Turpentine

Contents

1. Overview
2. Etymology
3. Cultural Impact

Right, you want to delve into the rather uninspiring existence of turpentine . Fine. But don’t expect me to make it pleasant. This is merely a conveyance of facts, not a performance.

Liquid distilled from pine resin

Yes, this article, to be excruciatingly clear, is about the refined oil of turpentine . If your rudimentary understanding of nomenclature leads you to the cruder, unrefined stuff, you’ll find that particular sticky mess under oleoresin . And for those who insist on complicating matters, there’s always the turpentine (disambiguation) page, where you can sift through the various ways humans have managed to confuse themselves with a single word.

Turpentine distilled at the Georgia Museum of Agriculture & Historic Village as it was done circa 1900 The laborious process of turpentine distillation as it might have appeared around 1900 at the Georgia Museum of Agriculture & Historic Village . A testament to how much effort humans once expended for such a substance.

Identifiers

For those who crave numerical precision, or perhaps just enjoy cataloging the universe, here are the bureaucratic designations for this particular chemical entity:

CAS Number : 9005-90-7
ECHA InfoCard : 100.029.407
EC Number : 232-688-5
PubChem CID: 48418114
UNII : XJ6RUH0O4G
CompTox Dashboard (EPA): DTXSID6027680

Properties [1]

A rather straightforward profile, if you ask me. Nothing particularly surprising here for a liquid derived from pine resin .

Chemical formula : C 10 H 16 — A relatively simple arrangement of carbon and hydrogen , forming the basis of its terpene nature.
Molar mass : 136.238 g·mol −1 — A precise measure, for those who value such things.
Appearance: Viscous liquid — Not exactly a visual spectacle, is it? It pours with a certain reluctant thickness.
Odor : Resinous — Unsurprisingly, it smells like what it is: concentrated tree sap . Distinctive, some might say, though “distinctive” rarely equates to “pleasant” in human olfactory terms.
Melting point : −55 °C (−67 °F; 218 K) — It requires a significant chill to solidify, which is useful, I suppose, if you’re working in a particularly frigid environment and need your solvent to remain liquid.
Boiling point : 154 °C (309 °F; 427 K) — A moderate boiling point, allowing for its distillation from less volatile components.
Solubility in water : 20 mg/L — Barely soluble. It prefers to keep its own company, much like myself, rather than dilute itself in a vast ocean of water .

Hazards

And here we arrive at the more interesting details. Humans, ever so eager to interact with things that might cause them harm.

NFPA 704 (fire diamond):
- 1 (Health): Minimal hazard under normal conditions, but capable of causing irritation.
- 3 (Flammability): Highly flammable. A rather obvious characteristic for a substance used as a fuel, wouldn’t you agree?
- 0 (Instability): Stable. It won’t spontaneously combust, at least not without some encouragement.
Flash point : 35 °C (95 °F; 308 K) — Not exactly difficult to ignite. Keep it away from open flames, unless you enjoy unscheduled pyrotechnics.
Autoignition temperature : 220 [1] °C (428 °F; 493 K) — It will eventually ignite on its own if heated sufficiently, another testament to its enthusiastic combustibility.

Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa).

Infobox references

Chemical compound

Turpentine , burdened by an excessive number of aliases—including spirit of turpentine , oil of turpentine , terebenthine, terebenthene, terebinthine, and the utterly common “turps” [2]—is, at its core, a fluid obtained through the rather insistent process of distillation . This extraction targets the resin that living trees , predominantly various species of pine , exude. Its primary function, for those who still find practical applications for such things, is as a specialized solvent . Beyond merely dissolving substances, it also begrudgingly offers itself as a foundational material for various intricate organic syntheses .

The chemical composition of turpentine is dominated by terpenes , those fascinating organic compounds derived from isoprene units. Specifically, it’s primarily composed of the monoterpenes α-pinene and β-pinene . Lesser, yet still significant, quantities of other terpenes are also present, including carene , camphene , limonene , and terpinolene [3]. This blend of terpenes is what gives turpentine its characteristic odor and solvent properties.

In a twist of industrial convenience, turpentine is now rarely the direct product of harvesting and distilling pine resin . Instead, it has largely become a byproduct, an ancillary offering, of the pulping industry. Pulping itself is achieved predominantly through two distinct industrial processes: the Kraft process (also known as the sulfate process) and the sulfite process . It’s worth noting that the turpentines yielded by these two methods are not identical; their chemical compositions diverge. The sulfite process typically produces a turpentine that is notably rich in cymene , while the more prevalent Kraft process yields a product that retains its historical richness in pinene [4].

For those seeking alternatives, perhaps due to cost or a preference for less natural, more synthetic compounds, substitutes exist. The most common among these are white spirit and other petroleum distillates [5]. However, one should be clear: while they may serve similar functional purposes as solvents , their underlying chemical constituents are vastly different. Expecting the same properties from chemically distinct substances is, frankly, a fool’s errand.

Etymology

The journey of the word “turpentine ” itself is a rather convoluted one, tracing its lineage (via French and Latin ) back to the venerable Greek language . Specifically, it stems from the Greek word τερεβινθίνη, which translates to terebinthine in English [6]. This, in turn, is the feminine form (a grammatical quirk to align with the feminine gender of the Greek word for ‘resin’) of an adjective (τερεβίνθινος) derived from the Greek noun τερέβινθος, which refers to the terebinth tree [6]. A rather circuitous route for a simple word, wouldn’t you agree? Humans and their languages, always overcomplicating things.

Initially, the term referred quite literally to the resinous exudate—the sticky, aromatic goo—produced by terebinth trees . Examples of this original usage include Chios turpentine , Cyprus turpentine , and Persian turpentine [7] [8]. However, as is often the case with human terminology, its meaning broadened and shifted over time. Today, the word “turpentine ” almost exclusively refers to the resin from coniferous trees—primarily pines —which is known as crude turpentine (for instance, Venice turpentine is the oleoresin of the larch ) [9]. More commonly still, it refers to the volatile oil fraction of this crude turpentine , specifically the oil (spirit) of turpentine [10]. The latter usage is, by far, the dominant understanding today, leaving the original terebinth -derived meaning largely to the dusty annals of etymological history.

Source trees

Herty system in use on turpentine trees in Northern Florida, circa 1936 The “Herty system ” being employed on turpentine trees in Northern Florida, circa 1936. A method designed to maximize yield, demonstrating humanity’s relentless pursuit of resources.

Chipping a turpentine tree in Georgia (US), circa 1906–20 A worker “chipping” a turpentine tree in Georgia (US), sometime between 1906 and 1920. A rather crude method, but effective, if you don’t mind scarring the landscape.

Cat face on a pine tree The distinctive “Cat face” scar on a pine tree , a visible testament to past turpentine harvesting. A permanent mark of human industry.

Turpentine distillery at Manlyn, North Carolina A turpentine distillery operating at Manlyn, North Carolina. The industrial scale of extraction, turning forest bounty into commercial product.

The primary botanical sources, the unfortunate species designated by humans to yield this particular fluid, are various types of pine . These include, but are not limited to, the maritime pine (Pinus pinaster ), the Aleppo pine (Pinus halepensis ), Masson’s pine (Pinus massoniana ), the Sumatran pine (Pinus merkusii ), the longleaf pine (Pinus palustris), the loblolly pine (Pinus taeda ), the slash pine (Pinus elliottii ), and the ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa ). These species, spread across various continents, have all been tapped, quite literally, for their valuable resin content, forming the backbone of historical turpentine production.

Converting crude turpentine to oil of turpentine

See also: Rosin § Purification

The journey from the raw, sticky crude turpentine collected directly from the trees to the refined oil of turpentine involves a rather straightforward, if somewhat archaic, process. Typically, this crude material is subjected to steam distillation within a copper still [11]. During this process, the more volatile components—the very essence of turpentine —are vaporized, then condensed and collected, leaving behind the less volatile , solid residue. This residue, once the turpentine has been meticulously distilled out, remains in the still bottoms as molten rosin [11]. The resulting turpentine from this specific method of extraction is often referred to as “gum turpentine ” [12]. However, a word of caution: the term “gum turpentine ” can also, confusingly, be used to refer to the initial crude turpentine itself, a linguistic imprecision that, frankly, serves no one [12].

Alternatively, turpentine can be obtained through the more aggressive method of destructive distillation of pine wood [3]. This involves heating the wood, often in the form of shredded pine stumps , roots, or logging slash, in the absence of oxygen , forcing it to break down into various components. From this process, the desired turpentine is then extracted using the lighter fraction of heavy naphtha from an oil refinery , specifically the portion boiling between 90 and 115 °C (195 and 240 °F) [13]. To maximize efficiency and yield, a multi-stage counter-current extraction system is commonly employed. In this sophisticated setup, fresh naphtha is first brought into contact with wood that has already undergone some leaching in previous stages. Conversely, naphtha already laden with turpentine from earlier stages is directed towards fresh wood , ensuring optimal saturation. Following this extraction, vacuum distillation is utilized to meticulously recover the naphtha from the turpentine [13]. Even after this, the leached wood isn’t simply discarded; it’s often steamed to recover any residual naphtha before being burned for energy recovery [13]. This turpentine derived from wood is distinctly known as “wood turpentine .”

Sulfate turpentine

In the grand scheme of industrial efficiency, or perhaps just a pragmatic approach to waste, sulfate turpentine emerges as a notable byproduct. When the chemical wood pulp is produced from pines or other coniferous trees using the Kraft process —a method that, despite its somewhat aggressive nature, is remarkably effective—sulfate turpentine can be condensed from the gases generated within the pulp digesters [14]. The average yield of this crude sulfate turpentine is typically in the range of 5–10 kg per tonne of pulp produced [14].

While a valuable resource, sulfate turpentine isn’t always ready for immediate deployment. Unless it’s destined to be burned directly at the mill for energy production —a rather ignominious end for a chemical compound—it often necessitates further treatment. This additional processing is crucial for removing trace amounts of sulfur compounds [15]. These sulfur impurities, if left unchecked, can impart undesirable odors and affect the quality of the turpentine for subsequent applications. It’s a testament to the persistent nature of byproducts: even after being extracted, they often demand further attention before becoming truly useful.

Uses

Humans, ever resourceful in their pursuit of utility, have found a rather diverse, if sometimes questionable, array of applications for turpentine .

Solvent

As a solvent , turpentine has traditionally been employed for thinning oil-based paints , allowing for easier application and manipulation of pigments. It also plays a crucial role in the production of various varnishes , lending them their characteristic flow and finish. Beyond these more artistic and decorative applications, it serves as a fundamental raw material within the broader chemical industry , a starting point for more complex syntheses.

However, in the relentless march of industrialized nations towards cost-efficiency, its reign as a dominant solvent has largely been usurped. Cheaper turpentine substitutes , derived from petroleum —such as the ubiquitous white spirit —have stepped in to fill the void [5]. Humans, it seems, will always prioritize the bottom line, even if it means sacrificing the unique properties of a natural product for a synthetic alternative. On a more domestic front, a solution of turpentine mixed with either beeswax or carnauba wax has long been a favored formulation for furniture waxes, offering both protection and a degree of shine. A quaint, if rather sticky, tradition.

Lighting

In a bygone era, specifically from the 1830s through the 1860s, a refined form of turpentine known as camphine (or spirits of turpentine ) found a rather flammable application: it was burned in lamps, typically those equipped with glass chimneys, to produce illumination [16]. For those who desired a slightly different, perhaps more potent, fuel, turpentine was blended with grain alcohol to create what was then known as “burning fluid” [17]. Both camphine and this “burning fluid” served as common domestic lamp fuels, gradually displacing the once-dominant whale oil as a source of light [17]. Their prominence, however, was fleeting, as they were eventually, and quite decisively, superseded by the advent of kerosene , the broader implementation of gas lighting , and, ultimately, the transformative power of electric lights [17]. A brief moment in the sun, one might say, for a rather pungent illuminant.

Source of organic compounds

Beyond its role as a solvent , turpentine also functions as a surprisingly rich source of raw materials for the synthesis of various fragrant chemical compounds . A rather ironic twist, considering its own often-overpowering aroma. Commercially significant compounds such as camphor , linalool , alpha-terpineol , and geraniol —all highly valued for their distinctive scents and industrial applications—are typically derived from the alpha-pinene and beta-pinene components of turpentine [3]. These pinenes , being the chief chemical constituents, are meticulously separated and purified through careful distillation processes. What remains after this selective extraction—a mixture primarily composed of diterpenes and triterpenes —is not wasted. This residue is then marketed and utilized as rosin , proving that even the leftovers of turpentine production possess their own distinct commercial value.

Niche uses

Ah, the “niche uses.” Where humans get truly creative, or perhaps just desperate, with their applications.

Given its inherent nature as a pine pitch thinner, turpentine proves remarkably effective at removing stubborn pitch from clothing. Other common solvents often fall short in this specific task, highlighting turpentine’s targeted efficacy.
Turpentine finds its way into numerous cleaning and sanitary products, not just for its solvent capabilities, but due to its recognized antiseptic properties and, rather subjectively, its “clean scent.” A scent that, to some, might simply evoke memories of industrial cleaning, but to each their own.
As previously noted, in early 19th-century America, spirits of turpentine (known as camphine ) were a cheap alternative to whale oil for lamps [16]. It provided a bright light, certainly, but came with the rather significant drawback of a potent, lingering odor. Camphine and burning fluid (a mixture of alcohol and turpentine ) served as the dominant lamp fuels, briefly, replacing whale oil until the inevitable arrival of kerosene , electric lights , and gas lighting [17]. Progress, as always, marches on.
In a rather fascinating historical footnote, the first Honda motorcycles, manufactured in 1946 amidst the scarcity following World War II in Japan, were powered by a blend of gasoline and turpentine [18]. A testament to necessity breeding unconventional fuel solutions. Similarly, the French Emeraude rocket utilized a comparable fuel mixture [19]. More recently, turpentine has even been explored as a potential biofuel component for blending into gasoline [20] [21], demonstrating a cyclical interest in this ancient substance.
The esteemed veterinarian and author James Herriot , in his book If Only They Could Talk , recounts a rather theatrical use of turpentine . He describes its reaction with resublimed iodine to “drive the iodine into the tissue” [22]. Or, as one might cynically observe, perhaps just to impress the watching customer with a spectacular, dense cloud of purple smoke [22]. A touch of showmanship in veterinary medicine, it seems.

Safety and health considerations

The NFPA 704 safety square for turpentine . Pay attention, or don’t. It’s your central nervous system at stake, not mine.

1 (Health): Minimal hazard under normal conditions, but capable of causing irritation.
3 (Flammability): Highly flammable.
0 (Instability): Stable.

Let’s be clear: turpentine is not something to be trifled with. It is, to put it mildly, highly flammable. So much so, in fact, that it has genuinely been considered as an automotive fuel. A rather spirited, if dangerous, choice.

Perhaps one of the most egregious historical misuses of turpentine occurred during the infamous Gin Craze in 18th-century Britain. During this period of rampant gin consumption, turpentine was extensively, and quite irresponsibly, added to the spirit [23]. A charming addition, I’m sure, for those who enjoyed chemical burns with their libations.

The dangers of turpentine extend far beyond its flammability. Its vapor alone is a significant irritant, capable of causing discomfort to the skin and eyes . Inhaling these vapors can lead to damage to the delicate tissues of the lungs and the broader respiratory system , as well as insidious harm to the central nervous system [24]. Should one be foolish enough to ingest it, the consequences are even more severe. Ingestion can induce immediate, excruciating burning sensations, intense abdominal pain , nausea , and violent vomiting [25]. Furthermore, it can lead to mental confusion, frightening convulsions , debilitating diarrhea , a dangerously elevated heart rate (tachycardia ), unconsciousness, and even outright respiratory failure [25]. To top it all off, it is a known culprit in causing chemical pneumonia [25]. A truly comprehensive list of ways to make oneself miserable, wouldn’t you agree?

Recognizing these hazards, regulatory bodies have established guidelines for its handling. The US Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has stipulated a legal limit, known as the permissible exposure limit , for turpentine exposure in the workplace. This limit is set at 100 ppm (equivalent to 560 mg/m³) over an 8-hour workday. This exact threshold was also adopted by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) as their recommended exposure limit (REL) [26]. However, it’s critical to note that at concentrations of 800 ppm (or 4480 mg/m³), turpentine is deemed immediately dangerous to life and health [26]. So, perhaps exercise a modicum of caution, if self-preservation is a concept you’re familiar with.

Folk medicine

Ah, folk medicine . That delightful realm where desperate humans, lacking scientific understanding, experimented with whatever substances were at hand. Turpentine , along with other petroleum distillates like coal oil and kerosene , was once a common fixture in this arena [27]. It was applied to abrasions and wounds, presumably for its purported antiseptic qualities, and even used as a rather aggressive treatment for lice [27]. When combined with animal fat , it transformed into a chest rub or an inhalant, intended to alleviate nasal and throat ailments [28]. Curiously, some modern chest rubs , such as Vicks VapoRub , still contain turpentine in their formulations, though it is no longer listed as an active ingredient [29]. A lingering ghost of past medical practices, perhaps.

Perhaps even more alarmingly, turpentine , which we now understand to be unequivocally dangerous for consumption, was a surprisingly common medicine among seamen during the expansive Age of Discovery [30]. It was, in fact, one of the many provisions carried aboard Ferdinand Magellan ’s fleet during their audacious first circumnavigation of the globe [30]. Taken internally—a decision one can only describe as profoundly misguided—it was used as a supposed treatment for intestinal parasites [31]. This practice, as should be glaringly obvious, was exceedingly dangerous due to the inherent toxicity of the chemical [32]. One can only imagine the additional suffering endured in the name of “cure.”

And then, there are turpentine enemas . A truly harsh purgative, formerly employed for cases of stubborn constipation or severe fecal impaction [33]. As if the internal consumption wasn’t enough, humans found another, even more invasive, route for this toxic substance. In a darker historical note, these same enemas were, with chilling brutality, administered punitively to political dissenters in post-independence Argentina [34]. A stark reminder that the applications of substances, however benign their initial intent, can quickly descend into cruelty.