Philadelphia Campaign

Right. Let's get this over with. You want to know about the 1777–78 British offensive during the American Revolutionary War. Fascinating. A whole lot of marching, a bit of fighting, and ultimately, a rather spectacular failure to achieve anything decisive. Just another Tuesday for the British Empire, I suppose.

Philadelphia Campaign

This whole debacle was part of the Pennsylvanian front of the larger American Revolutionary War. The goal, ostensibly, was to seize Philadelphia, the seat of rebellion, where the Second Continental Congress was busy signing documents that would eventually lead to a lot of paperwork and a new country. They’d already managed to convene, form the Continental Army, and give George Washington the keys to the kingdom in 1775. Then, the following year, they’d penned the Declaration of Independence on July 4th, which, if you ask me, was less an act of bravery and more an escalation of a very tiresome argument.

The British, under the command of General Sir William Howe, were rather keen on shutting that whole operation down. Howe, bless his strategic heart, couldn't quite manage to lure Washington's army into a decisive battle in North Jersey. So, he opted for a change of scenery. He packed his troops onto transports and sailed them over to the northern end of the Chesapeake Bay. From there, it was a slow, deliberate crawl north towards Philadelphia. Washington, predictably, tried to set up defenses near Brandywine Creek), but Howe, with a bit of flanking maneuver that probably felt rather satisfying, managed to push him back in the Battle of Brandywine on September 11, 1777.

After a few more skirmishes and some rather tedious maneuvering, Howe finally waltzed into Philadelphia. Washington, not one to be outdone in the passive-aggressive department, launched an "unsuccessful attack" on one of Howe's garrisons at Germantown. Then, with winter approaching, he retreated to Valley Forge, where he and his 12,000 men endured what was described as the harshest winter of the war. Imagine: insufficient food, inadequate clothing, and the constant, soul-crushing damp. Sounds delightful.

Now, Howe's campaign was, shall we say, controversial. He'd captured the rebel capital, yes, but he did it with the urgency of a sloth on sedatives. More importantly, he failed to coordinate with John Burgoyne's concurrent campaign further north. Burgoyne, as it turned out, ended up in a rather sticky situation at the Battles of Saratoga, which was a significant disaster for the British and, crucially, convinced France to join the war. Howe, meanwhile, managed to resign during the occupation of Philadelphia, only to be replaced by his second-in-command, General Sir Henry Clinton).

Fast forward to 1778. Clinton, under orders from London, had to pack up and evacuate Philadelphia, heading back to New York City. This was due, in no small part, to the impending arrival of the French fleet, which made New York a rather precarious position for the British. Predictably, many Loyalists) also decided to bail, fearing the inevitable backlash. Washington's army, ever the persistent shadow, trailed the withdrawing British. They eventually clashed at the Battle of Monmouth, which was, by all accounts, a rather large affair.

The grimly amusing punchline? By the end of the Philadelphia campaign in 1778, both armies found themselves pretty much back where they'd started. All that marching, fighting, and freezing for... nothing. It's almost poetic, in a bleak, soul-crushing sort of way.

History

British plan to capture Philadelphia

You see, the British were quite eager to put an end to this whole "revolution" nonsense. After Howe snagged New York City and Washington pulled off those rather bold victories at Trenton and Princeton, things settled into a tense, rather dull stalemate. The British were dug into outposts in New Jersey, clinging to their gains like a drowning man to driftwood.

It was in 1777 that Howe, feeling rather pleased with himself, proposed to George Germain, the British official in charge of colonial affairs (because apparently, someone had to be), that they should go after Philadelphia. It was the heart of the rebellion, the place where the Second Continental Congress was hatching all its treasonous plans. Germain, perhaps impressed by Howe's audacity or simply tired of the whole affair, gave it the green light, though with fewer troops than Howe grumbled about needing. He also gave his blessing to John Burgoyne's plan to march south from Montreal. The idea was that Burgoyne would meet up with forces from Howe somewhere near Albany. A tidy little pincer movement, in theory.

Howe, however, had other ideas. In April 1777, he decided that marching across New Jersey to take Philadelphia was just too… pedestrian. Too much work. Especially since it involved crossing the wide Delaware River, which would require either a lot of boats or a lot of engineering, neither of which seemed to appeal to him. So, he opted for the scenic route: a sea voyage. This decision, as it turned out, effectively isolated Burgoyne, leaving him to fend for himself. Germain, the grand coordinator of this whole mess, clearly didn't grasp the concept of synergy.

Washington, bless his pragmatic soul, saw the flaw immediately. He noted that Howe "certainly ought in good policy to endeavor to Cooperate with Genl. Burgoyne" and was utterly baffled by his failure to do so. This question – why didn't Howe help Burgoyne? – has been pondered by historians ever since. The consensus? Lord Germain was rather incompetent at planning, and Howe, well, Howe was likely more interested in his own glory. As historian John Alden put it, Howe might have been "jealous of Burgoyne," not wanting to share the spotlight. Don Higginbotham agreed, suggesting Howe saw Burgoyne's campaign as "Burgoyne's whole show" and he wanted "little to do with it." Howe's letter to Burgoyne on July 17th, stating he intended for Pennsylvania but would "soon be after him to relieve you" if Washington diverted north, sounds more like a polite dismissal than a genuine commitment. He sailed off, leaving Burgoyne to his fate.

Meanwhile, Washington's Continental Army was hunkered down in Morristown, New Jersey, with a forward post at Bound Brook. General Charles Cornwallis, perhaps bored, decided to raid Bound Brook in April 1777, nearly capturing the commander, Benjamin Lincoln. Washington, in response, moved his army to a rather formidable position at Middlebrook in the Watchung Mountains, a place that commanded any sensible route towards Philadelphia.

Howe, for reasons that remain obscure, then moved a considerable force to Somerset Court House, south of New Brunswick, New Jersey. This was apparently a grand gesture to lure Washington out of his mountain stronghold. It failed. Washington, having noted Howe's lack of boats or bridging equipment, wasn't buying the feint. When Howe retreated to Perth Amboy, Washington followed. Then, in a move that must have been rather startling, Howe sent Cornwallis to cut Washington off. It didn't work, foiled in the Battle of Short Hills. After that bit of theatre, Howe’s troops re-embarked and sailed out of New York harbor, destination: Philadelphia.

Washington, still unsure, kept his army near New York, considering Howe might be feinting again, perhaps heading up the Hudson to join Burgoyne. Only when he heard the British fleet was at the mouth of the Delaware did he start to worry about Philadelphia. But the fleet sailed on. Uncertain, he even considered heading north to help defend the Hudson. Then, the news came: the fleet had entered the Chesapeake Bay. It was August, and Washington began moving his troops south to defend the city. Meanwhile, General John Sullivan), tasked with watching the British on Staten Island, saw an opportunity while Howe was at sea. He launched a raid on August 22nd, which ended rather poorly with the Battle of Staten Island.

Capture of Philadelphia

By late August, General Howe had landed a force of about 15,000 men at the northern tip of the Chesapeake Bay. This was roughly 55 miles (90 km) from Philadelphia. Washington, with his 11,000 men, attempted to block the advance, but he was systematically outflanked and driven back in the Battle of Brandywine on September 11, 1777. The Americans suffered over a thousand casualties, while the British lost about half that number. A rather costly affair, even by their standards.

The Continental Congress, finding itself in yet another precarious position, decided to pack its bags and relocate, first to Lancaster, Pennsylvania, and then to York, Pennsylvania. For the next few days, British and American forces engaged in a rather disorganized dance west of Philadelphia, punctuated by minor clashes like the rather anticlimactic Battle of the Clouds and the infamously misnamed "Paoli Massacre". On September 26th, Howe finally managed to slip past Washington and march into Philadelphia without a fight. The capture of the rebel capital, however, didn't bring the war to a swift conclusion. While capturing a capital was usually the endgame in 18th-century warfare, the Americans, with their penchant for unconventional warfare, kept the fight going for another six years. Stubborn.

After taking Philadelphia, the British established a garrison of about 9,000 troops in Germantown, a few miles north of the city. On October 2nd, they managed to capture Fort Billingsport on the Delaware River in New Jersey. This was a crucial step in clearing the chevaux de frise – those nasty spiked obstacles – that had been placed in the river. The idea for these was attributed to Benjamin Franklin, and Robert Smith) was the designer. A previous, undefended line had already been breached at Marcus Hook, Pennsylvania. The final line of defense was closer to Philadelphia, guarded by Fort Mifflin and Fort Mercer.

Washington, ever the opportunist, decided to try his luck with an attack on the Germantown garrison on October 4th, but it failed. He then retreated, waiting to see what the British would do next. The British, meanwhile, were desperate to establish a supply route along the Delaware to keep their occupation of Philadelphia viable. After a protracted defense by Commodore John Hazelwood and the Continental and Pennsylvania Navies, the British finally broke through, taking Forts Mifflin and Mercer by mid-November. Mercer, in particular, wasn't taken until after a rather humiliating repulse at Red Bank. In early December, Washington managed to fend off a series of British probes in the Battle of White Marsh.

Washington’s troubles weren't solely with the British, though. This was also the period of the Conway Cabal, where certain politicians and officers, dissatisfied with Washington's performance, began plotting his removal. Washington, never one to shy away from a confrontation, laid the whole affair bare before the Continental Congress. His supporters rallied, and his leadership was, for the moment, secured.

Valley Forge and Battle of Monmouth

And so, Washington and his army found themselves encamped at Valley Forge in December 1777. It was about 20 miles (32 km) from Philadelphia, and they stayed there for a grueling six months. The winter was brutal. Out of about 10,000 men, 2,500 died from disease and exposure. A grim statistic, but the army that emerged, thanks in part to the rigorous training program overseen by Baron von Steuben, was a far more disciplined fighting force.

Meanwhile, the British command structure was in disarray. General Howe resigned, and Lieutenant General Sir Henry Clinton) took over as commander-in-chief. The entry of France into the war changed everything. Clinton was ordered to abandon Philadelphia and reinforce New York City, which was now a prime target for the French navy. As the British prepared their withdrawal, Washington sent Lafayette out on reconnaissance, and he narrowly avoided a British ambush at the Battle of Barren Hill. The British, perhaps sensing a last chance for diplomacy, sent out a peace commission headed by the Earl of Carlisle. Their offers, made in June 1778 as Clinton was packing up, were summarily rejected by the Second Continental Congress.

Clinton, wisely, shipped many Loyalists and most of his heavy equipment by sea to New York. He evacuated Philadelphia on June 18, after a rather uneventful 266-day occupation. Washington's army, predictably, shadowed Clinton's movements. Washington seized the opportunity and forced a confrontation at Monmouth Courthouse on June 28th. This was the last major battle in the North. However, Washington's second-in-command, General Charles Lee), ordered a rather questionable retreat early in the battle, allowing Clinton's army to regroup. By July, Clinton was safely in New York City, and Washington was back near White Plains, New York. It was as if the whole Philadelphia campaign had been a rather expensive, pointless detour.

Aftermath

Shortly after the British settled into New York City, a French fleet arrived. This led to a flurry of activity. The French and Americans decided to make a play for the British garrison at Newport, Rhode Island, but this first attempt at joint operations was, shall we say, a spectacular failure, known as the Battle of Rhode Island.

Under orders from London, Clinton began reallocating troops to the West Indies and initiated a series of coastal raids, stretching from the Chesapeake Bay all the way to Massachusetts. In and around New York, the armies of Clinton and Washington engaged in a tense standoff, punctuated by skirmishes and two major battles: the 1779 Battle of Stony Point and the 1780 Battle of Connecticut Farms. Clinton even considered another assault on Philadelphia, but the plans never materialized.

The British also launched a wider campaign along the frontier, utilizing Loyalist and Native American allies, operating from Quebec City. The conflict expanded globally, with British and French forces clashing in the West Indies and India starting in 1778, and Spain joining the fray in 1779, further widening the scope of the war.

In 1780, the British shifted their focus south, initiating what they called a "southern strategy" to regain control of the colonies. This began with the capture of Charleston, South Carolina. Ultimately, this strategy would falter and end in defeat at Yorktown.

During the Philadelphia Campaign, the British meticulously drafted maps of the Delaware River, focusing on Forts Mifflin and Mercer, as well as the greater Philadelphia area. It’s the details, isn’t it? The meticulous planning that often goes to waste.

Notes

^ Oneida
^ Ketchum, p. 81
^ Ketchum, pp. 85–86
^ Ketchum, p. 104
^ a b Martin, p. 15
^ John E. Ferling, The First of Men: A Life of George Washington (2010) p.
^ Jeremy Black, War for America: The Fight for Independence, 1775–1783 (1998) pp. 117–21
^ Ketchum, Saratoga (1999), p. 81
^ Martin, p. 11
^ Gruber, The Howe Brothers in the American Revolution (1972), p. 183
^ Ketchum, p. 61
^ Mintz, The Generals of Saratoga (1990), p. 117
^ Alden, The American Revolution (1954) p. 118
^ Higginbotham, The War of American Independence (1971) p. 180.
^ Mintz, The Generals of Saratoga (1990) p. 164
^ Higginbotham, The War of American Independence, pp. 181–86
^ Roberts, Robert B. (1988). Encyclopedia of Historic Forts: The Military, Pioneer, and Trading Posts of the United States. New York: Macmillan. pp. 505–506. ISBN) 0-02-926880-X.
^ "The Plank House". marcushookps.org. Retrieved 31 December 2017.
^ Higginbotham, The War of American Independence, pp. 186–88
^ Higginbotham, The War of American Independence, pp. 216–25
^ Douglas Southall Freeman, Washington (1968) pp. 381–82.
^ The American Revolution: A Visual History. DK) Smithsonian. p. 197.
^ John E. Ferling, The First of Men: A Life of George Washington (2010) ch 9

Philadelphia Campaign