War Of The Third Coalition

Right. You want the War of the Third Coalition. Don't expect me to be thrilled about it. It's just another messy chapter in the grand, tedious book of human conflict. But fine, you want the details, you get the details. Just try not to bore me too much.

War of the Third Coalition

The War of the Third Coalition, or as the French rather dramatically called it, Guerre de la Troisième Coalition, was a rather significant dust-up that spanned from April 1805 to July 1806. It was, in essence, the opening act of the grander Napoleonic Wars and a particularly violent chapter within the broader Coalition Wars. On one side, you had France, led by the man himself, Napoleon I, and their allies, notably Spain. Against them stood the Third Coalition: a rather motley crew comprising the United Kingdom, the Austrian Empire, the Russian Empire, and smaller players like the kingdoms of Naples, Sicily, and even Sweden. Prussia, as usual, played the neutral card, though I suspect they were watching with a keen, and likely anxious, eye.

The whole thing was a rather predictable escalation. Britain, bless their stubborn hearts, had been at odds with France since the Peace of Amiens dissolved like cheap sugar in hot tea. They were the last ones standing, really. From 1803 to 1805, Britain was practically bracing for a French invasion, a constant, low-level hum of dread. But their navy, those salt-crusted sea dogs, kept the French at bay, famously at the Battle of Trafalgar in October 1805. A decisive naval victory, certainly, but the real meat of the conflict, the land war, was on the continent.

The Third Coalition coalesced properly in 1804–05. Napoleon’s increasingly audacious moves in Italy and Germany, particularly the rather unpleasant arrest and execution of the Duc d'Enghien, managed to push Austria and Russia into Britain's arms. The war was ultimately decided, as most wars are, by sheer brute force on land. The Ulm Campaign, a sweeping maneuver by Napoleon’s Grande Armée from late August to mid-October 1805, resulted in the capture of an entire Austrian army. And then, the grand finale: the Battle of Austerlitz in early December, where Napoleon utterly dismantled a combined Austro-Russian force. Austerlitz, frankly, was the nail in the coffin for the Third Coalition, though a brief, rather ignominious side campaign against Naples followed, culminating in the French victory at the Battle of Campo Tenese.

On December 26, 1805, Austria, thoroughly chastened, signed the Treaty of Pressburg with France. This effectively removed them from the war and the Coalition, reinforcing earlier agreements like the Treaty of Campo Formio and the Treaty of Lunéville. Austria coughed up territory in Italy and Germany, paid a hefty indemnity, and even allowed the defeated Russian troops to skulk home. Austerlitz also emboldened Napoleon to create the Confederation of the Rhine, a collection of German states that swore fealty to him. This, in turn, led to the symbolic end of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806 when Francis II abdicated his imperial title, becoming Francis I of Austria. Peace, however, remained a distant fantasy. Russia and Britain were still spoiling for a fight, and Prussia, increasingly unnerved by France's growing dominance in Central Europe, would soon stumble into the War of the Fourth Coalition in 1806.

Periodisation

Historians, bless their pedantic hearts, can’t even agree on when this whole mess officially started and ended. From the British perspective, it was May 18, 1803, when they declared war. But they were alone then. The full-blown coalition didn't really take shape until Sweden joined in December 1804, followed by Russia in April 1805, with Britain and Russia ratifying their alliance in July. Austria and Naples-Sicily finally completed the ensemble in August and September, respectively.

Meanwhile, Napoleon was busy cobbling together his own alliances. Bavaria threw its lot in with France in August, followed by Württemberg in September. Crucially, no major fighting erupted between France and the Coalition members (save Britain, with the Trafalgar campaign from March to November 1805) until the Ulm Campaign kicked off in late September. This delay was partly because Napoleon was still contemplating his grand invasion of Britain, with his army camped at Boulogne until late August 1805. Only then did he pivot his forces eastwards towards Austria.

The Peace of Pressburg on December 26, 1805, which forced Austria out, is seen by some as the definitive end. They argue that Austria’s departure shattered the fragile coalition. [1] Others, however, point to the subsequent French invasion of Naples in February 1806, which saw Anglo-Russian forces evacuate and the French ultimately conquer the kingdom. Some scholars even criticize the narrow focus on Central Europe and Trafalgar, suggesting the Mediterranean front was overlooked and should be considered part of this conflict, not the War of the Second Coalition. [2] It’s a mess, as you can see. Details.

Prelude

From Amiens to the Third Coalition

The fragile peace brokered by the Treaty of Lunéville in 1801 and the Treaty of Amiens in 1802 proved to be as fleeting as a dream. By the latter half of 1802, tensions between Napoleon's France and the United Kingdom were already simmering again. Napoleon’s activities in the Caribbean, coupled with whispers of his renewed interest in Egypt and the Middle East, fueled British paranoia. French newspapers even boasted that a mere 10,000 men could reclaim Egypt.

In Italy, Napoleon consolidated his power, transforming the Cisalpine Republic into the Italian Republic with himself as president, and annexing Piedmont directly to France. In the Netherlands, the Batavian Republic was reshaped along French lines, and the Helvetic Republic found itself increasingly dependent on French dictates, even receiving a new constitution via the Act of Mediation, binding it to France for fifty years.

The Treaty of Amiens had stipulated the return of most occupied territories, with Britain retaining Ceylon and Trinidad, while Minorca went back to Spain and Malta to the Order of St. John. In return, France was to withdraw from Egypt and Naples, and guarantee the independence of Portugal and the Ionian Islands. [3] Britain, however, saw Malta as crucial to preventing French expansion into the Levant. Napoleon, sensing an opportunity to sow discord between Britain and Russia, indirectly threatened war on March 13, 1803, when he publicly berated British ambassador Lord Whitworth for Britain's reluctance to fully implement the treaty. Whitworth returned to London, and on May 18, 1803, the United Kingdom declared war on France. [4] [5]

Setting up the opposing forces

Napoleon’s self-coronation as Emperor on December 2, 1804, and his subsequent annexation of Genoa and Parma, followed by his coronation as King of Italy, left no one in doubt about his ambitions. By January 21, 1805, British Prime Minister William Pitt the Younger was already pushing for an alliance with Russia and Austria. Their demands included restoring the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, withdrawing French troops from Italy, dissolving the Batavian Republic, and restoring Swiss independence. Britain pledged financial support if Napoleon refused. After much wrangling, the United Kingdom, Austria, and Russia formalized their alliance on August 9, 1805, forming the Third Coalition. Prussia, predictably, remained on the sidelines. [6]

Napoleon, meanwhile, was cultivating his own network of allies among the German states of the Holy Roman Empire. Württemberg, Bavaria, and Baden, who had benefited significantly from the Reichsdeputationshauptschluss of February 25, 1803, were drawn into Napoleon's orbit. These states, enlarged and strengthened by Napoleon's machinations, served his purpose of weakening Austria while remaining too small to pose a threat themselves. [7]

La Grande Armée at Boulogne

Napoleon Distributing the Legion of Honour at the Camp of Boulogne by Philippe-Auguste Hennequin

Before the Third Coalition even materialized, Napoleon had assembled the Army of England at the camps near Boulogne in Northern France, ostensibly for an invasion of Britain. Though they never set foot on English soil, these troops underwent rigorous training that would prove invaluable. Boredom was a constant threat, but Napoleon’s frequent visits and grand parades did much to maintain morale. [8]

This force at Boulogne formed the nucleus of what Napoleon would later christen La Grande Armée – "The Great Army." Initially comprising around 200,000 men organized into seven corps, each capable of independent operations, this army was a formidable fighting machine. These corps were substantial combined-arms units, typically including two to four infantry divisions, a cavalry division, and around 36 to 40 cannon.

Beyond these core formations, Napoleon maintained a dedicated cavalry reserve of 22,000 men, organized into two cuirassier divisions, four mounted dragoon divisions, and two divisions of dismounted dragoons and light cavalry, all supported by 24 artillery pieces. By 1805, the Grande Armée had swelled to an impressive 350,000 soldiers – well-equipped, highly trained, and led by a skilled officer corps. [9] Some argued this army represented the pinnacle of military organization in Europe at that time. [10]

Russian and Austrian armies

The Imperial Russian Army of 1805 still bore the hallmarks of the ancien régime. Formations above the regimental level were not permanent, senior officers were often drawn from aristocratic circles (including foreigners), and discipline was maintained through harsh punishment. Many junior officers lacked adequate training, struggling to execute complex battlefield maneuvers. However, the Russian artillery was renowned, with crews fiercely defending their guns.

Archduke Charles, the Emperor's brother, had initiated reforms in the Austrian army in 1801, attempting to curb the power of the Hofkriegsrat, the military-political council. Charles was a capable commander, [11] but unpopular with the court, and his influence waned when Austria decided to go to war against his counsel. Karl Mack rose to prominence as the new chief commander. On the eve of war, he instituted infantry reforms, shifting regiments to four battalions of four companies, a sudden change that lacked corresponding officer training, leading to less effective leadership. While Austrian cavalry was considered the best in Europe, its fragmentation across various infantry formations prevented the massed shock effect seen in their French counterparts. [12]

Ulm campaign

• See also: Ulm Campaign

The strategic map of Europe in 1805, prior to the Ulm Campaign and the outbreak of war.

In August 1805, Napoleon, who had assumed the title of Emperor of the French the previous May, redirected his forces from the English Channel towards the Rhine to confront the newly formed Austrian and Russian threat. The War of the Third Coalition commenced with the Ulm Campaign, a series of maneuvers and battles orchestrated by the French and their Bavarian allies, designed to outflank the Austrian army under General Mack.

Austrian plans and preparations

General Mack believed Austrian security lay in fortifying the passes through the mountainous Black Forest region of Southern Germany, an area that had seen significant fighting in previous wars. He was convinced there would be no major action in Central Germany. Mack centered his defensive strategy on the city of Ulm, intending to contain the French advance until the Russian forces under Mikhail Kutuzov could arrive and tip the scales. Ulm was further fortified by the strategically important Michelsberg heights, which Mack felt made the city virtually impervious to assault. [13]

Fatally, the Aulic Council designated Northern Italy as the primary theater of operations for the Austrian army. Archduke Charles was assigned 95,000 troops and tasked with crossing the Adige river, with Mantua, Peschiera, and Milan as initial objectives. [Archduke John](/Archduke_Johann_of_Austria) was given command of 23,000 troops to secure Tyrol, acting as a link between his brother Charles and his cousin, Archduke Ferdinand. Ferdinand's force of 72,000 was intended to invade Bavaria and establish a defensive line at Ulm, though actual command rested with Mack. [14] Additionally, Austrian corps were detached to cooperate with Swedish forces in Pomerania and with the British in Naples, ostensibly to mislead the French and divert their resources.

French plans and preparations

By early to mid-September, French forces had concentrated along the Rhine. A formidable force of 210,000 soldiers of the Grande Armée stood ready to cross into Germany and encircle the Austrians.

Napoleon had previously envisioned the Danube theater as the main focus in both the 1796 and 1800 campaigns, but in both instances, Italy had become the more critical front. The Austrian Aulic Council anticipated a similar strategy this time. However, Napoleon harbored different intentions. His plan involved launching 210,000 French troops eastward from the Boulogne camps to envelop General Mack's exposed Austrian army, provided it remained committed to marching west towards the Black Forest.

Concurrently, Marshal Murat would conduct cavalry feints across the Black Forest, creating the illusion of a direct west-east French advance. The main thrust in Germany would be supported by operations in other theaters. Marshal Masséna would engage Archduke Charles in Italy with 50,000 men, Marshal St. Cyr would advance towards Naples with 20,000, and Marshal Brune would maintain a presence at Boulogne with 30,000 troops to deter any British incursions.

Marshal Joachim Murat and General Bertrand conducted reconnaissance between the Tyrol border and the Main river, while General Savary, chief of the planning staff, meticulously surveyed the routes between the Rhine and the Danube. The Grande Armée’s left wing would advance from Hanover and Utrecht to strike Württemberg, while the right and center, comprising troops from the Channel coast, would concentrate along the Middle Rhine near cities like Mannheim and Strasbourg. While Murat executed his diversions in the Black Forest, other French forces would penetrate the German heartland, swinging southeast to capture Augsburg, thereby isolating Mack and severing Austrian lines of communication. [15]

The French invasion

The French invasion, commencing in late September and early October, caught the Austrians off guard, severing their communication lines.

On September 22, Mack resolved to hold the Iller river line, anchored on Ulm. During the final three days of September, the French initiated rapid marches that positioned them behind the Austrian forces. Mack was convinced the French would not violate Prussian territory, but upon learning that Bernadotte's I Corps had marched through Prussian Ansbach, he made the fateful decision to stand and defend Ulm rather than retreat south, a move that might have preserved a significant portion of his army. Napoleon, meanwhile, possessed limited precise intelligence regarding Mack's intentions or movements. He was aware that Kienmayer's Corps had been dispatched to Ingolstadt, east of the French positions, but his agents significantly exaggerated its strength.

On October 5, Napoleon ordered Marshal Ney to join Marshals Lannes, Soult, and Murat in concentrating their forces and crossing the Danube at Donauwörth. The French encirclement was not yet sufficiently deep to prevent Kienmayer's escape. The French corps did not converge simultaneously but rather deployed along an extended west-east axis. The timely arrival of Soult and Davout at Donauwörth prompted Kienmayer to exercise caution and attempt evasion. Napoleon, increasingly convinced that the Austrians were massing at Ulm, directed substantial elements of the French army to concentrate around Donauwörth. By October 6, three French infantry and cavalry corps were dispatched to Donauwörth, aiming to seal Mack's escape route. [16]

Battle of Wertingen

The strategic situation from October 7 to 9. With Kutuzov too distant to provide substantial aid, the Austrians found themselves in a precarious position.

• Main article: Battle of Wertingen

Sensing the perilous nature of his situation, Mack decided to seize the initiative. On October 8, he ordered his army to concentrate around Günzburg, hoping to strike at Napoleon's lines of communication. Mack instructed Kienmayer to draw Napoleon further east, towards Munich and Augsburg. Napoleon did not seriously entertain the possibility of Mack crossing the Danube and moving away from his central base, but he recognized the significant strategic advantage that seizing the bridges at Günzburg would provide. To achieve this objective, Napoleon dispatched Ney's Corps to Günzburg, unaware that the main Austrian force was converging on the same location. However, on October 8, the campaign witnessed its first significant engagement at Wertingen between Auffenburg's troops and those commanded by Murat and Lannes.

For reasons that remain somewhat unclear, Mack ordered Auffenburg on October 7 to move his division of 5,000 infantry and 400 cavalry from Günzburg to Wertingen, in anticipation of the main Austrian offensive out of Ulm. Uncertain of his predicament and with little hope of reinforcements, Auffenburg found himself in a precarious position. The first French forces to arrive were Murat's cavalry divisions – Klein's 1st Dragoons, Beaumont's 3rd Dragoons, and Nansouty's cuirassiers. They commenced assaults on the Austrian positions and were soon joined by Oudinot's grenadiers, who sought to outflank the Austrians from the north and west. Auffenburg attempted a retreat to the southwest, but his efforts were too slow; the Austrians suffered devastating losses, with nearly their entire force either captured or killed, and 1,000 to 2,000 taken prisoner. The Battle of Wertingen proved to be an easy French victory.

The engagement at Wertingen convinced Mack to operate on the left bank of the Danube, rather than attempting a direct eastward retreat on the right bank. This maneuver required the Austrian army to cross at Günzburg. On October 8, Ney was acting under Marshal Berthier's orders, which called for a direct assault on Ulm the following day. Ney dispatched Malher's 3rd Division to capture the Danube bridges at Günzburg. A column from this division encountered Tyrolean jägers and captured 200 of them, including their commander, General d'Aspré, along with two cannons.

The Austrians, alerted to these developments, reinforced their positions around Günzburg with three infantry battalions and twenty cannons. Malher's division launched several valiant but ultimately unsuccessful assaults against the Austrian defenses. Mack then dispatched Ignác Gyulay with seven infantry battalions and fourteen cavalry squadrons to repair the damaged bridges, but this force was charged and overwhelmed by the belatedly arriving French 59th Infantry Regiment. [17]

Fierce fighting ensued, and the French eventually managed to establish a foothold on the right bank of the Danube. While the Battle of Günzburg was in progress, Ney directed General Loison's 2nd Division to secure the Danube bridges at Elchingen, which were weakly defended by the Austrians. Having lost control of most of the Danube bridges, Mack ordered his army to fall back towards Ulm. By October 10, Ney's corps had made significant headway: Malher's division had crossed to the right bank, Loison's division held Elchingen, and Dupont's division was advancing towards Ulm.

Haslach-Jungingen and Elchingen

• Main articles: Battle of Haslach-Jungingen and Battle of Elchingen

The strategic situation from October 11 to 14. The French launch a westward offensive to trap the Austrian army.

The demoralized Austrian army reached Ulm in the early hours of October 10. Mack was preoccupied with deliberating his next course of action, and the Austrian army remained inactive in Ulm until the 11th. Meanwhile, Napoleon operated under a significant misapprehension: he believed the Austrians were moving east or southeast and that Ulm was lightly defended. Ney, sensing this tactical error, informed Berthier that Ulm was, in fact, more heavily fortified than initially assessed. During this period, the looming Russian threat to the east increasingly occupied Napoleon's attention, leading him to grant Murat command of the army's right wing, comprising Ney's and Lannes's corps. At this juncture, the French forces were deployed in two vast rings: the corps of Ney, Lannes, and Murat to the west were containing Mack, while the forces of Soult, Davout, Bernadotte, and Marmont to the east were tasked with guarding against any potential Russian or Austrian incursions. On October 11, Ney renewed his offensive towards Ulm. The 2nd and 3rd divisions were ordered to advance on the city along the right bank of the Danube, while Dupont's division, supported by a dragoon division, was to march directly on Ulm and seize the entire city. These orders were likely unrealistic, as Ney was still unaware that the entire Austrian army was concentrated within Ulm.

The 32nd Infantry Regiment, part of Dupont's division, advanced from Haslach towards Ulm and encountered four Austrian regiments defending Bolfingen. The 32nd launched several determined assaults, but the Austrians held their ground and repulsed every attack. The Austrians reinforced their positions at Jungingen with additional infantry and cavalry regiments, aiming to deliver a decisive blow against Ney's corps by enveloping Dupont's force. Dupont, perceiving the Austrian maneuver, preempted them with a surprise attack on Jungingen, capturing at least 1,000 prisoners. Subsequent Austrian assaults forced these French units back to Haslach, which the French managed to retain. Dupont was ultimately compelled to retreat to Albeck, where he linked up with d'Hilliers's troops. The precise impact of the Battle of Haslach-Jungingen on Napoleon's strategy remains somewhat ambiguous, but it is plausible that the Emperor finally grasped the extent of the Austrian concentration at Ulm. Consequently, Napoleon redirected Soult's and Marmont's corps towards the Iller, effectively deploying four infantry and one cavalry corps to confront Mack. Davout, Bernadotte, and the Bavarian forces continued to secure the region around Munich. Napoleon, disinclined to engage in a battle across multiple rivers, ordered his marshals to capture the vital bridges around Ulm. He also began shifting his forces north of Ulm, anticipating a battle in that area rather than a direct encirclement of the city. These dispositions and movements ultimately led to the confrontation at Elchingen on October 14, as Ney's forces advanced on Albeck.

The II Corps in Augsburg

At this critical juncture, the Austrian command structure descended into disarray. Ferdinand openly challenged Mack's leadership and decisions, accusing him of issuing contradictory orders that resulted in the Austrian army executing a series of pointless marches. On October 13, Mack ordered the evacuation of two columns from Ulm in preparation for a breakout to the north: one, under General Johann Sigismund Riesch, advanced towards Elchingen to secure the bridge there, while the other, led by Franz von Werneck, moved north with the majority of the heavy artillery. Ney, sensing the urgency, rapidly advanced his corps to re-establish contact with Dupont. Ney directed his troops to the south of Elchingen, on the right bank of the Danube, and initiated the assault. The terrain consisted of a partially wooded floodplain, rising steeply to the hilltop town of Elchingen, which offered an expansive field of view. The French successfully cleared the Austrian outposts and launched a bold bayonet charge, capturing the abbey atop the hill. The Austrian cavalry was routed, and Riesch's infantry fled; Ney was subsequently awarded the title "Duke of Elchingen" for his decisive victory. [18] [19]

Battle of Ulm

• Main article: Battle of Ulm

General Mack surrenders his army at Ulm. Napoleon's strategic encirclement of the Austrians, combined with the Battle of Austerlitz six weeks later, sealed the fate of the Third Coalition.

Additional engagements occurred on October 14. Murat's forces joined Dupont at Albeck, arriving just in time to repel an Austrian attack led by Werneck. Together, Murat and Dupont pursued Werneck's retreating forces northward, towards Heidenheim. By nightfall on the 14th, two French corps were positioned in the vicinity of the Austrian encampments at Michelsberg, near Ulm. Mack found himself in an increasingly dire situation: escape along the north bank was no longer feasible, Marmont and the Imperial Guard were positioned on the outskirts of Ulm south of the river, and Soult was advancing from Memmingen to prevent any Austrian southward retreat towards the Tyrol. Compounding the Austrian command's difficulties, Ferdinand, overriding Mack's objections, ordered the evacuation of all cavalry from Ulm – approximately 6,000 troopers. Murat's pursuit, however, was so relentless that only eleven squadrons managed to rendezvous with Werneck at Heidenheim. Murat continued his harassment of Werneck, forcing his surrender with 8,000 men at Trochtelfingten on October 19. Murat then pressed on towards Neustadt, capturing an additional 12,000 Austrians.

Events at Ulm were rapidly approaching their climax. On October 15, Ney's troops successfully stormed the Michelsberg encampments, and on the 16th, the French commenced bombarding Ulm itself. Austrian morale plummeted, and Mack began to recognize the futility of resistance. On October 17, Napoleon's emissary, Ségur, signed a convention with Mack stipulating that the Austrians would surrender on October 25 if no relief force arrived by that date. However, upon hearing of the capitulations at Heidenheim and Neresheim, Mack agreed to surrender five days earlier, on October 20. Approximately 10,000 troops from the Austrian garrison managed to escape, but the vast majority of the Austrian force marched out on the 21st and laid down their arms without incident, observed by the Grande Armée arrayed in a vast semicircle. [20]

Battle of Trafalgar

• See also: Trafalgar Campaign

• This section is an excerpt from Battle of Trafalgar.[edit]

The Battle of Trafalgar Clarkson Frederick Stanfield, 1836

The Battle of Trafalgar was a significant naval engagement that transpired on October 21, 1805, pitting the Royal Navy against a combined fleet of the French and Spanish navies during the War of the Third Coalition. [21] As part of Napoleon's planned invasion of the United Kingdom, the French and Spanish fleets aimed to secure control of the English Channel and facilitate the safe passage of the Grande Armée. The allied fleet, under the command of French Admiral Pierre-Charles Villeneuve, sailed from the Spanish port of Cádiz on October 18, 1805. They encountered a British fleet, assembled under the command of Lord Nelson specifically to counter this threat, in the Atlantic Ocean, off the southwest coast of Spain, near Cape Trafalgar.

Nelson found himself outnumbered, commanding 27 ships of the line against the 33 French and Spanish vessels, which included the formidable Spanish Santísima Trinidad, the largest warship afloat at the time. To overcome this disparity, Nelson employed an audacious tactic, sailing his fleet directly at the flank of the allied battle line in two columns, intending to break the line into manageable segments. Villeneuve had anticipated such a maneuver but, for various reasons, failed to adequately prepare for it. Compounding the French difficulties, their crews were largely inexperienced and poorly trained. Nelson's plan unfolded with remarkable success; his columns successfully split the Franco-Spanish fleet into three sections, isolating the rear portion from Villeneuve's flagship, the Bucentaure. The allied vanguard sailed away while attempting to turn around, granting the British a temporary superiority over the remaining portion of their fleet. In the ensuing fierce engagement, 18 allied ships were either captured or destroyed, while the British lost none.

The British offensive exposed the leading ships to intense crossfire as they closed with the Franco-Spanish lines. Nelson's own flagship, HMS Victory, led the front column and was nearly disabled. Nelson was struck by a musket ball fired by a French marksman during the battle and succumbed to his wounds shortly before its conclusion. Villeneuve was captured along with his flagship, Bucentaure. He later attended Nelson's funeral while on parole in Britain. The senior Spanish commander, Admiral Federico Gravina, managed to escape with the surviving third of the Franco-Spanish fleet; he died six months later from wounds sustained in the battle. The victory decisively confirmed British naval supremacy and was partly attributed to Nelson's departure from prevailing naval tactical orthodoxy. [22]

Battle of Austerlitz

Napoleon with his troops on the eve of battle, questioning local peasants about the movements of the Austro-Russian Army. Painting by Lejeune

• Main articles: Battle of Austerlitz and Order of Battle at the Austerlitz campaign

Preliminaries

The main body of the Grande Armée pursued the remnants of the Austrian army toward Vienna. Following the Austrian collapse at Ulm, the Russian army under General Mikhail Kutuzov also withdrew eastward, reaching the Ill river on October 22, where it joined with Kienmayer's retreating corps. On November 5, they successfully executed a rearguard action at Amstetten. The Russians arrived in St. Pölten on November 7 and crossed the Danube the following day. Late on November 9, they destroyed the Danube bridges, holding the last one, at Stein, near Krems, until late afternoon. [23]

The French occupied vineyards in the floodplain, and Russian troops emerged from mountain defiles, surrounding them. Another Russian column approached Dürenstein from the south.

The next day, Marshal Mortier ordered General Gazan to attack what they believed to be a Russian rear guard, near the village of Stein. This was a calculated trap by Kutuzov, designed to convince Mortier that he had retreated further towards Vienna, when in fact he had crossed the Danube in force and was concealed behind the ridges above the village. In the ensuing Battle of Dürenstein, three Russian columns outflanked the First Division of Mortier's Corps, attacking Gazan from both the front and the rear. It wasn't until Dupont's division arrived, after dark, that Gazan could begin evacuating his soldiers across the Danube. Gazan suffered casualties amounting to nearly 40 percent of his division. Additionally, 47 officers and 895 men were captured, along with five guns, the eagles of the 4th Infantry Regiment, and the eagle and guidon of the 4th Dragoons. The Russians also sustained approximately 4,000 casualties, about 16 percent of their force, and lost two regimental colors. [24] Austrian Lieutenant Field Marshal Johann Heinrich von Schmitt was killed as the battle concluded, likely by Russian friendly fire in the chaotic melee. [25]

The Battle of Schöngrabern (also known as the Battle of Hollabrunn) took place a week after the engagement at Dürenstein, on November 16, 1805. It occurred near Hollabrunn in Lower Austria. Kutuzov's Russian army was retreating north of the Danube ahead of Napoleon's French army.

On November 13, 1805, Marshals Murat and Lannes, leading the French vanguard, captured a bridge over the Danube at Vienna by falsely claiming an armistice had been signed, then rushing the crossing while the guards were distracted. [26] Kutuzov needed to delay the French to establish contact with reinforcements led by Buxhowden near Brünn. He ordered his rearguard, commanded by Major-General Prince Pyotr Bagration, to hold off the French advance.

Following the engagement at Hollabrunn, the armies converged on the plains east of Brünn. Napoleon could deploy approximately 75,000 men and 157 guns for the impending battle, though about 7,000 troops under Davout were still significantly south, en route from Vienna. [27] The Allies mustered around 73,000 soldiers, predominantly Russian (seventy percent), and possessed 318 guns. On December 1, both armies occupied their main positions.

Battlefield

The northern sector of the battlefield was dominated by the 700-foot (210-metre) Santon hill and the 850-foot (260-metre) Zuran hill, both offering commanding views of the crucial Olmutz-Brno road, which ran in a west-east direction. To the west of these hills lay the village of Bellowitz, and between them, the Bosenitz Stream flowed south to join the Goldbach Stream. The latter ran alongside the villages of Kobelnitz, Sokolnitz, and Telnitz. The central feature of the entire area was the Pratzen Heights, a gently sloping elevation approximately 35 to 40 feet (11 to 12 m) high. An aide noted that the Emperor repeatedly instructed his marshals, "Gentlemen, examine this ground carefully, it is going to be a battlefield; you will have a part to play upon it." [28]

Allied plans and dispositions

Allied (red) and French (blue) deployments at 18:00 on December 1, 1805.

An Allied council convened on December 1 to deliberate battle strategies. The majority of Allied strategists focused on two primary objectives: engaging the enemy and securing the southern flank leading towards Vienna. Although the Tsar and his inner circle strongly advocated for battle, Emperor Francis of Austria adopted a more cautious stance, a sentiment echoed by Kutuzov, the principal Russian commander. However, the pressure to engage from Russian nobles and Austrian commanders proved overwhelming, and the Allies adopted the plan proposed by Austrian Chief of Staff Franz von Weyrother. This plan entailed a main assault against the French right flank, which the Allies perceived as lightly defended, supported by diversionary attacks against the French left. The Allies deployed the bulk of their forces into four columns for the assault on the French right. The Russian Imperial Guard was held in reserve, while Russian troops under Bagration secured the Allied right flank. [29]

French plans and dispositions

In the days preceding the engagement, Napoleon deliberately projected an image of weakness, hinting at a desire for a negotiated peace. [30] His true intention was to lure the Allies into attacking, and to facilitate this, he deliberately weakened his right flank. [31] On November 28, Napoleon convened his marshals at Imperial Headquarters. Despite their expressed concerns and suggestions of a strategic retreat, he dismissed their reservations and proceeded with his plan. [32] Napoleon's strategy hinged on the assumption that the Allies would commit so many troops to enveloping his right flank that their center would be significantly weakened. He then intended to launch a massive French thrust, led by 16,000 troops from Soult's IV Corps, through the weakened center, aiming to cripple the Allied army. Simultaneously, to bolster his vulnerable right flank, Napoleon ordered Davout's III Corps to undertake a forced march from Vienna to reinforce General Legrand's troops, who held the southernmost flank and were expected to bear the brunt of the Allied assault. Davout's soldiers had a mere 48 hours to cover 110 km (68 mi). Their timely arrival was deemed critical to the success or failure of Napoleon's plan. The Imperial Guard and Bernadotte's I Corps were held in reserve, while the V Corps under Lannes guarded the northern sector of the battlefield.

Battle is joined

The battle commenced around 8 a.m. with the first Allied column attacking the village of Telnitz, defended by the 3rd Line Regiment. This sector witnessed intense fighting in the ensuing moments as several fierce Allied charges dislodged the French from the town, forcing them back across the Goldbach stream. The first elements of Davout's corps arrived at this juncture, expelling the Allies from Telnitz before themselves being attacked by hussars and forced to abandon the town once more. Subsequent Allied assaults from Telnitz were halted by French artillery fire.

Allied columns began to advance against the French right, but not at the anticipated pace, allowing the French to largely contain the attacks. In reality, the Allied deployments were flawed and poorly timed: cavalry detachments under Liechtenstein on the Allied left flank were redeployed to the right flank, where they encountered and slowed down elements of the second column of infantry advancing towards the French right. While initially perceived as a disaster by the planners, this incident later proved beneficial to the Allies. Meanwhile, the lead elements of the second column attacked the village of Sokolnitz, defended by the 26th Light Regiment and the Tirailleurs, French skirmishers. Initial Allied assaults proved unsuccessful, prompting General Langeron to order a bombardment of the village. This devastating artillery barrage forced the French withdrawal, and around the same time, the third column attacked the castle of Sokolnitz. However, the French counterattacked and recaptured the village, only to be driven out again. Fighting in this area momentarily ceased when Friant's division (part of III Corps) retook the village. Sokolnitz was arguably the most fiercely contested area on the battlefield, changing hands multiple times throughout the day. [33]

"One sharp blow and the war is over"

The decisive assaults on the Allied center by St. Hilaire and Vandamme split the Allied army in two, placing the French in a strategically advantageous position to secure victory.

Around 8:45 a.m., having confirmed the weakness in the enemy center, Napoleon inquired of Soult how long it would take his men to reach the Pratzen Heights. The Marshal replied, "Less than twenty minutes, sire." Approximately 15 minutes later, Napoleon ordered the attack, adding, "One sharp blow and the war is over." [34]

A dense fog facilitated the advance of St. Hilaire's division. As they ascended the slope, the legendary 'Sun of Austerlitz' broke through the mist, bolstering their resolve. Russian soldiers and commanders atop the heights were astonished to witness the advancing French forces. [35] Allied commanders were now able to commit some of the delayed detachments of the fourth column to this critical engagement. Over an hour of intense fighting decimated much of this unit. Other elements from the second column, primarily inexperienced Austrian troops, also participated in the struggle, ultimately shifting the numerical balance against one of the elite fighting forces of the French army, compelling them to withdraw down the slopes. However, driven by desperation, St. Hilaire's men launched another fierce assault, bayoneting the Allies off the heights. To the north, General Vandamme's division attacked an area known as Staré Vinohrady, employing skilled skirmishing and devastating volleys to break several Allied battalions.

The battle had decisively shifted in France's favor, but significant fighting remained. Napoleon ordered Bernadotte's I Corps to support Vandamme's left flank and relocated his command post from Zuran Hill to St. Anthony's Chapel on the Pratzen Heights. The precarious Allied situation was further underscored by the decision to commit the Russian Imperial Guard. Grand Duke Constantine, Tsar Alexander's brother, commanded the Guard and launched a counterattack in Vandamme's sector, leading to a bloody engagement and the loss of the only French standard in the battle (a battalion of the 4th Line Regiment bore this unfortunate distinction). Sensing the developing crisis, Napoleon ordered his own heavy Guard cavalry into action. These elite troops overwhelmed their Russian counterparts, but with both sides committing large cavalry formations, a clear victor had yet to emerge. The Russians held a numerical advantage in this sector, but the tide soon turned as d'Erlon's Division, the second of Bernadotte's I Corps, deployed on the flank of the engagement, allowing the French cavalry to seek refuge behind their lines. The horse artillery of the Guard also inflicted heavy casualties on the Russian cavalry and fusiliers. The Russians broke and suffered significant losses as they were pursued by the reinvigorated French cavalry for approximately a quarter of a mile. [36]

Endgame

By 2 p.m., the Allied army was dangerously divided. Napoleon now had the strategic option to strike either flank, and he chose the Allied left, as other sectors of the battlefield had either been cleared or were engaged in fighting retreats.

Meanwhile, the northernmost part of the battlefield also witnessed intense combat. Prince Liechtenstein's heavy cavalry began engaging Kellerman's lighter cavalry forces after finally reaching the correct position on the field. The engagement initially favored the French, but Kellerman's troops sought cover behind General Caffarelli's infantry division once it became apparent that the Russian numbers were overwhelming. Caffarelli's men halted the Russian assaults, enabling Murat to commit two cuirassier divisions to the fray, effectively routing the Russian cavalry. The ensuing melee was protracted and brutal, but the French ultimately prevailed. Lannes then led his V Corps against Bagration's forces and, after fierce fighting, managed to drive the skilled Russian commander from the field. Lannes advocated for pursuit, but Murat, who held command in this sector, opposed the idea.

Napoleon's attention then shifted to the southern end of the battlefield, where French and Allied forces were still engaged in fighting for Sokolnitz and Telnitz. In a coordinated double-pronged assault, St. Hilaire's division and a portion of Davout's III Corps broke through the enemy lines at Sokolnitz, compelling the commanders of the first two Allied columns, Generals Kienmayer and Langeron, to retreat rapidly. Buxhowden, the commander of the Allied left and responsible for leading the assault, was reportedly intoxicated and fled the field. Kienmayer covered his withdrawal with the O'Reilly light cavalry, who valiantly engaged and defeated five out of six French cavalry regiments before being forced to retreat themselves. [37]

Widespread panic gripped the Allied army, leading to a disorganized retreat in all directions. Russian forces, defeated by the French right, fled south towards Vienna, crossing the frozen Satschan ponds. Popular accounts claim French artillery targeted the fleeing soldiers, causing them to fall through the ice, leading to numerous drownings and the loss of dozens of artillery pieces. Estimates of the number of guns captured vary significantly, ranging from as few as 38 to over 100. Casualty figures also differ, with estimates from as low as 200 to as high as 2,000 dead. Napoleon's exaggerated report of this incident may have contributed to the lower figures, though uncertainty remains regarding their accuracy. Many historians consider this event one of Napoleon's most brutal acts of warfare. [38] However, only a few bodies were reportedly recovered in the spring of 1806, suggesting the incident may be largely mythical.

Italian Campaigns

Venetian front or Italian campaign of 1805

Meanwhile, in Italy, the Austrian Armee von Italien, under the command of Archduke Charles, engaged the French Armée d'Italie led by Marshal Masséna. The French successfully established a bridgehead over the Adige river at Verona on October 18. Subsequently, between October 29 and 31, the outnumbered French forces achieved a victory over the superior Austrian army in the Battle of Caldiero. In November, the Austrians retreated, engaging the French vanguard led by d'Espagne in several rear-guard actions. Venice was blockaded by French and Italian troops under St. Cyr. Archduke Charles' army finally crossed the Isonzo on November 14, preventing a French crossing.

The Battle of Caldiero, 1805.

A detached Austrian force of 4,400 men, left behind, was decisively defeated and captured by Jean Reynier and St. Cyr at the Battle of Castelfranco Veneto on November 24, 1805.

Anglo-Russian occupation of Naples

• Main article: Anglo-Russian occupation of Naples

The French contingent under St. Cyr then maneuvered towards the border of the Kingdom of Naples. The French were closely monitored by a combined Anglo-Russian force tasked with defending the kingdom. Following the Battle of Austerlitz, the Russian forces withdrew from Italy. The British, unwilling to defend Naples independently, evacuated the mainland entirely, retreating back to Sicily. Concurrently, the French forces, now stationed in Bologna, were reorganized into the Army of Naples and placed under the nominal command of Napoleon's brother, Joseph Bonaparte. However, the de facto command rested with André Masséna, who led the I Corps and was entrusted with the invasion by Joseph.

French invasion of Naples

• Main article: Invasion of Naples (1806)

On February 9, 1806, Masséna launched his invasion of the Kingdom of Naples. Two days later, the Bourbon King of Naples, Ferdinand IV, also fled to Sicily, under the protection of the British fleet. Naples quickly fell into French hands, and by the end of February, only two strongholds within the kingdom remained defiant. One was the heavily fortified city of Gaeta, situated north of Naples, and the other was Calabria in the southernmost region of Italy, where the remaining elements of the Royal Neapolitan Army were stationed.

Ferdinand had hoped for a recurrence of the events of 1799, when a popular uprising in Calabria ultimately led to the downfall of the Parthenopaean Republic, a French client state established after the Neapolitans suffered defeat during the War of the Second Coalition. However, no significant rebellion materialized initially. On March 3, General Jean Reynier, commanding the 10,000-strong II Corps of the Army of Naples, invaded Calabria. Only a few Calabrians offered resistance to the invading French force, and the Royal Neapolitan Army was decisively defeated at the Battle of Campo Tenese on March 10, 1806. Ferdinand was left with no alternative but to cede the Neapolitan throne to the French. The day after the Battle of Campo Tenese, Joseph Bonaparte was installed as the new King of Naples. By this time, the last regular Neapolitan army units had fled to Sicily, leaving the French in control of the entire Italian mainland, with the sole exception of the fortress of Gaeta, which had been under siege since February 26. Gaeta ultimately surrendered on July 18, concluding the invasion with a decisive French victory. [39]

Calabrian insurrection

However, Napoleon's plans were not proceeding entirely smoothly. Supply shortages forced Reynier's II Corps in Calabria to subsist off the land. For over a month, the peasants of the region, who had supported the Neapolitan army, were on the verge of starvation. Joseph Bonaparte appeared oblivious to the mounting supply problems and the potential for revolt. Consequently, no additional provisions were dispatched to southern Italy. Reynier took matters into his own hands, seizing supplies from the local population, which predictably ignited a revolt by the end of March. What began as small partisan bands gradually expanded, with entire villages rising up against the French. With the fortress of Gaeta still resisting, Joseph was unable to reinforce Calabria, forcing Reynier to augment his army with locally recruited troops from the larger towns and cities. [39]

By July, Masséna had still not captured Gaeta, owing to logistical issues with the French artillery, minor reinforcements arriving by sea from the British, and a series of successful sorties by the Neapolitan garrison against the French sappers. With only Reynier's depleted force in Calabria struggling against the insurrection, the British organized an expeditionary force under Sir John Stuart to prevent any potential invasion of Sicily and, perhaps, to instigate a widespread rebellion against the French across Italy. Despite initial successes for the British, notably at Maida, the British failed to either reinforce Stuart's expedition or attempt to relieve the Siege of Gaeta. With the French artillery finally able to bombard the walls with full effect, the Neapolitans eventually surrendered on July 18, freeing Masséna's I Corps. [40]

Following the surrender, Masséna received orders from Joseph to proceed south and support Reynier's II Corps against the British and the ongoing Calabrian insurrection. Severely outnumbered on mainland Italy, the British retreated back to Sicily. However, the revolt was not fully suppressed until 1807, by which time Masséna had already requested permission to relinquish command. For the first time in the Napoleonic Wars, the French encountered a brutal guerrilla conflict waged by a rebellious populace. The French concluded that the most effective method for dealing with such uprisings was the implementation of terror tactics, mirroring those employed by Reynier. This foreshadowed the similar challenges the French, and particularly Joseph Bonaparte, would face in Spain during the Peninsular War.

Results

All participants in the War of the Third Coalition. The Coalition and their colonies and allies.

• The First French Empire, its protectorates, colonies, and allies.

The Battle of Austerlitz and the preceding campaign dramatically reshaped the political landscape of Europe. In a mere three months, French forces occupied Vienna, decimated two Austrian armies, and effectively humbled the Austrian Empire. These events stand in stark contrast to the rigid power structures of the 18th century, when no major European capital had ever fallen to an enemy army. Austerlitz set the stage for nearly a decade of French continental dominance, but its more immediate consequence was to provoke Prussia into war in 1806, initiating the War of the Fourth Coalition.

France and Austria concluded a truce on December 4, and the Treaty of Pressburg, signed 22 days later, officially ended Austria's involvement in the war. Austria agreed to recognize French territorial gains established by the treaties of Campo Formio (1797) and Lunéville (1801), ceded territories to Bavaria, Württemberg, and Baden, Napoleon's German allies, and paid 40 million francs in war indemnities. Venetia was also ceded to the Kingdom of Italy. While harsh, it was not a catastrophic peace for Austria. The Russian army was permitted to withdraw to its homeland, and French forces occupied positions in Southern Germany.

In July 1806, Napoleon established the Confederation of the Rhine, a league of German client states that pledged to provide an army of 63,000 men in alliance with France. Under Napoleon's "Protection," these confederate states were compelled to withdraw from the Holy Roman Empire, which subsequently dissolved. [41] Prussia, viewing these developments and Napoleon's broader actions as a challenge to its status as the preeminent power in Central Europe, declared war on France in 1806.

In Italy, the political situation remained largely unchanged until 1815. British and Sicilian troops continued to protect the Bourbon King Ferdinand in Sicily, while the Napoleonic King of Naples controlled the mainland. In 1808, Joachim Murat ascended to the throne of Naples after Joseph Bonaparte was made King of Spain. Murat made several attempts to cross the Strait of Messina, all of which ended in failure, despite one occasion where he briefly secured a foothold in Sicily.

Casualties and losses

The French sustained losses of 12,000 killed, 22,200 wounded, and 5,000 captured in 1805. This included 5,300 killed and 22,200 wounded in the Austrian Campaign against the Habsburgs and Russians, 2,100 killed and 5,300 wounded in the Italian Campaign, 4,300 killed and 3,700 wounded in naval actions, 200 killed and 400 wounded in colonial engagements, and 100 killed and 400 wounded in coastal defense operations. [42] [43] The 1806 Naples Campaign resulted in 1,500 French killed and 5,000 wounded. [43] The Spanish suffered 1,200 killed and 1,600 wounded in naval engagements. Bavaria incurred losses of 300 killed and 1,200 wounded in the Austrian Campaign, and the Kingdom of Italy lost 100 killed and 400 wounded in the Italian Campaign, along with 250 killed and 1,500 wounded in the Naples Campaign. [43]

The Austrians suffered 20,000 killed and wounded, and 70,000 captured. [42] Russian casualties amounted to 25,000 killed and wounded, and 25,000 captured. [42] The Neapolitan army, numbering 22,000, was effectively destroyed by the French in 1806, with only 2,000 evacuated to Sicily.

Notes

• ^ This armed conflict is referred to by various names:

• In Russian historiography, it is known as the Russo-Austro-French War (Russian: Русско-австро-французская война)

• It is also known as the Austrian campaign of 1805 (French: Campagne d'Autriche de 1805 ) or the German campaign of 1805 (French: Campagne d'Allemagne de 1805 )

Citations

•

• ^ Rosenberg 2017, p. 168.

• ^ Pagedas 2005, pp. 120–122.

• ^ Chandler 1966, pp. 319–320.

• ^ Rodger 2004, p. 528.

• ^ Schneid 2005, p. 57.

• ^ Schneid 2005, pp. 83–87.

• ^ Gotthard 2003, p. 160.

• ^ Chandler 1966, p. 323.

• ^ Chandler 1966, pp. 332–333.

• ^ Engles, Friedrich (August 1855). "The Armies of Europe". Putnam's Magazine (XXXII). Retrieved 4 November 2025.

• ^ Uffindell 2003, p. 155.

• ^ Fisher & Fremont-Barnes 2004, pp. 31–33.

• ^ Fisher & Fremont-Barnes 2004, p. 36.

• ^ Chandler 1966, p. 382.

• ^ Chandler 1966, p. 385.

• ^ Kagan 2006, pp. 389, 393, 395 397.

• ^ Kagan 2006, pp. 400, 402, 404, 408–409.

• ^ Kagan 2006, pp. 412, 414–417, 420–421.

• ^ Fisher & Fremont-Barnes 2004, pp. 39–41.

• ^ Chandler 1966, pp. 399–400.

• ^ • "Napoleonic Wars". Westpoint.edu. U.S. Army. Archived from the original on 28 July 2014. Retrieved 1 July 2017.

• ^ Bennet, Geoffrey (2004). The Battle of Trafalgar. England: Pen & Sword Books Limited, CPI UK, South Yorkshire.

• ^ (in German) Rainer Egger. Das Gefecht bei Dürnstein-Loiben 1805. Wien: Bundesverlag, 1986.

• ^ Smith 1998, p. 213.

• ^ (in German) Jens-Florian Ebert. "Heinrich von Schmitt". Die Österreichischen Generäle 1792–1815. Napoleon Online: Portal zu Epoch Archived 8 April 2000 at the Wayback Machine. Markus Stein, editor. Mannheim, Germany. 14 February 2010 version. Accessed 5 February 2010: (in German) Egger, p. 29.

• ^ • Rothenberg, Gunther E. (1999). The Napoleonic Wars. The Cassell history of warfare. London: Cassell. p. 88. ISBN 978-0-304-35267-8.

• ^ Uffindell 2003, p. 19.

• ^ Chandler 1966, pp. 412–413.

• ^ Chandler 1966, p. 416.

• ^ McLynn 1997, p. 342.

• ^ Brooks 2000, p. 109.

• ^ Fisher & Fremont-Barnes 2004, p. 48.

• ^ Fisher & Fremont-Barnes 2004, pp. 48–49.

• ^ Uffindell 2003, p. 21.

• ^ Chandler 1966, p. 425.

• ^ Fisher & Fremont-Barnes 2004, pp. 49–51.

• ^ Fisher & Fremont-Barnes 2004, p. 52.

• ^ Chandler 1966, p. 432.

• ^ a b Finley 1976, pp. 84–87.

• ^ Masséna & Koch 1848, pp. 194–251.

• ^ Dorne Brose 2013, p. 51.

• ^ a b c Bodart 2016, p. 43.

• ^ a b c Bodart 2016, p. 128.