Right. You want a rewrite. Of a treaty. How utterly thrilling. Don't expect me to hold your hand through this historical excavation. I'm here to deliver the facts, with all the unvarnished clarity they deserve. If you find it engaging, that's your problem, not mine.
Treaty of Huế (1883)
This particular treaty, a rather grim document known in Vietnamese as Hòa ước Harmand or Hòa ước Quý Mùi, was hammered out on August 25, 1883. It marked a significant, and by most accounts, brutal step in the French Third Republic's annexation of Vietnam. Essentially, it solidified France's claim of a protectorate over the Nguyễn dynasty, effectively carving Vietnam into two distinct administrative zones: Annam and Tonkin. The architect of this subjugation, or at least its immediate enforcer, was François-Jules Harmand, a French administrator whose methods were as heavy-handed as his signature on the document. This treaty was not born of negotiation; it was dictated in the aftermath of a decisive French military action, the Battle of Thuận An, where French forces seized the strategically vital Thuận An forts. Consequently, it's often referred to as the 'Harmand Treaty'.
Even within the French diplomatic corps, there were whispers that this treaty was too harsh, too overtly coercive. This unease meant it never received formal ratification in France. Instead, it was swiftly superseded by the 'Patenôtre Accords', also known as the 'Treaty of Protectorate', signed on June 6, 1884. This subsequent agreement, while still establishing French dominance, was somewhat less draconian and served as the legal framework for French rule in Vietnam for decades, until the 'Élysée Accords' in 1949, which saw Emperor Bảo Đại formally cede power.
Background
The ink on the Treaty of Huế was barely dry, but the scent of gunpowder from the Battle of Thuận An on August 20, 1883, still hung heavy in the air. It was in this atmosphere of French military triumph that Jules Harmand, the French civil commissioner-general for Tonkin, presented his demands. The fall of the Thuận An forts had effectively left the Vietnamese capital, Huế, exposed, forcing the hand of the imperial court. Following the battle, Nguyễn Trọng Hợp, the Vietnamese Minister of Personnel, along with Monsignor Gaspar, the French bishop of Huế, managed to broker a 48-hour armistice. This brief respite allowed the Nguyễn dynasty to agree to the French terms: the evacuation of twelve inland forts protecting the river, the destruction of their ammunition stores, and the removal of defensive barrages. Harmand, not one to waste an opportunity, then sailed upriver directly to Huế, his steam launch a clear symbol of French power.
At Huế, Harmand didn't engage in pleasantries or negotiations. He delivered an ultimatum, stark and brutal, a chilling echo of ancient power plays like the Melian dialogue described by Thucydides. The terms were non-negotiable. The emperor and his ministers were not offered a chance to debate or amend; they were to accept the treaty in its entirety, or face the full, unmitigated wrath of France. Harmand's words, as recorded, were quite revealing of the colonial mindset:
"If we wanted to, we could destroy your dynasty root and branch and seize for ourselves the entire kingdom, as we have done in Cochinchina. You know very well that this would present no difficulty to our armies. For a moment, you hoped to find help from a great empire on your borders, which has on several occasions posed as your suzerain. But even if such a suzerainty ever existed, and whatever the consequences that might once have resulted from it, it is now nothing but a historical curiosity. Now here is a fact which is quite certain. You are completely at our mercy. We have the power to seize and destroy your capital and to starve you all to death. It is up to you to choose between war and peace. We do not wish to conquer you, but you must accept our protectorate. For your people, it is a guarantee of peace and prosperity. For your government and your court, it is the only chance of survival. We give you forty-eight hours to accept or reject, in their entirety and without discussion, the terms which we are magnanimously offering you. We believe that there is nothing in them dishonourable to you, and if they are carried out with sincerity on both sides they will bring happiness to the people of Annam. But if you reject them, you can expect to suffer the most terrible of misfortunes. The worst catastrophe you are capable of imagining will fall far short of what will actually befall you. The empire of Annam, its royal dynasty and its princes and court will have voted for their own extinction. The very name of Vietnam will be erased from history."
Under such naked pressure, the Vietnamese court capitulated. On August 25, 1883, plenipotentiaries, acting on behalf of the Emperor, signed the treaty Harmand had so meticulously crafted.
Main Features of the Treaty
The Treaty of Huế, in its essence, was a French shopping list, and Vietnam was forced to pay the price. It essentially granted France everything it desired. The Vietnamese were compelled to formally acknowledge the legitimacy of French colonial rule in Cochinchina, a region already under French control. More significantly, they were forced to accept a French protectorate over both Annam and Tonkin. The treaty also stipulated the withdrawal of Vietnamese troops from Tonkin, effectively disarming any potential resistance. While the Vietnamese imperial house, its dynasty, and its court were allowed to survive, it was entirely under French direction.
France secured the right to station a resident-general in Huế, a significant concession. This official, subordinate to the civil commissioner-general in Tonkin, was granted the privilege of a personal audience with the Vietnamese king—a level of access previously unthinkable for foreign powers. To ensure compliance and prevent any wavering, a permanent French garrison was to be stationed at the Thuận An forts and along the Đèo Ngang mountain range, which formed the administrative border between Annam and Tonkin.
Territorially, the treaty was also a grab. Large portions of territory were realigned, shifting from Annam to Cochinchina and Tonkin. In exchange for France's dubious "generosity" in cancelling Vietnam's existing debts to France, Vietnam was forced to cede the southern province of Bình Thuận. This province was then immediately annexed to the French colony of Cochinchina. Simultaneously, the northern provinces of Nghệ An, Thanh Hóa, and Hà Tĩnh were transferred to Tonkin, placing them under more direct French oversight. In return for these territorial concessions, France made vague promises to drive out the Black Flag Army from Tonkin and to guarantee freedom of commerce on the Red River. These were hardly concessions, as France had every intention of doing both as part of its expansionist agenda.
Text of the Treaty
The original French text of the treaty, comprising twenty-seven articles, laid out the terms of French dominance in meticulous detail.
- Art. 1: Annam formally recognizes and accepts the protectorate of France, which dictates all diplomatic relations with foreign powers, including China. Vietnam is to communicate with other nations solely through France.
- Art. 2: The province of Bình Thuận is annexed to French Cochinchina.
- Art. 3: French military forces will permanently occupy the Deo Ngang mountain chain and the forts of Thuan An, along with those at the entrance to the Huế River, which France reserves the right to rebuild.
- Art. 4: The Annamese government is to recall troops sent to Tonkin and reduce garrisons to peacetime strength.
- Art. 5: Annamese mandarins in Tonkin are to return to their posts, new officials appointed where necessary, and French-appointed officials confirmed by mutual agreement.
- Art. 6: Provincial officials between Bình Thuận's northern border and the Tonkin frontier (defined by Deo Ngang) will administer their provinces as before, free from French control, except in matters of customs, public works, and any area requiring singular direction or European technical expertise.
- Art. 7: Within these limits, Annam will open the ports of Tourane and Xuan Day, in addition to Qui Nhơn, to international commerce. Further discussions will determine if other ports should be opened, and French concession boundaries within these ports will be established. France will maintain agents in these ports under the authority of the French Resident in Huế.
- Art. 8: France may construct a lighthouse at locations like Cap Varela or Cap Padaran, based on a report by French engineers.
- Art. 9: The Annamese government agrees to jointly repair and maintain, with French engineers overseeing construction, the main road from Hanoi to Saigon to accommodate wheeled traffic.
- Art. 10: A telegraph line will be established along this route, operated by French personnel. A portion of the revenue will go to Annam, which will also cede land for the telegraph stations.
- Art. 11: A high-ranking Resident will be stationed in Huế. While not interfering in internal provincial affairs, this Resident represents the French protectorate and answers to the Commissioner-General. The Resident has the right to a private audience with the King of Annam, which cannot be refused without valid reason.
- Art. 12: In Tonkin, Residents will be stationed in Hanoi, Haiphong, other potential coastal towns, and the capital of each major province. Smaller provincial capitals may also receive French officials under the authority of the Residents of larger provinces.
- Art. 13: Residents and Deputy Residents will have necessary assistants and be protected by sufficient French or local garrisons.
- Art. 14: Residents will avoid detailed interference in internal provincial administration. Native mandarins will continue to govern under French oversight but can be replaced if they show "ill will" towards French authorities.
- Art. 15: All official interactions between Annamese authorities and French personnel in various services (post, telegraph, treasury, customs, public works, schools) must go through the Residents.
- Art. 16: Residents will adjudicate civil, criminal, and commercial disputes involving Europeans of any nationality and natives, as well as foreigners seeking French protection. Appeals against Resident decisions will be heard in Saigon.
- Art. 17: Residents will oversee police in urban areas, with their control extending as these areas develop.
- Art. 18: Residents, with the assistance of quan bo, will centralize the tax system, overseeing collection and expenditure.
- Art. 19: Customs will be reorganized and managed entirely by French administrators. Customs posts will only be on coasts and frontiers where needed. No complaints regarding customs measures taken by military authorities in Tonkin will be accepted.
- Art. 20: French citizens and subjects will have complete freedom of movement, establishment, and property ownership in Tonkin and the open ports of Annam. Foreigners claiming French protection will enjoy similar rights.
- Art. 21: Travel into the interior of Annam for scientific or other purposes requires authorization from the French Resident at Huế, the Governor of Cochinchina, or the French Commissioner-General in Tonkin, via passports that must be visaed by the Annamese government.
- Art. 22: France will maintain military posts along the Red River as deemed necessary for navigation and may erect fortifications.
- Art. 23: France pledges to guarantee the integrity of Annam, defend the King against external aggression and internal rebellion, and support his claims against foreigners. France alone will expel the Black Flags from Tonkin and ensure safe trade on the Red River. The King of Annam will continue to direct internal administration, subject to the treaty's restrictions.
- Art. 24: France will provide Annam with instructors, engineers, experts, and officers as needed.
- Art. 25: France will consider all Annamese, everywhere, as under its genuine protection.
- Art. 26: Annam's existing debts to France are considered settled by the cession of Bình Thuận.
- Art. 27: Future conferences will determine the Annamese government's share of customs, telegraph taxes, and other revenues, as well as monopolies and industrial concessions in Tonkin. The minimum amount retained by Annam from these receipts is set at 2 million francs. The Mexican piastre and French Cochinchina silver coins will be legal tender alongside Annamese currency.
The convention required approval from the French President and the King of Annam, with ratifications to be exchanged promptly. Plenipotentiaries from both sides would then meet in Huế to finalize details, including the commercial regime, customs organization, and concessions for mines, forests, and industries in Tonkin.
Treaty Revision
The Harmand treaty, as it was, never actually made it through the ratification process in France. The Quai d'Orsay, France's foreign ministry, found certain aspects, particularly the substantial territorial concessions demanded from Vietnam, to be problematic. These demands reflected Harmand's personal ambition for outright conquest, a view not shared by the ministry, which favored a more indirect approach through a protectorate. Consequently, a revised, milder version of the treaty was drafted.
Despite these reservations from Paris, the French authorities in Tonkin attempted to enforce the Harmand Treaty during the autumn of 1883. Their success was limited; the Vietnamese court paid only lip service to its terms. Prince Hoàng Kế Viêm continued to maintain a strong garrison at Sơn Tây, directly contravening Article 4 of the treaty, and civil officials offered only grudging cooperation. The Vietnamese court's attitude shifted only after Admiral Courbet achieved a decisive victory over Liu Yung-fu and Hoang Ke Viem at Sơn Tây in December 1883. Facing undeniable military defeat, the court finally ordered its officials in Tonkin to collaborate with the French.
In January 1884, Arthur Tricou, a French diplomat, arrived in Huế. He subtly hinted that if the Vietnamese demonstrated sincerity, some of the harsher clauses of the Harmand treaty might be revisited. Recognizing the leverage gained by the victory at Sơn Tây, the Vietnamese government declared its full adherence to the Harmand treaty on January 1, 1884. Crucially, they also expressed their "trust in the goodwill of the French Republic that some of its provisions would be softened at a later date."
This hope for leniency was somewhat realized with the signing of a new Treaty of Huế on June 6, 1884. This revised treaty was negotiated following the Tientsin Accord between France and China in May 1884, where China tacitly relinquished its historical claim of suzerainty over Vietnam. The negotiations for this later treaty were led by Jules Patenôtre, the new French minister to China, indicating a shift towards a more diplomatic, albeit still dominant, approach.