For other uses, see Chinook .

Indigenous people of the United States

Ethnic group

Chinookan peoples

Chinook people meet the Corps of Discovery on the Lower Columbia , October 1805 (by Charles M. Russell , 1905)

Location of Chinookan territory early in the 19th century

• Total population 2,700 [1]
• Regions with significant populations United States (Oregon – Washington )
• Languages English , formerly Chinookan languages
• Religion traditional tribal religion

The Chinookan peoples encompass a collection of distinct groups of Indigenous people of the Pacific Northwest within the United States , unified primarily by their historical use of the Chinookan languages . Their ancestral presence in this region is remarkably ancient, with archaeological evidence suggesting continuous habitation by Chinookan peoples and their forebears extending back to at least 11,500 BCE. [2] These communities have historically thrived along the expansive and vital waterway known as the upper and Middle Columbia River (Wimahl) , which they reverently called the “Great River.” Their territorial reach stretched from the dramatic confines of the river’s gorge, situated near the modern-day town of The Dalles, Oregon , and extended relentlessly downstream—that is, westward—all the way to the river’s majestic mouth. Beyond the immediate riverine environment, their influence also extended along the adjacent coastal stretches, encompassing lands from Tillamook Head in what is now Oregon to the south, northward to the vast expanse of Willapa Bay in the southwestern corner of Washington . It was within these rich and diverse landscapes that the famed Lewis and Clark Expedition first encountered members of the Chinook Tribe in October 1805, specifically along the lower reaches of the Columbia River .

The nomenclature surrounding “Chinook” can be, predictably, rather convoluted. The term “Chinook” itself carries a broader significance, often referring to the Chinook Jargon , a fascinating and practical trade language that emerged from the region, partly rooted in the original Chinookan languages . This linguistic evolution prompted linguists to introduce the more precise term “Chinookan” to clearly differentiate the ancestral, older language family from its derived and distinct descendant, the Chinuk Wawa (another name for the Jargon). Regarding the etymology of the name “Chinook,” several theories persist, each offering a glimpse into the perceptions or self-identification of these peoples. One popular theory suggests it originates from a Chehalis word, Tsinúk, which was used to describe both the inhabitants of a specific village site on Baker Bay and, perhaps tellingly, as a descriptor meaning “Fish Eaters”—a fitting epithet for a people so intrinsically linked to the bounty of the Columbia River and the Pacific. Another interpretation posits that the word might carry the meaning of “strong fighters,” reflecting a different, perhaps more assertive, aspect of their historical identity. Whatever its precise origin, the name has become indelibly linked to this resilient and culturally rich collection of peoples.

A number of contemporary Chinookan peoples are recognized as integral components of several federally recognized Tribes . These include the Yakama Nation , where the Wishram people constitute a primary component; the Confederated Tribes of the Warm Springs Reservation , which primarily includes the Wasco people; and the Confederated Tribes of the Grand Ronde Community . These recognitions, while crucial, only tell part of the story of the Chinookan legacy.

The Chinook Indian Nation , representing a confederation of the five westernmost tribes of Chinookan peoples—namely the Lower Chinook, Clatsop , Willapa, Wahkiakum, and Kathlamet —is currently engaged in the arduous process of seeking to restore its federal recognition . As of 2024, this effort continues, highlighting the enduring struggle for self-determination and recognition. It is worth noting that the Chinook Nation did, in fact, achieve federal recognition on January 3, 2001, [3] a significant milestone granted by the Department of Interior during the final days of President Bill Clinton’s administration. [4] However, this hard-won recognition proved tragically fleeting. Following the election of President George W. Bush , his newly appointed political officials undertook a review of the case. In an action widely considered highly unusual and controversial, they subsequently revoked the Chinook Nation’s recognition. [5] This reversal underscores the precarious nature of tribal recognition and the profound impact of shifting political tides on Indigenous communities.

Further complicating the landscape of tribal recognition are groups such as the unrecognized Tchinouk Indians of Oregon. This group asserts its Chinook ancestry through two Chinook women who entered into marriages with French Canadians traders associated with the formidable Hudson’s Bay Company before 1830. The precise Chinook band these women originated from, or whether they belonged to the Lower or Upper Chinook, remains undetermined. These individuals ultimately settled in the French Prairie region of northwestern Oregon, thereby integrating into the nascent community of French Canadians and Métis (Mix-Bloods) . However, historical records have yielded no conclusive evidence suggesting that they constituted a distinct Indian community within French Prairie . Crucially, the Chinook Indian Nation has formally denied any shared history or organizational affiliation with the Tchinouk. Consequently, on January 16, 1986, the Bureau of Indian Affairs rendered a determination that the Tchinouk Indians of Oregon did not satisfy the requisite criteria for federal tribal recognition.

Another unrecognized entity, the Clatsop-Nehalem Confederate Tribes, emerged in 2000. [6] This group claims approximately 130 members and asserts both Chinookan and Salish-speaking Tillamook (Nehalem) ancestry. This claim, however, is met with significant contention from the Chinook Indian Nation . Historical findings from the Indian Claims Commission further complicate their position. In Docket 234, issued in 1957, the Commission determined that the Clatsop Chinooks were, in fact, an integral part of the Chinook Indian Nation . [7] Additionally, in Docket 240, dated 1962, the Commission concluded that the Nehalem people were part of the Confederated Tribes of Siletz Indians . [8] These official determinations highlight the intricate and often contested nature of tribal identity and historical lineage within the complex framework of federal recognition.

Historic culture

Practices and lifestyle

The Chinookan peoples were, by all accounts, a remarkably settled and prosperous group, distinguishing themselves from many nomadic tribes by their deep connection to traditional tribal geographic areas. Here, they meticulously honed their skills in hunting and, perhaps most importantly, fishing. Salmon, in its abundant forms, was not merely a food source but a veritable cornerstone of their diet, their culture, and their economy. While men focused on the bounties of the river and forest, the women played an equally critical role, adeptly gathering and processing a diverse array of nuts, seeds, roots, and other vital foodstuffs, ensuring a sustainable and varied diet for their communities. Their societal structure was notably complex, characterized by a pronounced social stratification that delineated several distinct social castes, each possessing a greater or lesser degree of status. [9] At the apex of this hierarchy were the upper castes, which included revered shamans , formidable warriors , and exceptionally successful traders. These individuals, however, constituted only a minority of the overall community population, standing distinct from the common members. [9] Accounts suggest that members of these superior castes rigorously practiced social discrimination, deliberately limiting their interactions with commoners and even forbidding children from different social strata from playing together. [10] A truly sophisticated system, if one appreciates the subtle cruelties of human nature.

It is a rather uncomfortable historical truth that some Chinookan peoples engaged in the practice of slavery , a societal element they are believed to have adopted from the more northerly tribes of the Pacific Northwest . [11] Slaves were typically acquired as captives during warfare, and their utility extended beyond mere labor; they were sometimes utilized to commit acts of thievery on behalf of their masters. This allowed the elite to remain untainted by such “unworthy” practices, maintaining their high status while benefiting from the illicit gains. [10] A convenient arrangement, one might observe.

Chinook child undergoing process of flattening the head.

Among the elite of certain tribes, a distinctive and visually striking practice was observed: head binding . This custom involved the deliberate flattening of their children’s foreheads and the top of their skulls, serving as an unmistakable physical marker of elevated social status. The process itself was quite specific, beginning when an infant was approximately three months old. Their delicate heads would be bound under gentle, continuous pressure between specially designed boards, a practice maintained until the child reached about one year of age. [12] This custom was not merely cosmetic; it was a profound means of inscribing social hierarchy directly onto the individual. Those community members who bore the distinctive flattened head possessed a rank intrinsically superior to those with naturally rounded heads. Indeed, members with flattened skulls notably refused to enslave any other individuals who were similarly marked, thereby powerfully reinforcing the direct association of a round head with servility and a flattened head with inherent nobility. [12] This unique custom led early white explorers in the region to colloquially refer to the Chinook as “Flathead Indians,” a descriptor that, while accurate in its observation, entirely missed the profound cultural significance of the practice.

Given their proximity to the vast and powerful Pacific Ocean , the Chinook were, unsurprisingly, exceptionally skilled elk hunters and, as previously noted, unparalleled fishermen. The ubiquitous and highly prized salmon was, without question, their most vital catch. Due in part to their established, settled living patterns, the Chinook and other coastal tribes experienced relatively little conflict over territorial lands. Unlike more migratory groups, they did not typically traverse each other’s traditional hunting and gathering grounds, and the natural environment provided an abundance of rich resources, lessening the impetus for violent disputes over scarcity. In a manner characteristic of numerous settled tribes throughout the region, the Chinook established their homes in substantial longhouses . These impressive structures were not mere dwellings but vibrant community hubs, often housing more than fifty individuals, all interconnected through intricate extended kinship networks. Their longhouses were meticulously constructed from planks meticulously split from the resilient red cedar trees, a material chosen for its durability and abundance. These architectural marvels typically measured between 20–60 feet in width and an impressive 50–150 feet in length, testaments to their engineering prowess and communal living philosophy.

Language and storytelling

Franz Boas (1858–1942)

In 1888, the formidable anthropologist Franz Boas , a figure whose influence on the study of human cultures is undeniable, published “The Journal of American Folk-Lore.” This seminal journal served as a crucial platform for discussing American Folklore, and within its pages, Boas meticulously documented and presented various “Chinook songs.” Crucially, he provided these songs in both their original, resonant Chinook language and carefully rendered English translations, offering invaluable insight into the oral traditions of the people. [13]

Boas’s dedication to preserving Chinookan culture extended further with his collection titled “Native Legends of Oregon and Washington Collected,” published in 1893. This volume represents a treasury of diverse Chinook legends and stories, painstakingly gathered and transcribed during his summer research trips to Oregon and Washington between 1890 and 1891. It stands as a testament to his immersive fieldwork and commitment to capturing the essence of Chinookan folklore directly from its source.

He also authored the profoundly important “Chinook Texts,” which saw publication in 1894. Within this comprehensive reference work, Boas compiled an extensive array of myths, deeply held beliefs, intricate customs, captivating tales, and detailed historical narratives. Significantly, these were presented precisely as they were recounted by the Chinookan people themselves, offering an unvarnished and authentic window into their worldview. [14] A rather impressive feat of academic dedication, if one can stomach the inherent voyeurism of it all.

George Gibbs (1815–1873)

George Gibbs was another prominent anthropologist of his era, recognized for his significant contributions to the linguistic understanding of Indigenous peoples. He undertook the considerable task of compiling the “Alphabetical Vocabulary of the Chinook Language.” In this endeavor, Gibbs received invaluable assistance from Robert Shortess and Soloman H. Smith, both residing in Oregon, as well as A. C. Anderson of Victoria, Vancouver Island. The compilation of words was a complex undertaking, necessitating their collection from various disparate tribes due to the unfortunate scarcity of Chinookan speakers at the time. The resulting book was primarily conceived for practical trading purposes, reflecting the economic realities of the period. Consequently, Gibbs acquired the majority of his translations directly from the traders themselves, highlighting the pragmatic origins of this linguistic record. [15]

Chinook people today

Map of traditional Chinook tribal territory.

The Chinookan peoples have maintained a continuous and enduring community along the lower Columbia River for millennia. In the 20th century, these lower Columbia Chinook tribes and bands undertook the critical process of re-organization, establishing an elected form of government and actively working to revive and strengthen their tribal culture. Their initial efforts to secure recognition as a federally recognized sovereign tribe began in the late 20th century, driven by the understanding that such recognition would unlock crucial, treaty-promised benefits for education, healthcare, and welfare. However, their application was met with rejection by the Department of Interior’s Bureau of Indian Affairs in 1997. [16] Since that time, the Chinook Indian Nation has been engaged in a relentless, ongoing effort to secure formal recognition, meticulously conducting research and developing extensive documentation to unequivocally demonstrate its unbroken history and continuity as a distinct tribal entity. They are, undeniably, referenced in countless government and historical accounts, and treaties were indeed signed at Tansy Point in 1851. Yet, these treaties were never formally ratified by Congress through the proper legislative process. This critical inaction meant that the Chinook territories, explicitly defined within those treaties, remained legally unceded. Despite this, these lands were nonetheless seized and incorporated by the federal government, a predictable pattern of dispossession. Had Congress formally ratified the treaties, a reservation would have been officially established, which, in turn, would have automatically conferred federal recognition upon the Chinook. [17] The bureaucratic labyrinth, it seems, is designed for precisely this kind of insidious obstruction.

In a brief but significant moment, in 2001, the U.S. Department of Interior did officially recognize the Chinook Indian Nation . This recognition applied to a confederation comprising the Cathlamet, Clatsop, Lower Chinook, Wahkiakum, and Willapa Indians, a decision made in accordance with the Department’s established rules, developed through consultation with other already recognized tribes. The Chinook Nation had, by all accounts, thoroughly documented the continuous existence of their community over an extensive period on the lower Columbia. This landmark recognition was publicly announced during the final months of President Bill Clinton’s administration, a fleeting triumph. [18] It’s worth noting that since the 1930s, individual Chinook people have held Allotments on the timber-rich Quinault Reservation in Grays Harbor County, Washington . The Quinault Nation, however, appealed the recognition of the Chinook in August 2001, effectively challenging the decision. This appeal then fell under the purview of the incoming administration, setting the stage for the subsequent reversal. [16]

Following the election of President George W. Bush , his newly appointed political officials undertook a review of the Chinook’s meticulously prepared materials. In 2002, in what was widely described as a highly unusual and deeply controversial action, they abruptly revoked the recognition of the Chinook, alongside two other tribes that had also been approved by the preceding administration. [19] [20] [additional citation(s) needed ] This reversal sparked renewed efforts to secure the recognition that had been so cruelly withdrawn. Brian Baird , a Democratic Representative from Washington’s 3rd congressional district, championed legislation in 2011 aimed at achieving federal recognition for the tribe, but these efforts, regrettably, proved unsuccessful. [21] [20] [1] However, a glimmer of hope emerged in late 2017. In his decision regarding a lawsuit filed by the Chinook, U.S. District Court Judge Ronald B. Leighton ruled that while recognition could only be granted by Congress and other governmental branches, he largely sided with the tribe. Leighton notably denied seven of the eight claims put forth by the Interior Department to dismiss the case, including a challenge to a 2015 rule that sought to bar tribes from seeking recognition again. [22] A small victory, perhaps, but one that highlights the persistent, almost Sisyphean, nature of their struggle.

Today, the Chinook Indian Nation’s administrative offices are located in Bay Center, Washington , serving as the hub for their ongoing cultural and political endeavors. The tribe proudly hosts an Annual Winter Gathering, a vital cultural event held at the meticulously recreated plankhouse in Ridgefield, Washington . They also conduct an Annual First Salmon Ceremony, a deeply significant spiritual occasion, at Chinook Point (now Fort Columbia ) on the North Shore of the Columbia River , reaffirming their enduring connection to their ancestral lands and traditions. [23] Further demonstrating their commitment to reclaiming their heritage, in 2019, the Chinook Indian Nation successfully purchased ten acres of the historic 1851 Tansy Point treaty grounds, a symbolic and tangible step towards re-establishing their presence and sovereignty. [24]

In the 21st century, a substantial proportion of Chinook people continue to reside in the regions immediately surrounding the towns of Bay Center , Chinook , and Ilwaco in southwestern Washington, as well as in Astoria, Oregon . [citation needed ] Their continued presence in these ancestral territories speaks volumes about their resilience and deep-rooted connection to the land, despite the numerous historical challenges they have faced.

List of Chinookan peoples

Cathlapotle Plankhouse, a full-scale replica of a Chinook-style cedar plankhouse erected in 2005 at the Ridgefield National Wildlife Refuge , which was once inhabited by more than 1200 Chinook people

Illustration of the interior of a Chinookan plankhouse

The rich tapestry of Chinookan-speaking groups historically encompassed a distinct array of communities, each with its own unique identity and geographical footprint. These groups, while sharing a linguistic heritage, maintained individual village structures and cultural nuances.

Lower Chinookans

The Lower Chinookans represent a closely related cluster of groups, all of whom spoke dialects of the Lower Chinook language. Their traditional villages were strategically situated around the vital mouth of the Columbia River and extended along the adjacent Pacific coast, a testament to their deep connection with the marine and riverine environments. [25] [26]

• Clatsop – These people established their settlements on the southern bank of the Columbia River , stretching from Point Adams down to Youngs Bay. Their territory also encompassed the expansive Clatsop Plains , extending southward to the prominent landmark of Tillamook Head .
• Lower Chinook – Occupying the northern bank of the Columbia River , their lands spanned from Cape Disappointment eastward to Grays Bay, controlling a crucial stretch of the river’s entrance.
• Shoalwater (Willapa) Chinook – These communities were primarily concentrated around the extensive and resource-rich Willapa Bay , a critical area for shellfish and other marine life.

Kathlamet (Downstreamers)

The Kathlamet, often referred to as the “Downstreamers,” comprised several smaller, interconnected village groups. All of these communities shared and spoke the distinct Kathlamet language , a testament to their close cultural and linguistic ties. [27]

• Kathlamet – Their primary settlement was located at Cathlamet Head, a significant point along the river.
• Qaniak – These people resided to the east of Oak Point, further inland along the Columbia River .
• Skilloot(s) – The precise identity of the Skilloot(s), or indeed whether they constituted a distinct tribe at all, remains a subject of historical dispute among scholars. Theories regarding their origin and affiliation are varied, ranging from the possibility that “Skilloot” was a Tillamookan name for the Kalapuyans to the simpler explanation of a historical miscommunication or misunderstanding during early ethnographic encounters. [28] A good reminder that history is rarely as neat as we’d like it to be.
• Wahkiakum – Their settlements were concentrated in the immediate vicinity of Pillar Rock , a distinctive geological feature on the Columbia River .

Multnomah (Wapato Valley)

This grouping specifically refers to a dense concentration of Upper Chinook -speaking villages. These communities flourished along a significant stretch of the Columbia River , spanning from the mouth of the Lewis River to the ecologically important Government Island , a region renowned for its rich natural resources, particularly the wapato plant. [29]

• Cathlapotle – Situated just above the confluence with the Lewis River , this was a prominent village site.
• Multnomah – These people resided on Sauvie Island , a large island in the Columbia River known for its fertile lands.
• Shoto – Documented by the Lewis and Clark Expedition , these communities were said to inhabit the area around Lake Vancouver , indicating a presence slightly inland from the main river channel.

Clackamas

The Clackamas were a distinct Kiksht -speaking group, notable for having at least one major village situated along the banks of the Clackamas River , a significant tributary of the Willamette River . [30]

• Clackamas – Their central village was located along the Clackamas River , giving the group its name.

Willamette Falls

• Clawiwalla – These people were located on the eastern bank of the Willamette River , directly opposite the powerful Willamette Falls near what is now Oregon City, Oregon . Alternatively, the esteemed linguist Michael Silverstein classified them as closely associated with the Clackamas, suggesting a shared cultural or linguistic proximity. [30] [31]

Shakhlatksh/Shahalas (Upstreamers)

The “Upstreamers” grouping refers to a collection of village groups and individual villages that were historically located within the rugged and scenic Cascades region of the Columbia River , inhabiting the upstream reaches relative to the lower river communities. [32]

• Watlala – A prominent group within the Upstreamers, known for their presence in the Cascades.

Wasco-Wishram

• Wasco (also known by their Sahaptin name as Wascopam) – Traditionally, these people inhabited the south bank of the Columbia River in Oregon. They were further subdivided into three distinct subtribes: the Dalles Wasco, or Wasco proper, who resided near The Dalles, Oregon in Wasco County; the Hood River Wasco, whose territory extended along the Hood River to its confluence with the Columbia River , sometimes further divided into the Hood River Band in Oregon and the White Salmon River Band in Washington. In 1822, their population was estimated to be around 900 individuals. Today, approximately 200 tribal members out of the 4,000 enrolled in the Confederated Tribes of Warm Springs are estimated to be of Wasco descent.
• Wishram (a Yakama-Sahaptin term) – Their autonym, Ita’xluit, was the source for transliterations such as Tlakluit or Echelut (Echeloot) . These people traditionally occupied the north bank of the Columbia River in Washington. Their central hub was the Wishram village , also known as Nixlúidix (“trading place”), which was strategically located near Five Mile Rapids. This village served as the vibrant epicenter of a vast regional trade system, facilitating exchange among Pacific Coast, Plateau, Great Basin, and Plains tribes. In the 1700s, the Wishram population was estimated at a robust 1,500. By 1962, however, only 10 Wishrams were recorded on the Washington census, reflecting the devastating impact of disease and displacement. Today, they are predominantly enrolled in the Confederated Tribes and Bands of the Yakama Nation .
• Chilluckittequaw or Chiluktkwa – Residing on the north side of the Columbia River in Klickitat and Skamania counties, Washington, their territory stretched from about 10 miles below The Dalles to the vicinity of the Cascades. In 1806, Lewis and Clark estimated their numbers at a substantial 2,400. According to Mooney, a remnant of this tribe continued to live near the mouth of the White Salmon River until 1880, at which point they relocated to the Cascades, where a few individuals still resided in 1895. Today, they are sometimes considered the White Salmon River Band of Washington, a component of the Hood River Wasco subtribe.

Lower Chinook chief from Warm Spring reservation (1886).

Notable Chinook

• Comcomly – A highly influential chief who commanded significant respect and authority in the early to mid-19th century, playing a pivotal role in the interactions between Chinookan peoples and early European and American traders and explorers.
• Charles Cultee – He served as the principal informant for the early 20th-century anthropologist Franz Boas during his extensive language and tribal studies, particularly for the seminal work Chinook Texts. Without his invaluable knowledge, much of that linguistic and cultural record would undoubtedly have been lost.
• Ranald MacDonald – The mixed-race son of Archibald McDonald , a Scottish Hudson’s Bay Company fur trader, and Raven, the daughter of the esteemed Chief Comcomly , born in Astoria, Oregon . MacDonald achieved historical distinction as the first Westerner to teach the English language in Japan during the years 1847–1848. His teachings were instrumental to Einosuke Moriyama , who later served as one of the chief interpreters during the critical negotiations between Commodore Perry and the Tokugawa Shogunate , thereby inadvertently shaping international relations.
• J. Christopher Stevens – An American diplomat and lawyer who served as the U.S. Ambassador to Libya from June 2012 until his tragic death in September 2012. He was killed when the U.S. consulate was attacked in Benghazi, Libya, on September 11, 2012, a stark reminder of the unpredictable nature of global politics. [33]
• Catherine Troeh – A distinguished historian, artist, activist, and fervent advocate for Native American rights and cultural preservation. As an elder of the Chinook tribe, she was a direct descendant of the revered Chief Comcomly , carrying forward a legacy of leadership and cultural stewardship.
• Chief Tumulth – A significant figure who signed the pivotal 1855 treaty that led to the creation of the Grand Ronde Reservation . Tragically, he was later killed by forces under the command of General Philip Sheridan , a grim illustration of the brutal realities of the era. [34]
• Tsin-is-tum – Also known as “Princess Jennie Michel,” she was a revered Native American folklorist. She gained widespread recognition and was affectionately called “Last of the Clatsops,” embodying the living memory and traditions of her people.

See also

Drawing of a Chinook dugout canoe from a memoir of the Oregon Country published in 1844

• Chinook salmon
• Chinook (wind)
• Boeing CH-47 Chinook
• Neerchokikoo