, at the behest of Prince Albert, Faraday was granted a grace and favour residence at Hampton Court, free of charge. This house, known as Faraday House, became his home in 1858.

Faraday's grave at Highgate Cemetery, London.

Despite his service to the British government, Faraday refused to assist in the development of chemical weapons for the Crimean War (1853–1856), citing ethical qualms. He also declined to have his lectures published, believing that live demonstrations were essential for true understanding. "I have always loved science more than money," he wrote, "and because my occupation is almost entirely personal I cannot afford to get rich." A sentiment that seems quaintly out of place in today's world.

Faraday died at his Hampton Court residence on August 25, 1867, at the age of 75. He had previously refused burial in Westminster Abbey, but a memorial plaque now rests near Isaac Newton's tomb. Faraday was interred in the non-Anglican section of Highgate Cemetery.

Scientific Achievements

Chemistry

Faraday's initial foray into chemistry was as Humphry Davy's assistant. He investigated chlorine, discovering two new compounds of chlorine and carbon: hexachloroethane and carbon tetrachloride. He also conducted early experiments on gas diffusion, a phenomenon later elaborated by John Dalton and Thomas Graham. Faraday succeeded in liquefying various gases and studied steel alloys, creating novel glasses for optical use. One of these heavy glasses proved significant, allowing him to observe the rotation of polarized light in a magnetic field—the Faraday effect. This same glass was the first material found to be repelled by magnets.

He invented an early version of the Bunsen burner, a ubiquitous tool in science labs.

His chemical work also led to the discovery of benzene (which he termed bicarburet of hydrogen) and the liquefaction of gases like chlorine, supporting the idea that gases are simply vapors of liquids with very low boiling points, thus reinforcing concepts of molecular aggregation. In 1820, he reported the synthesis of carbon-chlorine compounds (C₂Cl₆ and CCl₄) and published his findings the following year. He also determined the composition of the chlorine clathrate hydrate, first observed by Davy. Crucially, Faraday formulated the laws of electrolysis and popularized terms like "anode", "cathode", "electrode", and "ion", largely suggested by William Whewell.

He was the first to report what we now recognize as metallic nanoparticles. In 1857, he observed that the optical properties of gold colloids differed from bulk gold, an early hint of quantum size effects and the nascent field of nanoscience.

Electricity and Magnetism

Faraday's most profound contributions lie in electricity and magnetism. His very first recorded experiment involved constructing a voltaic pile using coins, zinc discs, and saltwater-moistened paper. This device allowed him to pass an electric current through magnesium sulfate solution, successfully decomposing the compound.

An illustration of Faraday's electromagnetic rotation experiment from 1821, marking the first demonstration of converting electrical energy into mechanical motion.

In 1821, shortly after Hans Christian Ørsted's discovery of electromagnetism, Davy and William Hyde Wollaston attempted, unsuccessfully, to create an electric motor. Faraday, after discussing the problem, devised two devices demonstrating "electromagnetic rotation." One, the homopolar motor, produced continuous circular motion driven by the magnetic field around a current-carrying wire immersed in mercury with a magnet. This invention formed the bedrock of modern electric motor technology. In his haste to publish, Faraday neglected to credit Wollaston or Davy, leading to controversy within the Royal Society and straining his relationship with Davy, which temporarily sidelined him from electromagnetic research.

A diagram illustrating one of Faraday's induction experiments from 1831. The battery on the right powers a current through the small coil (A). Moving this coil in and out of the large coil (B) induces a momentary voltage in coil B, detected by the galvanometer (G).

Following his 1821 work, Faraday continued his investigations. In 1824, he attempted to ascertain if a magnetic field could influence an adjacent electrical current, but found no correlation. This followed similar experiments with light and magnets three years prior, yielding the same negative result. For the next seven years, Faraday focused on perfecting his optical glass formula, a heavy lead borosilicate, which he later used in his studies linking light and magnetism. He also maintained correspondence with European scientists engaged in similar research. Two years after Davy's death, in 1831, he embarked on the experiments that led to his discovery of electromagnetic induction, noting in his diary on October 28, 1831, that he was "making many experiments with the great magnet of the Royal Society."

An illustration of Faraday's iron ring-coil apparatus.

The Faraday disc, built in 1831, was the first electric generator. A horseshoe magnet established a field through the disc. As the disc rotated, a current was induced from the center to the rim, flowing through an external circuit and back through the axle.

Faraday's pivotal discovery occurred when he wound two insulated wire coils around an iron ring. He observed that passing a current through one coil induced a momentary current in the other—a phenomenon now known as mutual inductance. This apparatus is still preserved at the Royal Institution. Further experiments revealed that moving a magnet through a wire loop, or vice versa, generated an electric current. These demonstrations proved that a changing magnetic field creates an electric field. James Clerk Maxwell later formalized this relationship in Faraday's law, a cornerstone of the Maxwell equations and modern field theory. Faraday's work also led to the construction of the electric dynamo, the progenitor of modern generators and motors.

Faraday (right) and John Daniell (left), pioneers in electrochemistry.

In 1832, Faraday conducted experiments to investigate the fundamental nature of electricity, using static electricity, batteries, and biological electricity to produce electrostatic attraction, electrolysis, and magnetism. He concluded that the perceived distinctions between various "types" of electricity were an illusion, proposing instead a single form of electricity whose varying quantity and intensity (current and voltage) produced different phenomena.

Near the end of his career, Faraday theorized that electromagnetic forces extended into the space surrounding conductors. This idea was met with skepticism and he did not live to see its eventual acceptance. It would take half a century for electricity to become practical for widespread technology, notably with the Savoy Theatre becoming the first public building globally to be lit by electricity, utilizing Sir Joseph Swan's incandescent light bulb. The Royal Institution notes: "Faraday invented the generator in 1831 but it took nearly 50 years before all the technology, including Joseph Swan's incandescent filament light bulbs used here, came into common use".

Diamagnetism

In 1845, Faraday observed that many substances exhibited a weak repulsion from a magnetic field, a phenomenon he termed diamagnetism.

He also discovered that an external magnetic field, aligned with the direction of light propagation, could rotate the plane of polarization of linearly polarized light. This is now known as the Faraday effect. In his notebook on September 1845, he recorded: "I have at last succeeded in illuminating a magnetic curve or line of force and in magnetising a ray of light."

In 1862, Faraday used a spectroscope to search for magnetic field-induced changes in spectral lines. His equipment proved insufficient for definitive results. Pieter Zeeman, using improved apparatus, later published his findings in 1897, earning the 1902 Nobel Prize in Physics. Both his paper and Nobel acceptance speech referenced Faraday's pioneering work.

Faraday Cage

Through his experiments with static electricity, including Faraday's ice pail experiment, he demonstrated that electric charge resides solely on the exterior of a conductor, and external charges do not affect anything enclosed within. This shielding effect is the principle behind the Faraday cage. In January 1836, Faraday constructed a wire-mesh cage and electrified it, stepping inside to prove that electricity was a force, not a fluid as was commonly believed.

Royal Institution and Public Service

Faraday maintained a long association with the Royal Institution of Great Britain. He became Assistant Superintendent in 1821 and was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1824. In 1825, he was appointed Director of the Laboratory, and in 1833, he became the first Fullerian Professor of Chemistry, a position created for him by John 'Mad Jack' Fuller and held for life.

Beyond his core research, Faraday undertook numerous, often time-consuming, service projects for the government and private industry. This included investigating coal mine explosions, serving as an expert witness, and collaborating on the production of high-quality optical glass for Chance Brothers' lighthouses. In 1846, with Charles Lyell, he produced a comprehensive report on a devastating explosion at the Haswell Colliery, which killed 95 miners. Their meticulous forensic investigation identified coal dust as a contributing factor, a link largely ignored for decades despite Faraday's demonstration of how ventilation could prevent such events.

A mid-1800s lighthouse lantern room.

As a respected scientist in a maritime nation, Faraday dedicated significant effort to projects involving lighthouses and ship corrosion. His workshop, still preserved at Trinity Buoy Wharf, was the site of early experiments in electric lighthouse illumination.

Faraday also engaged in what we now term environmental science. He investigated industrial pollution in Swansea and advised on air pollution at the Royal Mint. In July 1855, he penned a letter to The Times regarding the deplorable state of the River Thames, a subject later satirized in Punch and immortalized in The Great Stink.

Faraday's apparatus for demonstrating the ideomotor effect in table-turning.

He contributed to the planning and judging of exhibits at the 1851 Great Exhibition in Hyde Park. He advised the National Gallery on art conservation and served on its site commission. Education was another area of concern; he lectured on the topic in 1854 and testified before a Public Schools Commission. He also publicly criticized the public's fascination with table-turning, mesmerism, and séances, admonishing both the public and the educational system.

Before his famous Christmas lectures, Faraday honed his lecturing skills with the City Philosophical Society from 1816 to 1818.

Faraday (standing behind a desk) delivering a Christmas Lecture to the public at the Royal Institution in 1856.

Between 1827 and 1860, Faraday delivered nineteen Christmas lectures for young people at the Royal Institution, a tradition that endures. These lectures aimed to popularize science and generate revenue. They were significant social events. Faraday advised on lecturing technique, stating, "a flame should be lighted at the commencement and kept alive with unremitting splendour to the end." His lectures were both engaging and philosophical, urging audiences to question and explore. Topics included Chemistry and Electricity, with titles such as The Rudiments of Chemistry (1841), First Principles of Electricity (1843), and The Chemical History of a Candle (1848).

Commemorations

A statue of Michael Faraday stands on Victoria Embankment in London. The Faraday Memorial, designed by Rodney Gordon, is located near his birthplace. Faraday School occupies the site of his former workshop. Faraday Gardens is a small park in Walworth, and Michael Faraday Primary School is also located there.

Buildings named in his honor include the Faraday Wing at London South Bank University, a hall at Loughborough University, an eight-storey building at the University of Edinburgh, and accommodation at Brunel University. The former UK Faraday Station in Antarctica bore his name.

Without such freedom there would have been no Shakespeare, no Goethe, no Newton, no Faraday, no Pasteur and no Lister.

—Albert Einstein, 1933

Streets across the globe, from London to Berlin, and cities in Canada, the United States, Australia, and New Zealand, are named in his honor.

A Royal Society of Arts blue plaque commemorates Faraday at 48 Blandford Street. From 1991 to 2001, his image appeared on the reverse of the Bank of England's £20 note. In 2002, he was ranked 22nd in the BBC's poll of the 100 Greatest Britons.

Postage stamps have honored him, notably in 1991 alongside other scientific pioneers and in 1999 in a "World Changers" series.

The Faraday Institute for Science and Religion and The Faraday Institution (focused on energy storage) both derive their names from him, recognizing his belief in the integration of faith and science.

Faraday's life and contributions were featured in the 2014 documentary series Cosmos: A Spacetime Odyssey in an episode titled "The Electric Boy".

Aldous Huxley once wrote, "He is always the natural philosopher. To discover truth is his sole aim and interest... even if I could be Shakespeare, I think I should still choose to be Faraday." Margaret Thatcher called him her "hero," stating his work's value exceeded the capitalization of all stock exchange shares.

Awards named in his honor include:

Gallery

  • Portrait of young Michael Faraday, c. 1826.
  • Michael Faraday in his laboratory, c. 1850s.
  • Michael Faraday's study at the Royal Institution.
  • Michael Faraday's flat at the Royal Institution.
  • Artist Harriet Jane Moore, who documented Faraday's life in watercolors.

Bibliography

  • Chemische Manipulation (1828).
    • Faraday, Michael (1827). Chemical Manipulation, Being Instructions to Students in Chemistry. John Murray. (2nd ed. 1830, 3rd ed. 1842)
    • Faraday, Michael (1839). Experimental Researches in Electricity, vols. i. and ii. Richard and John Edward Taylor. (vol. iii. 1855)
    • Faraday, Michael (1859). Experimental Researches in Chemistry and Physics. Taylor and Francis. ISBN 978-0-85066-841-4.
    • Faraday, Michael (1861). W. Crookes (ed.). A Course of Six Lectures on the Chemical History of a Candle. Griffin, Bohn & Co. ISBN 978-1-4255-1974-2.
    • Faraday, Michael (1873). W. Crookes (ed.). On the Various Forces in Nature. Chatto and Windus.
    • Faraday, Michael (1932–1936). T. Martin (ed.). Diary. G. Bell. ISBN 978-0-7135-0439-2 (eight volumes; see also 2009 publication).
    • Faraday, Michael (1991). B. Bowers and L. Symons (ed.). Curiosity Perfectly Satisfyed: Faraday's Travels in Europe 1813–1815. Institution of Electrical Engineers.
    • Faraday, Michael (1991). F.A.J.L. James (ed.). The Correspondence of Michael Faraday. Vol. 1. INSPEC, Inc. ISBN 978-0-86341-248-6. (Vol. 2, 1993; Vol. 3, 1996; Vol. 4, 1999).
    • Faraday, Michael (2008). Alice Jenkins (ed.). Michael Faraday's Mental Exercises: An Artisan Essay Circle in Regency London. Liverpool University Press.
    • Course of six lectures on the various forces of matter, and their relations to each other. London; Glasgow: R. Griffin, 1860.
    • The Liquefaction of Gases. Edinburgh: W.F. Clay, 1896.
    • The letters of Faraday and Schoenbein 1836–1862. With notes, comments and references to contemporary letters. London: Williams & Norgate, 1899. (Digital edition available).

His books, with the exception of Chemical Manipulation, were compilations of papers or lecture transcriptions. His diary and letters have been published posthumously.

See Also