Alexander Pushkin

“Pushkin” redirects here. For other uses, see Pushkin (disambiguation) and Alexander Pushkin (disambiguation) .

Alexander Pushkin

Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin, a name that echoes through the annals of Russian literature with an almost mythical weight, was a preeminent poet, playwright, and novelist whose tragically brief life spanned from 1799 to 1837. Born on 6 June 1799 in Moscow, then part of the vast Russian Empire , and succumbing to a fatal duel on 10 February 1837 in Saint Petersburg, Pushkin is widely regarded as not merely a great Russian poet, but the greatest, a sentiment shared by many literary scholars and enthusiasts across the globe. His indelible contributions are often cited as the foundational bedrock of modern Russian literature , effectively launching what is now known as the Golden Age of Russian Poetry .

[[File:Kiprensky Pushkin.jpg|thumb|Portrait by Orest Kiprensky , 1827]]

His creative genius flourished primarily within the Romantic era , though, as one might observe with any truly significant artist, his work often transcended neat categorization, embracing elements of Classicism and foreshadowing the advent of Literary realism . Pushkin’s command over the Russian language was unparalleled for his time, allowing him to craft narratives and verses that were both deeply emotional and remarkably precise. He wrote prolifically in Russian, though he was also fluent in French, a common tongue among the Russian nobility of his epoch.

An alumnus of the esteemed Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum , Pushkin’s literary output was remarkably diverse, encompassing genres such as lyric poetry, narrative poetry, the novel, the novel in verse , drama, short stories, and even charming fairytales in verse. Among his most celebrated and enduring works are the monumental novel in verse Eugene Onegin , the historical drama Boris Godunov , the poignant prose novel The Captain’s Daughter , and the enchanting narrative poem Ruslan and Ludmila . These works, among many others, not only captivated contemporary audiences but also laid the groundwork for future generations of Russian writers.

In 1831, Pushkin entered into matrimony with Natalia Pushkina , a woman renowned for her beauty, with whom he had four children. This union, while initially a source of joy, ultimately became entangled in the web of courtly intrigue and societal expectations that led to the tragic circumstances of his premature demise. His signature, a flowing script, remains a tangible link to the man who shaped a nation’s literary soul.

Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin (6 June O.S. 26 May 1799 – 10 February O.S. 29 January 1837) was a Russian poet, playwright, and novelist of the Romantic era . [3] He is considered by many to be the greatest Russian poet, [4] [5] [6] [7] as well as the founder of modern Russian literature . [8] [9]

Pushkin was born into the Russian nobility in Moscow, a lineage that offered both privilege and, as he would discover, considerable constraint. [10] His father, Sergey Lvovich Pushkin, was a scion of an ancient and distinguished noble family, their roots stretching back to the 12th century. Perhaps even more remarkably, one of his maternal great-grandfathers was Abram Petrovich Gannibal , a figure of extraordinary historical significance. Gannibal was a nobleman and military general of African origin, who, having been kidnapped from his homeland by the Ottomans , found himself in Russia. There, he was freed by the Russian Emperor Peter the Great and subsequently raised within the imperial court household as the Emperor’s own godson , a testament to an era of both brutality and unexpected opportunities.

Alexander Pushkin, a prodigy if ever there was one, published his first poem at the tender age of 15. By the time he graduated from the prestigious Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum , his talent was already widely acknowledged and celebrated within the Russian literary establishment. However, his burgeoning genius was often accompanied by a defiant spirit. Upon graduation, Pushkin audaciously recited his controversial poem “Ode to Liberty ”, a piece that, along with several other politically charged works, directly led to his exile by Emperor Alexander I . Despite being placed under strict surveillance by the Emperor’s political police and facing severe restrictions on his ability to publish, Pushkin’s creative fire was far from extinguished. It was during this period of confinement that he penned one of his most celebrated works, the historical tragedy Boris Godunov . His grand opus, the novel in verse Eugene Onegin , a sprawling and innovative work, was serialized over several years, appearing in parts between 1825 and 1832. Pushkin’s life, as dramatic as any of his fictional creations, met a premature end when he was fatally wounded in a duel . The fatal encounter was with Georges-Charles de Heeckeren d’Anthès , also known as Dantes-Gekkern, a French officer serving with the Russian Chevalier Guard Regiment , who was widely believed to be his wife’s alleged lover (and, complicating matters, her sister’s husband).

Ancestry

Pushkin’s lineage was a tapestry woven from both ancient Russian nobility and a more exotic, almost improbable, thread of African heritage.

[[File:Pushkin COA.svg|thumb|Coat of arms of the Pushkin family]] [[File:Sergei Lvovich Pushkin.jpg|thumb|Pushkin’s father, Sergei Lvovich Pushkin]] [[File:Pushkin Alexander Sergievich in youth.jpg|thumb|Alexander Pushkin in youth]]

His father, Sergei Lvovich Pushkin (1767–1848), hailed from a distinguished family of the Russian nobility , their aristocratic roots purportedly extending as far back as the 12th century. Such an ancestry implied a long history of service, land ownership, and influence within the Russian state, a heritage of considerable prestige and expectation. [11]

Pushkin’s mother, Nadezhda (Nadya) Ossipovna Gannibal (1775–1836), brought an equally, if not more, intriguing lineage to the family tree. Through her paternal grandmother, she was connected to a blend of German and Scandinavian nobility . [12] [13] More significantly, she was the daughter of Ossip Abramovich Gannibal (1744–1807) and his wife, Maria Alekseyevna Pushkina (1745–1818).

The most remarkable branch of this family tree was Nadezhda’s paternal grandfather, and thus Pushkin’s great-grandfather, Abram Petrovich Gannibal (1696–1781). His life story reads like an epic, beginning as an African page who was kidnapped from his homeland and subsequently transported to Constantinople as a gift intended for the Ottoman Sultan . From there, his fate took another dramatic turn when he was transferred to Russia, gifted to Peter the Great . Peter, a monarch known for his modernizing zeal and appreciation for intellect, took a keen interest in Abram, raising him within the imperial court and becoming his godfather . Abram, in a letter penned to Empress Elizabeth, Peter the Great’s daughter, claimed that his birthplace was the town of “Lagon.” This assertion was largely perpetuated by a rather romanticized, and ultimately mythical, biography written by Gannibal’s son-in-law, Rotkirch.

However, the precision of historical scholarship, often inconveniently disproving charming narratives, eventually cast doubt on this origin. Vladimir Nabokov , during his meticulous research for his translation of Eugene Onegin , was among the first to seriously question the “Lagon” theory. Later, more rigorous investigations by scholars such as Dieudonné Gnammankou and Hugh Barnes conclusively established that Gannibal’s true birthplace was in Central Africa, specifically in an area bordering Lake Chad within what is now modern-day Cameroon . [14] [15] This correction underscores the complex and often obscured histories of individuals deemed “other” in historical accounts. Following his education in France, where he trained as a highly skilled military engineer , Gannibal returned to Russia. There, he rose through the ranks to become the governor of Reval and ultimately achieved the esteemed rank of Général en Chief , the third most senior position in the army, entrusted with critical responsibilities such as overseeing the construction of sea forts and canals throughout Russia. His journey from kidnapped child to one of the most powerful military engineers in the Russian Empire is a remarkable testament to his intellect and Peter the Great’s unconventional vision.

[[File:Pushkin’s mother, Nadezhda Gannibal, 1800-s.jpg|thumb|Pushkin’s mother, Nadezhda Gannibal]]

Early life

Born in the bustling, ancient heart of Moscow , Pushkin’s early childhood was, perhaps ironically for the future titan of Russian letters, largely French-speaking. Like many children of the Russian nobility of the era, he was primarily entrusted to the care of nursemaids and French tutors, a common practice that reflected the pervasive cultural influence of France in aristocratic circles. Consequently, he spoke French predominantly until he reached the age of ten, a detail that highlights the cultural duality of his upbringing.

His introduction to the richness and nuance of the Russian language came not from formal schooling, but through more intimate, lived experiences. It was through his interactions with the household serfs and, most significantly, his beloved nanny, Arina Rodionovna, that he truly began to immerse himself in his native tongue. He developed a profound affection for her, an attachment that arguably surpassed that for his own mother, and it was from her that he absorbed the rhythms and tales of Russian folklore, which would later profoundly influence his poetic voice.

Pushkin’s precocious talent was undeniable. He published his first poem at the remarkably young age of 15, a feat that, even then, signaled a prodigious literary gift. Upon completing his studies, he graduated as part of the inaugural class of the prestigious Imperial Lyceum in Tsarskoye Selo , a town situated near the imperial capital of Saint Petersburg. By this time, his burgeoning talent was already widely recognized and discussed within the Russian literary scene, a rare accomplishment for such a young man. At the Lyceum, his intellectual development was further shaped by figures such as David Mara, known in Russia as David de Boudry, who was, incidentally, a younger brother of the notorious French revolutionary Jean-Paul Marat . [16] This connection, however tenuous, hints at the revolutionary and liberal ideas circulating even within the elite educational institutions of the time.

Following his graduation, Pushkin plunged headfirst into the vibrant and, at times, notoriously raucous intellectual youth culture of St. Petersburg, which then reigned as the glittering capital of the Russian Empire . This was a period of intense social and artistic ferment, and Pushkin, with his sharp wit and rebellious spirit, was a natural fit. In 1820, he published his first significant long poem, Ruslan and Ludmila . This work, a fantastical narrative blending Russian folklore with heroic epic, ignited considerable controversy due to its unconventional subject matter and stylistic choices, signaling Pushkin’s early willingness to challenge established literary norms.

Social activism

Pushkin’s intellectual journey was not confined to artistic expression; it was deeply intertwined with a growing commitment to social and political thought. While a student at the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum , he was significantly influenced by the Kantian liberal individualist teachings imparted by Alexander Kunitsyn . Kunitsyn’s philosophy, emphasizing the inherent rights of individuals and the limitations of state power, left an indelible mark on Pushkin, a fact he would later commemorate in his poem “19 October.” [17] This early exposure to enlightened thought instilled in him a foundational belief in freedom and human dignity.

He further immersed himself in the ideas of the French Age of Enlightenment , a philosophical movement to which he remained permanently indebted throughout his life. Figures like Voltaire particularly resonated with him; Pushkin described the French philosopher as “the first to follow the new road, and to bring the lamp of philosophy into the dark archives of history.” [18] [19] This intellectual framework fostered in Pushkin a critical perspective on the autocratic rule prevalent in Russia and fueled his burgeoning commitment to social reform.

As Pushkin’s views solidified, he gradually emerged as a vocal spokesman for literary radicals, using his powerful pen to articulate sentiments often at odds with the imperial government. Such outspokenness, predictably, did not endear him to the authorities. His increasingly bold political leanings and controversial writings angered the government, ultimately leading to his transfer from the capital in May 1820, effectively an internal exile designed to curb his influence. [20] This period saw him travel extensively, moving through the scenic Caucasus region and to Crimea , before settling for periods in Kamianka and Chișinău in Bessarabia .

During his time in southern Russia, Pushkin’s sympathies extended beyond domestic concerns. He became involved with the Filiki Eteria , a secret organization dedicated to the clandestine purpose of overthrowing Ottoman rule in Greece and establishing an independent Greek state. His poetic soul was profoundly stirred by the unfolding Greek Revolution , and as the war for independence against the Ottoman Empire erupted, he meticulously kept a diary, recording the dramatic events of the national uprising. This period of political engagement and extensive travel broadened his horizons, deepening his understanding of both individual liberty and national struggles, themes that would continue to resonate throughout his work.

Rise

The journey of a poet, it seems, is rarely a straight line, especially in an empire prone to exiling its most brilliant minds. Pushkin’s early public recognition came vividly to life when he recited his poem before the revered elder statesman of Russian poetry, Gavrila Derzhavin , during an examination at the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum on 8 January 1815. This moment, famously captured in a painting by Ilya Repin in 1911, symbolized the passing of a literary torch, a new generation’s voice emerging to captivate the old.

[[File:Repin Pushkin.jpg|thumb|Pushkin recites his poem before Gavrila Derzhavin during an exam in the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum on 8 January 1815. Painting by Ilya Repin (1911)]]

Pushkin remained in Chișinău, largely under surveillance, until 1823. During this period of enforced displacement, he found inspiration, writing two significant Romantic narrative poems that garnered him considerable acclaim and solidified his reputation: The Prisoner of the Caucasus and The Fountain of Bakhchisaray . These works, steeped in exotic settings and themes of freedom and longing, perfectly captured the spirit of the Romantic movement then sweeping Europe. In 1823, Pushkin’s exile took a new turn as he was moved to Odessa . However, his independent spirit again brought him into conflict with the authorities, leading to yet another, more isolated, exile to his mother’s rural estate of Mikhailovskoye , nestled near the city of Pskov , where he remained from 1824 to 1826. [21]

It was in the relative solitude of Mikhailovskoye that Pushkin’s genius truly blossomed away from the distractions of court and city. Here, he penned a series of nostalgic and passionate love poems, many of which are believed to have been dedicated to Elizaveta Vorontsova, the wife of Novorossiya’s General-Governor . [22] More importantly, this period saw him deeply immersed in the creation of his masterpiece, the verse-novel Eugene Onegin , a work that would redefine Russian literature.

During his time at Mikhailovskoye in 1825, Pushkin also wrote the iconic poem “To***.” The identity of its dedicatee has been the subject of enduring literary debate, a testament to the poem’s universal appeal and the human desire for definitive answers. While it is generally believed that he dedicated this poem to his married lover Anna Petrovna Kern , for whom he harbored a profound, if complicated, affection, other opinions persist. The poet Mikhail Dudin, for instance, posited that the poem was, in fact, dedicated to a serf named Olga Kalashnikova. [23] The Pushkinist Kira Victorova ventured a more audacious theory, suggesting the poem might have been dedicated to Empress Elizaveta Alekseyevna herself. [24] Vadim Nikolayev, dismissing the Empress theory as marginal, argued passionately that the poem’s true inspiration was Tatyana Larina, the beloved heroine of Eugene Onegin , effectively claiming the muse was a creation of his own mind. [23] The very same year, 1825, proved exceptionally fruitful, as Pushkin also completed what would become his most famous play, the historical drama Boris Godunov , while still at his mother’s estate. However, permission to publish this politically charged work would remain elusive for another five years, and its original, uncensored version would not see the stage until a groundbreaking production in 2007.

[[File:Anna Kern (1824).jpg|thumb|Pushkin’s married lover Anna Petrovna Kern , for whom he probably wrote the most famous love poem in Russian]]

The political climate in Russia remained turbulent, and Pushkin, despite his exile, was not entirely forgotten by the authorities. He was summoned to Moscow after his incendiary poem “Ode to Liberty ” was discovered among the personal belongings of the rebels involved in the failed Decembrist Uprising of 1825. This uprising, a significant moment in Russian history, saw many of his friends and fellow writers among its ranks. Pushkin himself was widely known for his fervent belief in freedom from both political and moral oppression. Yet, ironically, many of the Decembrists harbored a certain distrust towards him, perceiving him as impetuous and egotistical, a man with “a big mouth.” [26]

Following years of persistent petitions from his friends and family to Emperor Alexander I , and later to Emperor Nicholas I in the wake of the Decembrist events, Pushkin finally obtained a release from his prolonged exile. This freedom, however, came with a new set of chains. Upon meeting Emperor Nicholas I , Pushkin was appointed as the emperor’s Titular Counsel of the National Archives, a seemingly prestigious position that was, in reality, a form of gilded surveillance. Because some of Pushkin’s earlier political poems had been found with the insurgents of the Decembrist Uprising , the emperor maintained stringent control over everything Pushkin published. Furthermore, the poet was explicitly banned from traveling at will, his movements now dictated by imperial decree.

The precise details of Pushkin’s conversation with Nicholas I remain shrouded in historical ambiguity, recoverable only through Pushkin’s subsequent statements and interpretations. What is clear is that following this pivotal meeting, Pushkin seemingly shifted his stance, becoming a supporter of Nicholas I . This was not, as some might assume, a simple betrayal of his earlier social ideals. Rather, it appears to have been rooted in a conviction that Nicholas I , despite his autocratic nature, could be the very instrument through which Russia might advance towards the social ideals Pushkin cherished. This belief was intertwined with a profound sense of personal gratitude towards Nicholas, who had, after all, liberated the poet from exile. This complex attitude found vivid expression in his later stanzas: “No, I am not a flatterer when I compose free praise to the Tsar.” [27] However, this shift was not universally applauded. Pushkin’s patriotic poem “To the Slanderers of Russia ,” written during the tumultuous 1830–1831 Polish uprising , provoked considerable hostility among some of the Russian liberals who viewed it as a betrayal of their shared ideals. [28]

Between approximately 1825 and 1829, while still in exile in central Russia, Pushkin cultivated a significant friendship with the celebrated Polish poet Adam Mickiewicz . [29] This cross-cultural literary bond highlighted the shared intellectual currents of the time, even amidst political tensions. In 1829, driven by an insatiable curiosity and a desire for new experiences, Pushkin embarked on a journey through the Caucasus to Erzurum , seeking out friends who were fighting in the Russian army during the Russo-Turkish War . [30] This firsthand experience of conflict and exotic lands deeply influenced his later work. By the end of 1829, a profound longing for foreign travel gripped Pushkin, a desire eloquently reflected in his poem “Let’s go, I’m ready.” [31] He formally applied for permission to travel abroad, but his hopes were dashed when he received a definitive negative response from Nicholas I on 17 January 1830. [32]

[[File:Alexander Brullov. Portrait of Natalia Nikolaevna Pushkina-Lanskaya (Goncharova). 1831.jpg|thumb|Natalia Pushkina, portrait by Alexander Brullov , 1831.]]

Around 1828, Pushkin’s path intersected with Natalia Goncharova , then a mere 16 years old, yet already widely considered one of the most talked-about beauties in Moscow society. Her striking appearance and vivacious spirit quickly captivated the poet. After a period of considerable hesitation on her part, Natalia finally accepted Pushkin’s proposal of marriage in April 1830. However, her acceptance was contingent upon receiving explicit assurances from the Tsarist government that the famously libertarian poet would not face further persecution. This condition underscores the precarious position Pushkin still held despite his ostensible rehabilitation. Following their marriage, Pushkin and his wife became regular fixtures of court society, a world of glittering balls and intricate social maneuvers. They officially became engaged on 6 May 1830, and wedding invitations were duly dispatched. The ceremony itself, however, was unexpectedly delayed for a year due to an outbreak of cholera and other unforeseen circumstances. The couple finally exchanged vows on 18 February 1831 (Old Style) in the Great Ascension Church on Bolshaya Nikitskaya Street in Moscow.

Pushkin’s marriage to Goncharova was, by many accounts, largely a happy one, marked by deep affection. However, his wife’s natural flirtatiousness and characteristic frivolity, coupled with Pushkin’s intensely jealous temperament, would tragically set the stage for his fatal duel just seven years later. [33] The pressures of court life and the constant scrutiny of society proved to be a dangerous combination for the passionate poet.

[[File:Georges D’Anthès.jpg|thumb|Georges d’Anthès ]]

In 1831, a period during which Pushkin’s literary influence continued its ascent, he formed significant connections with other burgeoning literary figures. Among them was the Russo-Ukrainian writer Nikolai Gogol , whose unique voice and distinctive style immediately impressed Pushkin. After reading Gogol’s captivating 1831–1832 volume of short stories, Evenings on a Farm Near Dikanka , Pushkin became a fervent supporter. He would later champion Gogol’s work, featuring some of his most famous short stories in the literary magazine The Contemporary , which Pushkin himself founded in 1836. This act of patronage further cemented Pushkin’s role not just as a writer, but as a pivotal figure in shaping the direction of Russian literary culture.

Death

The autumn of 1836 found Pushkin in an increasingly precarious position, both financially and socially. He was burdened by mounting debts, a perpetual struggle for many artists, and, more damagingly, by scandalous rumors circulating throughout Saint Petersburg society regarding his wife’s alleged love affair. The whispers implicated Georges d’Anthès , also known as Dantes-Gekkern, a French officer and the brother-in-law of Pushkin’s wife. On 4 November, Pushkin, his honor deeply wounded and his patience exhausted by the relentless gossip, issued a formal challenge to a duel to d’Anthès.

Jacob van Heeckeren , d’Anthès’ adoptive father, intervened, requesting a delay of two weeks for the duel. Through the strenuous efforts of the poet’s friends, who desperately sought to avert bloodshed, the duel was initially cancelled. However, this reprieve proved tragically short-lived. On 17 November, d’Anthès, in a move widely seen as an attempt to quell the rumors and salvage reputations, proposed marriage to Natalia Goncharova’s sister, Ekaterina. Yet, even this union failed to resolve the underlying conflict. D’Anthès, with what Pushkin perceived as brazen disrespect, continued to pursue Natalia Goncharova publicly, and the insidious rumors persisted, now suggesting that d’Anthès had married Natalia’s sister merely as a cynical ploy to protect her reputation.

The situation escalated irrevocably. On 26 January (7 February in the Gregorian calendar) 1837, Pushkin, driven to the brink, dispatched a “highly insulting letter” to Gekkern. He was acutely aware that such a deliberately provocative missive could have only one customary response: a challenge to a duel. Indeed, on the very same day, Pushkin received the formal challenge through his sister-in-law, Ekaterina Gekkerna, which had been approved by d’Anthès and delivered by the attaché of the French Embassy, Viscount d’Archiac.

In preparation for the inevitable, Pushkin requested Arthur Magenis , then an attaché to the British Consulate-General in Saint Petersburg , to serve as his second. Magenis, however, did not formally accept the role. On 26 January (7 February), he approached Viscount d’Archiac in a last-ditch attempt to broker a reconciliation. Unfortunately, d’Archiac refused to engage with him, arguing that Magenis was not yet officially Pushkin’s second. Unable to locate Pushkin that evening, Magenis sent him a letter at 2 o’clock in the morning, declining to act as his second. His rationale was grimly practical: the possibility of a peaceful settlement had already been extinguished, and the primary, traditional duty of a second was precisely to attempt such a reconciliation. [34] [35]

The fateful pistol duel between Pushkin and d’Anthès took place on 27 January (8 February) at the Black River , a grim, secluded location chosen for such affairs. Notably, Pushkin was without a second, a significant breach of dueling protocol that further underscores the urgency and desperation of the situation. The duel they engaged in was of a particularly unforgiving type, known as a “barrier duel.” [c] The rules of this brutal form dictated that the duellists would begin at an agreed-upon distance from one another. Upon receiving the signal to commence, they were to walk towards each other, steadily closing the distance between them. They retained the right to fire at any moment they chose, but with a crucial stipulation: the duellist who fired first was then compelled to stand absolutely still, awaiting the return shot from his opponent, who could then take his time to aim. [36]

In this deadly exchange, d’Anthès fired first. His shot struck Pushkin, critically wounding him; the bullet entered his hip and tragically penetrated his abdomen. Pushkin, despite his severe injury, managed to return fire, lightly wounding d’Anthès in the right arm. The poet endured two agonizing days before succumbing to his wound. At 2:45 pm on 29 January (10 February), Pushkin died of peritonitis , a grim and painful end to a life of unparalleled literary brilliance.

The circumstances of the shot itself have been debated. In Fyodor Dostoevsky ’s profound novel The Idiot , a character offers a speculative, almost dismissive, suggestion that the shot might have been accidental: ‘The bullet hit so low that d’Anthès was probably aiming somewhere higher, the chest or the head; nobody aims where that bullet hit, that means it probably hit Pushkin by chance, a fluke. I’ve been told that by people who know.’ [37] This observation, whether factual or fictional, adds another layer of tragic irony to an already devastating event.

At his wife’s specific request, Pushkin was placed in his coffin dressed in evening attire, rather than the chamber-cadet uniform that the emperor had provided. This choice, perhaps, was a final assertion of his identity as a poet rather than a courtier. The funeral service was initially scheduled for the grand St Isaac’s Cathedral, but was abruptly moved to the smaller Konyushennaya church, likely to prevent a mass public gathering that the authorities feared could turn into a political demonstration. Despite the change of venue, many people, mourning the loss of their national poet, still attended. After the service, the coffin was lowered into the church’s basement, where it remained until 3 February, when it was discreetly removed to the Pskov province. Pushkin was ultimately laid to rest in the tranquil grounds of Svyatogorsky monastery in what is now Pushkinskiye Gory , near Pskov, beside his beloved mother. His last home in Saint Petersburg has since been preserved and transformed into a museum , a testament to his enduring legacy.

[[File:Natalia Pushkina by Vladimir Hau.jpg|thumb|His widow Natalia Goncharova , 1849]] [[File:Pushkin’s ancestry.png|thumb|Pushkin’s ancestry]]

Descendants

From his marriage to Natalia Goncharova , Alexander Pushkin fathered four children, ensuring his lineage continued beyond his tragically short life. These were Maria (born in 1832), Alexander (born in 1833), Grigory (born in 1835), and Natalia (born in 1836). The youngest, Natalia, would later make a notable marriage, entering into a morganatic marriage with Prince Nikolaus Wilhelm of Nassau of the esteemed House of Nassau-Weilburg . As a result of this union, she was granted the distinguished title of Countess of Merenberg , a title that carried significant social weight, albeit one that did not grant her husband’s royal status to her children. Her daughter, Sophie , continued the trend of prominent marriages, wedding Grand Duke Michael Mikhailovich of Russia , who himself was a grandson of Emperor Nicholas I , the very monarch who held such sway over Pushkin’s later life.

[[File:Natalia Alexandrovna Pushkina, Countess of Merenberg (1836-1913).jpg|thumb|Natalia Alexandrovna Pushkina, Countess of Merenberg]]

Today, only the direct lines of Pushkin’s children Alexander and Natalia continue to thrive, a testament to the unpredictable currents of history and survival. Natalia’s granddaughter, Nadejda Mountbatten, Marchioness of Milford Haven , further wove the family into the intricate tapestry of European royalty by marrying into the extended British royal family. Her husband was none other than the uncle of Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh , establishing a direct, albeit distant, link to the British monarchy. Nadejda is also the grandmother of the present Marquess of Milford Haven . [38] As a consequence of these varied and often illustrious unions, descendants of the great Russian poet are now dispersed across the globe, residing in nations as diverse as the United Kingdom, the Czech Republic, Germany, Belgium, Luxembourg, and the United States, a truly international legacy born from Russian soil.

Legacy

Pushkin’s impact on literature, music, and Russian national identity is immeasurable, a testament to his profound and multifaceted genius. One might even suggest that without him, much of subsequent Russian culture would be fundamentally altered, if not entirely unrecognizable.

[[File:Stamp of Moldova - 1999 - Colnect 130847 - Constantin Stamati and Alexander Pushkin.jpeg|thumb|1999 stamp of Moldova showing Pushkin and Constantin Stamati ]]

Literary

Literary critics across the board consider a significant portion of Pushkin’s oeuvre to be undeniable masterpieces, works that continue to resonate with power and insight. The narrative poem The Bronze Horseman , for instance, is a profound exploration of the conflict between individual will and the overwhelming force of the state, set against the backdrop of a devastating flood in Saint Petersburg. Similarly, the poetic drama The Stone Guest offers a compelling, darker reinterpretation of the classic Don Juan legend, delving into themes of defiance, seduction, and ultimate damnation. His poetic short drama Mozart and Salieri , a chilling meditation on envy and genius, proved so potent that it not only inspired Peter Shaffer ’s acclaimed play Amadeus but also provided the libretto—almost verbatim—for Rimsky-Korsakov ’s celebrated opera of the same name. These three, along with “The Miserly Knight” and “A Feast in Time of Plague,” form the collection known as the “Little Tragedies,” a collective characterization Pushkin himself made in a 1830 letter to Pyotr Pletnyov . [39]

Pushkin’s genius was not confined to verse; he is equally renowned for his groundbreaking short stories, which fundamentally reshaped Russian prose. In particular, his cycle The Tales of the Late Ivan Petrovich Belkin , including the stark and impactful “The Shot ,” were met with widespread critical acclaim for their clarity and psychological depth. As the literary theorist Kornelije Kvas aptly observes:

“the narrative logic and the plausibility of that which is narrated, together with the precision, conciseness – economy of the presentation of reality – all of the above is achieved in Tales of Belkin , especially, and most of all in the story The Stationmaster . Pushkin is the progenitor of the long and fruitful development of Russian realist literature, for he manages to attain the realist ideal of a concise presentation of reality.” [40]

However, Pushkin himself held a particular fondness for his magnum opus, the verse novel Eugene Onegin . He painstakingly crafted this work over the course of many years, and it stands as a foundational text, initiating a grand tradition of great Russian novels. Eugene Onegin intricately follows a few central characters, yet its brilliance lies in its fluid shifts in tone and focus, offering a panoramic view of Russian society and the human condition. The sheer density and linguistic subtlety of Onegin are legendary; its complexity is such that, despite being only approximately a hundred pages long, the renowned translator Vladimir Nabokov required two full volumes of extensive commentary and analysis to fully render its profound meaning into English. This inherent difficulty in translation, unfortunately, means that much of Pushkin’s unparalleled verse remains largely inaccessible to English readers, a loss to those who cannot experience it in its original form. Even so, Pushkin’s influence has extended far beyond Russian borders, profoundly impacting Western writers such as Henry James , who recognized his innovative narrative techniques. [41] Beyond these, Pushkin also authored The Queen of Spades , a chilling psychological short story that remains one of his most frequently anthologized and adapted works in English translation.

Musical

Pushkin’s works proved to be exceptionally fertile ground for Russian composers, providing a rich tapestry of narratives, characters, and emotional depth that perfectly suited the operatic stage. Mikhail Glinka ’s Ruslan and Lyudmila , based on Pushkin’s early narrative poem, stands as the earliest important Pushkin-inspired opera and a pivotal landmark in the nascent tradition of Russian classical music. Later, Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky ’s operas, particularly Eugene Onegin (premiering in 1879) and The Queen of Spades ( Pikovaya Dama, 1890), achieved immense popularity, becoming perhaps even better known outside of Russia than Pushkin’s original literary works of the same titles.

Modest Mussorgsky ’s monumental Boris Godunov , existing in two distinct versions (1868–69 and 1871–72), is widely recognized as one of the very finest and most profoundly original Russian operas, capturing the grandeur and moral complexities of Pushkin’s historical drama with unparalleled power. The list of Russian operas based on Pushkin’s creations is extensive, a testament to his enduring appeal. It includes Alexander Dargomyzhsky ’s Rusalka and The Stone Guest ; Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov ’s Mozart and Salieri , Tale of Tsar Saltan , and The Golden Cockerel ; César Cui ’s Prisoner of the Caucasus , Feast in Time of Plague , and The Captain’s Daughter ; Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky ’s Mazeppa ; Sergei Rachmaninoff ’s one-act operas Aleko (derived from The Gypsies) and The Miserly Knight ; Igor Stravinsky ’s Mavra ; and Eduard Nápravník ’s Dubrovsky .

Beyond the operatic stage, Pushkin’s verse has inspired countless other musical forms, including ballets, cantatas , and innumerable art songs . His influence even crossed linguistic barriers, with his French-language poems being set to music, as exemplified by Isabelle Aboulker ’s song cycle “Caprice étrange ”. International composers such as Franz von Suppé , Ruggiero Leoncavallo , and Gian Francesco Malipiero have also based operas on his compelling narratives. [42] Furthermore, a notable roster of female composers, including Valentina Ramm , [43] Yudif Grigorevna Rozhavskaya , Galina Konstantinovna Smirnova , Yevgania Yosifovna Yakhina , Maria Semyonovna Zavalishina , and Zinaida Petrovna Ziberova , have composed beautiful songs using Pushkin’s timeless texts. [44]

Specific poems have found modern musical interpretations as well. “The Desire of Glory,” a piece dedicated to Elizaveta Vorontsova, was set to music by David Tukhmanov , showcasing its enduring emotional resonance. Similarly, “Keep Me, Mine Talisman” has been interpreted by both Alexander Barykin and, later, by Tukhmanov, demonstrating the poem’s versatile appeal across different musical styles.

Romanticism

Pushkin is frequently hailed as the quintessential, central representative of Romanticism within Russian literature . However, labeling him solely as a Romantic feels, to some discerning observers, a touch reductive. The trajectory of his work, according to traditional Russian critical thought, illustrates a fascinating evolution: a clear path leading from the structured elegance of Neoclassicism , through the emotional intensity of Romanticism , and ultimately culminating in the objective observation of Realism . This suggests an artist who absorbed, adapted, and transcended the prevailing literary currents of his time, rather than being confined by any single one.

An alternative, and perhaps more nuanced, assessment proposes that Pushkin possessed “an ability to entertain contrarieties which may seem Romantic in origin, but are ultimately subversive of all fixed points of view, all single outlooks, including the Romantic.” [3] This perspective argues that his genius lay in his capacity to be “simultaneously Romantic and not Romantic,” effortlessly blending passionate emotionalism with a detached, often ironic, intellectualism. For example, while works like The Prisoner of the Caucasus perfectly embody the Romantic fascination with exoticism and individual suffering, his masterpiece Eugene Onegin frequently employs a self-aware, ironic narrator who comments on the very conventions of Romantic literature, thus subtly undermining its tenets even as it utilizes them. This subversive quality, this refusal to be neatly categorized, is precisely what makes Pushkin’s contribution to literary history so profound and enduring. He did not merely participate in a movement; he interrogated and reshaped it, laying the groundwork for future literary innovations.

Russian literature

Pushkin’s influence on the development of Russian literature is so profound that he is almost universally credited with its very formation into a modern, sophisticated artistic force. He is seen as the originating figure who brought about the highly nuanced level of language that characterizes all subsequent Russian literature. His linguistic innovations were not merely stylistic flourishes; he substantially augmented the Russian lexicon, demonstrating an extraordinary facility for language. Where he identified gaps in the existing Russian vocabulary, he ingeniously devised calques , essentially loan translations, enriching the language with new conceptual tools. His remarkable combination of a rich vocabulary and a highly sensitive, expressive style forms the very bedrock upon which modern Russian literature is built.

His accomplishments set unprecedented new records for the artistic and cultural development of the Russian language. He effectively became the undisputed father of 19th-century Russian literature, simultaneously encapsulating the highest achievements of the 18th century and boldly charting the course for the literary processes of the 19th. Pushkin was instrumental in introducing Russia to the full spectrum of European literary genres, from the novel to the drama, and also brought a great number of West European writers into the Russian literary consciousness. Crucially, he fused natural, vernacular speech with sophisticated foreign influences to forge a truly modern poetic Russian, liberating it from archaic forms. Though his life was tragically brief, he left behind an astonishing array of examples across nearly every literary genre of his day: exquisite lyric poetry, expansive narrative poetry, the groundbreaking novel, the incisive short story, the compelling drama, the critical essay, and even the intimate personal letter, each genre bearing the indelible mark of his genius.

According to the meticulous literary scholar Vladimir Nabokov , Pushkin’s distinctive idiom was a masterful synthesis, combining all the contemporaneous elements of Russian language with the rich heritage he had inherited and learned from his predecessors and contemporaries, including revered figures like Gavrila Derzhavin , Vasily Zhukovsky , Konstantin Batyushkov , Nikolay Karamzin , and Ivan Krylov . This potent blend encompassed:

• The poetical and metaphysical strain that still resonated within Church Slavonic forms and locutions, lending his verse a sense of timeless grandeur.
• An abundance of natural gallicisms , reflecting the pervasive influence of French culture on the Russian educated elite, which he integrated seamlessly rather than awkwardly.
• The everyday colloquialisms of his social set, grounding his elevated verse in the authentic speech of his time.
• A stylized popular speech, achieved by ingeniously combining the famous “three styles” (low, medium elevation, high) cherished by pseudoclassical archaists, and then judiciously adding the vibrant ingredients of Russian romanticists, all seasoned with a subtle pinch of parody . [45]

Beyond his creative output, Pushkin’s work as a literary critic and, significantly, as a journalist, marked the crucial birth of Russian magazine culture. His efforts included the pivotal role of devising and contributing heavily to one of the most influential literary magazines of the 19th century, the Sovremennik (The Contemporary ). This platform became a vital forum for intellectual discourse and the dissemination of new literary ideas. Pushkin’s deep engagement with Russian folklore and his innovative narrative techniques inspired the folk tales and genre pieces of numerous other authors, including prominent figures like Nikolai Leskov , Sergei Yesenin , and Maxim Gorky . Furthermore, his refined and expressive use of the Russian language directly formed the stylistic basis for the towering novelists who followed, such as Ivan Turgenev , Ivan Goncharov , and the incomparable Leo Tolstoy , as well as subsequent lyric poets like Mikhail Lermontov . Pushkin’s work was meticulously analyzed by his successor and literary pupil, Nikolai Gogol , and received its fullest and deepest critical study from the great Russian critic Vissarion Belinsky , whose seminal work still retains much of its relevance and insight today.

Soviet centennial celebrations

The centennial year of Pushkin’s death in 1937 was transformed into one of the most significant and widespread literary commemorations of the entire Soviet era , second only to the 1928 centennial of Leo Tolstoy ’s birth. This massive state-sponsored remembrance involved a sweeping mass renaming of streets, squares, and institutions across the entire Soviet Union in his honor, effectively cementing his image as a national icon. Prior to 2022, Pushkin was, in fact, the third most common historical figure commemorated on Ukraine’s streets, a testament to his pervasive cultural presence across the Soviet sphere.

However, the geopolitical landscape shifted dramatically, and with it, the perception of Pushkin’s legacy in certain regions. Following the full-scale Russian invasion of Ukraine in February 2022, a profound process of de-Russification began in Ukraine . Consequently, his monuments were systematically removed, and streets bearing his name were renamed, a stark reversal of Soviet-era veneration. [46] These monuments, along with any toponymy named after him, are now deemed illegal in Ukraine under a recently implemented law. This legislation explicitly bans symbols “dedicated to persons who publicly, including … in literary and other artistic works, supported, glorified, or justified Russian imperial policy,” effectively recontextualizing Pushkin’s historical role through a contemporary lens of national sovereignty and resistance. [46] The renaming efforts have been widespread, with “Bandera Street” appearing in liberated Izium, “Pushkinska Street” in Kyiv becoming “Chikalenka Street,” and monuments to Pushkin, Lomonosov, and Gorky being removed from public spaces in Dnipro and Poltava. [47]

Despite the monumental scale of the 1937 celebrations, the image of Pushkin prominently displayed in Soviet propaganda—from ubiquitous billboards to everyday candy wrappers—often stood in a rather awkward conflict with the idealized Soviet persona. Pushkin was, after all, reputed as a libertine with distinct aristocratic tendencies, characteristics that clashed quite sharply with the austere, collective values promoted by the Soviet regime. This ideological dissonance led to a subtle yet pervasive form of repressive revisionism, akin to the Stalinist reworking of Tolstoy’s more inconvenient Christian anarchism . His complex personal life and social background were often sanitized or selectively interpreted to fit the narrative of a “people’s poet,” a rather predictable outcome when art meets authoritarianism. [48]

Honours

The enduring legacy of Alexander Pushkin is reflected not only in academic discourse and artistic adaptations but also in a wide array of public honors and commemorations across the globe, though some of these have become subject to contemporary political reevaluation.

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[[File:Vyazyomy manor.jpg|thumb|Pushkin Museum, Bolshiye Vyazyomy in Golitsyno , Moskovskaya oblast, which Pushkin visited several times in his youth]] [[File:Pushkin monument in Chernihiv.jpg|thumb|Now dismantled monument in Chernihiv , Ukraine as it was in 2019]]

• Shortly after Pushkin’s tragic death, the contemporary Russian romantic poet Mikhail Lermontov penned the powerful and highly controversial poem “Death of the Poet .” This work, which concluded with a scathing passage directly blaming the aristocracy (whom Lermontov depicted as oppressors of freedom) as the true culprits in Pushkin’s demise, was never officially published due to its incendiary content. However, it was widely circulated unofficially in St. Petersburg, becoming a potent expression of public grief and anger. [49] The authorities, predictably, took a dim view of Lermontov’s defiance, leading to his arrest and subsequent exile to a regiment in the Caucasus . [50] [51]
• The Montenegrin poet and ruler Petar II Petrović-Njegoš included a poetic ode to Pushkin, titled Sjeni Aleksandra Puškina (The Shadow of Alexander Pushkin), in his 1846 poetry collection Ogledalo srpsko (The Serbian Mirror), demonstrating Pushkin’s cross-Slavic appeal.
• In 1929, the Soviet writer Leonid Grossman published the novel The d’Archiac Papers. This work offered a unique perspective on Pushkin’s death, telling the story from the viewpoint of a French diplomat who was both a participant in and a witness to the fatal duel. Grossman’s portrayal cast Pushkin as a liberal figure and a victim of the oppressive Tsarist regime, a narrative that resonated with Soviet ideology. In Poland, the book was published under the evocative title Death of the Poet.
• In 1937, the historically significant town of Tsarskoye Selo , where Pushkin had attended the Lyceum, was officially renamed Pushkin in his honor, a direct and lasting tribute.
• Numerous museums across Russia are dedicated to preserving Pushkin’s memory and legacy. These include two prominent institutions in Moscow, one in Saint Petersburg, and a large, comprehensive museum complex at Mikhailovskoye , his former rural estate, offering visitors a deep dive into his life and work.
• Pushkin’s dramatic death was vividly portrayed in the 2006 biographical film Pushkin: The Last Duel. Directed by Natalya Bondarchuk , the film starred Sergei Bezrukov in the role of the poet, bringing his final days to a wide audience.
• His life and works were also dramatized in the 1951 Australian radio play The Golden Cockerel , showcasing the international reach of his stories.
• In a significant act of cultural diplomacy, the Statue of Alexander Pushkin (Washington, D.C.) was erected in 2000 as part of a cultural exchange program between the cities of Moscow and Washington. Reciprocally, a statue of the iconic American poet Walt Whitman was subsequently erected in Moscow, symbolizing a bridge between two literary giants.
• The Pushkin Trust was established in 1987 by the Duchess of Abercorn to commemorate the creative legacy and spirit of her distinguished ancestor. Its mission is to foster creativity and imagination among the children of Ireland, providing them with opportunities to express their thoughts, feelings, and experiences through artistic endeavors.
• A minor planet, 2208 Pushkin , discovered in 1977 by the Soviet astronomer Nikolai Chernykh , was named in his honor, extending his recognition to the cosmos. [52] Similarly, a crater on Mercury also bears his name.
• The MS Aleksandr Pushkin, the second ship of the Russian Ivan Franko class (often referred to as the “poet” or “writer” class), was named after him, sailing the seas as a tribute to his literary stature.
• A station of the Tashkent metro in Uzbekistan was named in his honor, reflecting his cultural influence beyond Russia’s borders.
• The Pushkin Hills [53] and Pushkin Lake [54] in Ben Nevis Township , Cochrane District, Ontario, Canada, were named in his honor, indicating a surprising geographical recognition in North America.
• UN Russian Language Day , established by the United Nations in 2010 and celebrated annually on 6 June, was deliberately scheduled to coincide with Pushkin’s birthday, highlighting his central role in the Russian language. [55]
• In 2010, a statue of Pushkin was unveiled inside the Mehan Garden in Manila, Philippines, a gesture commemorating the strengthening Philippines–Russia relations . [56]
• The Alexander Pushkin diamond , a magnificent gemstone that was the second largest found in Russia (then part of the USSR), was given his name, a rare and tangible honor.
• On 28 November 2009, a Pushkin Monument was erected in Asmara , the capital of Eritrea , reflecting his global cultural resonance. [57]
• In 2005, a monument dedicated to Pushkin and his grandmother Maria Hannibal was commissioned by Russian culture enthusiast Just Rugel and erected in Zakharovo, Russia, sculpted by V. Kozinin, honoring his unique ancestry.
• In 2019, Moscow’s major international airport, Sheremetyevo International Airport , was named after Pushkin, following a nationwide public vote as part of the “Great Names of Russia” contest, ensuring his name greets travelers from around the world. [58]

Works

Pushkin’s prolific output spanned a remarkable array of literary forms, demonstrating his versatility and mastery across genres. His collected works form a cornerstone of Russian literary heritage.

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Narrative poems

Pushkin’s narrative poems are distinguished by their lyrical beauty, dramatic sweep, and often exotic settings, blending historical detail with personal emotion.

• 1820 – Ruslan i Ludmila (Руслан и Людмила) ; English translation: Ruslan and Ludmila
• 1820–21 – Kavkazskiy plennik (Кавказский пленник) ; English translation: The Prisoner of the Caucasus
• 1821 – Gavriiliada (Гавриилиада) ; English translation: The Gabrieliad
• 1821–22 – Bratia razboyniki (Братья разбойники) ; English translation: The Robber Brothers
• 1823 – Bakhchisarayskiy fontan (Бахчисарайский фонтан) ; English translation: The Fountain of Bakhchisaray
• 1824 – Tsygany (Цыганы) ; English translation: The Gypsies
• 1825 – Graf Nulin (Граф Нулин) ; English translation: Count Nulin
• 1829 – Poltava (Полтава)
• 1830 – Domik v Kolomne (Домик в Коломне) ; English translation: The Little House in Kolomna
• 1833 – Andzhelo (Анджело) ; English translation: Angelo
• 1833 – Medny vsadnik (Медный всадник) ; English translation: The Bronze Horseman
• 1825–1832 (1833) – Evgeniy Onegin (Евгений Онегин) ; English translation: Eugene Onegin , a seminal “novel in verse” that redefined Russian narrative.

Drama

Pushkin’s dramatic works often explored historical and psychological themes, laying the groundwork for Russian theatrical tradition.

• 1825 – Boris Godunov (Борис Годунов) ; English translation by Alfred Hayes : Boris Godunov , a historical tragedy that broke new ground in Russian theatre.
• 1830 – Malenkie tragedii (Маленькие трагедии) ; English translation: Little Tragedies   (ru), a collection of four concise, psychologically intense plays:
  • Kamenny gost (Каменный гость) ; English translation: The Stone Guest
  • Motsart i Salieri (Моцарт и Сальери) ; English translation: Mozart and Salieri
  • Skupoy rytsar (Скупой рыцарь) ; English translations: The Miserly Knight , or The Covetous Knight
  • Pir vo vremya chumy (Пир во время чумы) ; English translation: A Feast in Time of Plague

Fairy tales in verse

His verse fairy tales, beloved by generations, demonstrate his ability to adapt traditional folklore with wit and lyrical charm.

• 1822 – Царь Никита и сорок его дочерей ; English translation: Tsar Nikita and His Forty Daughters
• 1825 – Жених ; English translation: The Bridegroom
• 1830 – Сказка о попе и о работнике его Балде ; English translation: The Tale of the Priest and of His Workman Balda
• 1830 – Сказка о медведихе ; English translation: The Tale of the Female Bear , or The Tale of the Bear (remained unfinished)
• 1831 – Сказка о царе Салтане ; English translation: The Tale of Tsar Saltan
• 1833 – Сказка о рыбаке и рыбке ; English translation: The Tale of the Fisherman and the Fish
• 1833 – Сказка о мертвой царевне ; English translation: The Tale of the Dead Princess
• 1834 – Сказка о золотом петушке ; English translation: The Tale of the Golden Cockerel

Short poems

Pushkin’s short poems are renowned for their emotional intensity, lyrical elegance, and profound philosophical insights.

• 1817 – “Ode to Liberty ”
• 1829 – “I Loved You ”
• 1831 – “To the Slanderers of Russia ”

Novels

Pushkin’s prose novels were instrumental in establishing the genre in Russian literature, characterized by their psychological depth and keen observation of society.

• 1828 – Arap Petra Velikogo (Арап Петра Великого) ; English translation: The Moor of Peter the Great , an unfinished novel exploring his own African ancestry.
• 1829 – Roman v pis’makh (Роман в письмах) ; English translation: A Novel in Letters , an unfinished epistolary novel.
• 1836 – Kapitanskaya dochka (Капитанская дочка) ; English translation: The Captain’s Daughter , a historical novel set during the Pugachev Rebellion.
• 1836 – Roslavlev (Рославлев) ; English translation: Roslavlev , an unfinished novel.
• 1841 – Dubrovsky (Дубровский) ; English translation: Dubrovsky , an unfinished novel of banditry and romance. [citation needed](/Wikipedia:Citation_needed) ]

Short stories

His short stories are celebrated for their concise narrative, sharp characterization, and pioneering contribution to Russian realism.

• 1831 – Povesti pokoynogo Ivana Petrovicha Belkina (Повести покойного Ивана Петровича Белкина) ; English translation: The Tales of the Late Ivan Petrovich Belkin , a foundational collection of Russian prose, including:
  • Vystrel (Выстрел) ; English translation: The Shot
  • Metel (Метель) ; English translation: The Blizzard
  • Grobovschik (Гробовщик) ; English translation: The Undertaker
  • Stantsionny smotritel (Станционный смотритель) ; English translation: The Stationmaster
  • Baryshnya-krestianka (Барышня-крестьянка) ; English translation: The Squire’s Daughter   (ru)
• 1834 – Pikovaya dama (Пиковая дама) ; English translation: The Queen of Spades , a chilling psychological thriller.
• 1834 – Kirjali (Кирджали) ; English translation: Kirdzhali   (ru)
• 1837 – Istoria sela Goryuhina (История села Горюхина) ; English translation: The Story of the Village of Goryukhino   (ru)
• 1837 – Egypetskie nochi (Египетские ночи) ; English translation: The Egyptian Nights   (ru) , an unfinished short story.

Non-fiction

Pushkin’s non-fiction works reveal his keen historical interest and incisive analytical mind.

• 1834 – Istoria Pugachyova (История Пугачева) ; English translation: A History of Pugachev , a meticulous study of the Pugachev’s Rebellion .
• 1836 – Puteshestvie v Arzrum (Путешествие в Арзрум) ; English translation: A Journey to Arzrum , vivid travel sketches from his military campaign experiences.

See also

• Biography portal

• Russia portal

• Novels portal

• Poetry portal

• Children’s literature portal

• Anton Delvig

• Aleksandra Ishimova

• Fyodor Petrovich Tolstoy

• Literaturnaya Gazeta

• Pushkin Prize

• Vasily Pushkin

• Vladimir Dal

• Kapiton Zelentsov , contemporary illustrator of Pushkin’s novels

• UN Russian Language Day

Notes

• ^ The first name is also transliterated as Aleksandr . In this name that follows East Slavic naming customs , the patronymic is Sergeyevich and the family name is Pushkin .
• ^ English: /ˈpʊʃkɪn/ ; [2] Russian: Александр Сергеевич Пушкин,
  • IPA: [ɐlʲɪkˈsandr sʲɪrˈɡʲe(j)ɪvʲɪtɕ ˈpuʂkʲɪn] ⓘ
• ^ This was coincidentally the same form of duel as the one depicted in Eugene Onegin ; see Hopton (2011)