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Created Jan 0001
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classical, positivist, chicago, critical criminology, cultural criminology, postmodern criminology, feminist criminology, classical school, utilitarian, cesare beccaria

Criminology

“Criminology, a field that peers into the shadowed corners of human behavior, is the intricate, multidisciplinary study of crime and deviant actions. It’s a...”

Contents
  • 1. Overview
  • 2. Etymology
  • 3. Cultural Impact

Criminology, a field that peers into the shadowed corners of human behavior, is the intricate, multidisciplinary study of crime and deviant actions. It’s a discipline that doesn’t just observe but dissects, weaving together threads from the behavioral and social sciences to understand why individuals transgress and how societies react. Criminologists, a varied lot by nature, draw heavily from the insights of sociologists who map societal structures, political scientists who analyze power dynamics, economists who understand resource scarcity, legal scholars who define the boundaries of legality, psychologists who delve into the individual psyche, philosophers who ponder ethics and justice, psychiatrists who examine mental states, social workers who engage with communities, biologists who explore genetic predispositions, and social anthropologists who contextualize behavior within cultural frameworks. Even the mechanics of justice, from law enforcement to judicial processes and correctional systems, fall under their purview.

The scope of a criminologist’s inquiry is vast. They meticulously investigate the very essence of criminal law, tracing its historical development and the societal conditions that shape its evolution. Crucially, they dissect the causation of crime, attempting to unravel the complex web of factors that lead individuals down a criminal path, and delving into the often-troubled personalities of those who commit offenses. Equally important is their study of society’s response to crime, examining how law enforcement agencies function, how judicial systems operate, and the effectiveness and humanity of penal institutions. Criminology, therefore, encompasses the legislative intent behind laws, the practical application by the police, the pronouncements of courts, the management of offenders in correctional facilities, and the often-overlooked roles of educational, private, and public social agencies in shaping behavior and responding to its deviations.

History of Academic Criminology

The lineage of modern academic criminology can be traced back to the provocative intellectual currents of the 19th century, particularly the emergence of the “Italian School” of criminal anthropology. This movement, as historian Mary Gibson aptly noted, “caused a radical refocusing of criminological discussion throughout Europe and the United States from law to the criminal.” While this focus on the individual offender was later challenged and refined by “sociological” theories, especially in France, the fundamental shift it instigated—moving the spotlight from the abstract concept of law to the concrete reality of the criminal—remained a cornerstone of the discipline. It was within this milieu that the term “criminology” itself took root. Raffaele Garofalo, an Italian law professor, is widely credited with coining the term Criminologia in 1885. Shortly thereafter, in the late 19th century, the French anthropologist Paul Topinard adopted the analogous French term, Criminologie, further solidifying its academic presence.

History in the United States

In the United States, criminology blossomed into a distinct discipline throughout the first quarter of the 20th century, undergoing significant transformations over the subsequent decades. From 1900 to 2000, the field navigated three distinct phases: the “Golden Age of Research” (1900–1930), characterized by a multifaceted, empirical approach; the “Golden Age of Theory” (1930–1960), which grappled with the intricate relationship between systematic research and theoretical development; and a pivotal period from 1960 to 2000, marking a profound turning point.

The post-1960s expansion of higher education witnessed criminology establishing itself beyond the confines of sociology departments, largely through the proliferation of dedicated criminal justice programs. This growth was significantly propelled by federal funding streams, such as the Law Enforcement Assistance Administration (LEAA) and the Law Enforcement Education Program (LEEP). These initiatives injected substantial resources into academic training focused on policing and corrections, a development that coincided with a period of heightened social unrest and public concern over crime.

This institutional divergence inevitably created friction within the academic landscape. Many sociologists viewed the burgeoning, practice-oriented criminal justice programs as lacking the theoretical rigor and academic depth of traditional sociology. In response to this perceived insularity within sociology, a contingent of educators broke away from the American Society of Criminology (ASC) in 1963. They established the International Association of Police Professors, which later evolved into the Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences (ACJS) in 1970, asserting that the ASC remained too narrowly focused on sociological perspectives.

By the 1990s, a gradual trend toward reconciliation began to emerge, with many academic programs adopting a dual identity, embracing both criminology and criminal justice. Despite initial reservations about academic standards, criminal justice majors rapidly gained popularity and became financially lucrative for universities, often referred to as academic “cash cows.” This expansion extended to graduate education; by the close of the 1990s, the United States boasted over 100 master’s programs and at least 25 doctoral programs in criminology and criminal justice. The momentum continued into the 2000s, culminating in the establishment of Criminology & Public Policy in 2001, a journal founded by the ASC with the explicit aim of bridging theoretical and applied research. Its inaugural editor, Todd Clear, a former president of the ACJS, championed this integrative vision.

Today, criminology is widely recognized as a truly interdisciplinary field, drawing profound insights from sociology, psychology, political science, law, and public health. While some scholars maintain that criminology should remain firmly embedded within sociology to safeguard its theoretical foundations, others argue that a degree of disciplinary independence is crucial for fostering policy relevance and driving innovation. As of 2020, nearly 50 doctoral programs in criminology were operating across the United States and Canada, and the National Research Council had officially designated criminology as an “emerging discipline” since 2006, acknowledging its growing significance and multidisciplinary reach.

Early Schools of Thought

The foundational period of criminological theory, spanning from the mid-18th to the mid-20th century, was dominated by three principal schools of thought: the Classical , Positivist , and Chicago schools. These early frameworks laid the groundwork for subsequent theoretical developments and were eventually expanded upon and challenged by a diverse array of contemporary paradigms, including sub-culture, control, strain, labeling, critical criminology , cultural criminology , postmodern criminology , feminist criminology , Queer criminology, and others that continue to shape the field today.

Origins and Classical School

The Classical school , which emerged in the mid-18th century, is deeply rooted in utilitarian philosophical principles. Thinkers such as Cesare Beccaria , author of the seminal work On Crimes and Punishments (1763–64), and Jeremy Bentham , the visionary behind the panopticon design, articulated key ideas that continue to resonate. Their core tenets included:

  • Deterrence as the Purpose of Punishment: The fundamental belief was that individuals, driven by a desire to maximize pleasure and minimize pain, would be deterred from criminal action if punishment was certain, swift, and proportionate to the offense. This principle forms the bedrock of much modern criminal justice policy.
  • Proportionality and Necessity of Punishment: Punishment, they argued, should be “public, prompt, necessary, the minimum possible under the given circumstances, and established by law.” This emphasis on necessity and minimal intervention aimed to prevent excessive or arbitrary state power.
  • Focus on Harm, Not Intent: The severity of punishment should be dictated by the actual harm caused by the crime, rather than the perceived intent of the offender. This pragmatic approach sought to ground justice in tangible consequences.

This school of thought emerged during a period of significant legal and penal reform. Society began to reconsider the purpose and nature of prisons, moving away from purely punitive measures towards more structured systems. This era also witnessed momentous societal shifts, including the French Revolution , and the foundational development of legal systems, such as that in the United States , where the principles of due process and codified law gained prominence.

Positivist School

The Positivist school fundamentally shifted the focus of criminological inquiry, positing that criminal behavior is not a matter of free will but rather a product of internal and external factors largely beyond an individual’s control. This perspective championed the idea that criminals are, in essence, “born” rather than “made,” aligning with the “nature” side of the nature versus nurture debate. Positivists argued that criminal predispositions are innate, residing within a person’s very being.

Adherents of this school applied the nascent scientific method to the study of human behavior, seeking empirical evidence to understand criminal actions. The Positivist school can be broadly categorized into three main segments: biological , psychological , and social positivism .

  • Psychological Positivism: This branch focuses on internal psychological factors as the drivers of criminal acts. It suggests that specific personality traits, unconscious desires, or psychological conditions predispose individuals to engage in crime.
  • Social Positivism (Sociological Positivism): This perspective, often intertwined with sociological explanations, argues that societal factors are the primary producers of criminals. Low income levels, high rates of poverty and unemployment, and inadequate educational systems are identified as key environmental influences that can create or exacerbate criminal tendencies.
Criminal Personality

The concept of a “criminal personality” is a direct outgrowth of psychological positivism. It suggests that certain individuals possess a constellation of personality traits that are statistically correlated with criminal behavior. These traits may include neuroticism, antisocial tendencies, aggression, impulsivity, and a lack of empathy. While considerable research has established correlations between these personality dimensions and criminal actions, it is crucial to note that correlation does not equate to causation. The intricate interplay between personality, environment, and opportunity remains a complex area of ongoing study.

Italian School

Cesare Lombroso (1835–1909), an Italian sociologist, is frequently hailed as the “father of criminology ” for his pioneering work in the late 19th century. He was a central figure in the development of biological positivism and the founder of the Italian school of criminology . Lombroso championed a rigorous scientific approach, emphasizing the necessity of empirical evidence in the study of crime.

His most controversial contribution was the theory of “atavism ,” which suggested that certain physiological traits—such as specific measurements of cheekbones, hairline patterns, or the presence of a cleft palate—could indicate inherent, primitive criminal tendencies. Influenced by theories of phrenology and Charles Darwin ’s theory of evolution , Lombroso’s ideas, while groundbreaking for their time, have since been largely superseded. His student, Enrico Ferri , expanded on these ideas, acknowledging the influence of both biological and social factors. However, Lombroso’s biological determinism has been widely discredited, particularly due to methodological flaws in his research, such as the absence of proper control groups for comparison.

Sociological Positivism

Sociological positivism posits that societal factors, rather than innate biological traits, are the primary drivers of criminal behavior. This perspective highlights the role of poverty , membership in specific subcultures, and deficiencies in educational attainment as significant predispositions to crime.

Adolphe Quetelet , a Belgian astronomer and statistician, was a key early proponent, utilizing data and statistical analysis to explore the relationship between crime and sociological variables. His research indicated that age, gender, poverty, education levels, and alcohol consumption were important correlates of crime. Later research, such as that by Lance Lochner, has empirically supported the notion that increased educational attainment is associated with reduced crime rates.

Rawson W. Rawson , another early researcher, employed crime statistics to suggest a correlation between population density and escalating crime rates , observing that more crowded urban environments tended to exhibit higher levels of criminal activity. Similarly, Joseph Fletcher and John Glyde presented papers to the Statistical Society of London , examining the distribution of crime.

Henry Mayhew , a social researcher, adopted an ethnographic approach in his seminal work London Labour and the London Poor , using empirical methods to investigate social issues and poverty. The influential French sociologist Émile Durkheim also contributed to this line of thought, viewing crime not as an anomaly but as an inevitable aspect of any society characterized by an uneven distribution of resources and inherent human differences.

Differential Association (Sub-cultural)

The theory of differential association, closely linked to sub-cultural explanations, posits that criminal behavior is learned through social interaction and association. Pioneered by Edwin Sutherland , this theory asserts that an individual becomes delinquent when they develop “an excess of definitions favorable to violation of law over definitions unfavorable to violation of law.” In simpler terms, if a person’s associations lead them to internalize justifications for breaking the law more than reasons for obeying it, they are more likely to engage in criminal conduct. Sutherland emphasized that direct interaction with individuals who condone or rationalize criminal behavior is a significant factor in the development of delinquency. The constant reinforcement of criminal attitudes and behaviors within these social circles can lead to chronic offending. In areas where criminal subcultures are prevalent, Sutherland argued, crime rates tend to rise as more individuals learn and adopt these deviant norms.

Chicago School

The Chicago school , which flourished in the early 20th century, was a product of urban sociologists at the University of Chicago , including Robert E. Park and Ernest Burgess . Their groundbreaking work focused on the spatial organization of cities, identifying distinct concentric zones that emerge as urban areas expand. Notably, they pinpointed the “zone of transition "—an area characterized by residential mobility and deteriorating infrastructure—as particularly susceptible to social disorder and crime.

Building on this foundation, Henry McKay and Clifford R. Shaw later conducted extensive research on juvenile delinquents in the 1940s, finding a disproportionate concentration of these young offenders within the zone of transition. The Chicago School’s overarching thesis was that social structures, rather than individual pathology, were the primary determinants of deviant behavior. This perspective offered a defense of sorts for individuals caught in criminal acts, framing their behavior as a predictable response to societal conditions such as unemployment, poverty, and lack of opportunity.

These sociologists adopted a social ecology approach, arguing that urban neighborhoods marked by high levels of poverty often experience a breakdown in crucial social structures and institutions , including family and educational systems. This breakdown leads to social disorganization, weakening the community’s collective ability to regulate behavior and creating an environment conducive to deviant behavior .

Further research by sociologists like Edwin Sutherland introduced a social-psychological dimension, suggesting that individuals learn criminal behaviors through association with more experienced offenders.

The theoretical perspectives employed within criminology are remarkably diverse, encompassing psychoanalysis , functionalism , interactionism , Marxism , econometrics , systems theory , postmodernism , behavioural genetics , personality psychology , and evolutionary psychology , among others.

Other Schools of Thought

Social Structure Theories

Social structure theories represent a broad category of approaches within criminology and sociology that examine how societal structures and arrangements influence crime. These theories often align with conflict theory or a structural conflict perspective, acknowledging the inherent power imbalances and resource disparities within society. This perspective is vast, encompassing a multitude of viewpoints.

Disorganization

Social disorganization theory, building upon the foundational work of Shaw and McKay from the Chicago School, posits that neighborhoods characterized by persistent poverty and economic hardship tend to experience high rates of population turnover . This constant flux, coupled with the presence of diverse populations (high heterogeneity ), often hinders the development of robust informal social structures . Consequently, maintaining effective social order becomes a significant challenge, creating an environment where crime and deviance may flourish, sometimes becoming valued within specific groups or ‘subcultures’ that diverge from the prevailing social norm .

Social Ecology

Since the 1950s, research in social ecology has expanded upon the principles of social disorganization. Numerous studies have consistently found a correlation between crime rates and indicators of community deterioration, such as prevalent poverty, visible disorder, and a high number of abandoned buildings. As working- and middle-class residents tend to move out of these declining areas, the most disadvantaged segments of the population may remain. William Julius Wilson introduced the concept of a poverty “concentration effect,” suggesting that such neighborhood isolation can render communities more vulnerable to violence by disconnecting them from mainstream societal resources and opportunities.

Strain

Strain theory , also known as Mertonian Anomie, was advanced by the American sociologist Robert Merton . Merton argued that dominant cultures, particularly in societies like the United States, are saturated with aspirations for success, freedom, and prosperity—what he termed the American Dream . He observed that while most individuals internalize this dream as a powerful motivator, the social structure of opportunities is often unequal, preventing many from achieving it through legitimate means. This disparity between societal expectations and individual capabilities, a concept Merton referred to as anomie (though distinct from Durkheim’s usage), can lead to frustration and a propensity for crime. Individuals dejected by their inability to achieve the dream may resort to illegitimate means to attain it, or they may retreat from societal expectations altogether, forming deviant subcultures. Robert Agnew later expanded upon strain theory, proposing general strain theory , which encompasses a broader range of strains beyond those directly linked to financial constraints, including the loss of positive stimuli and the presence of negative stimuli.

Subcultural

Building upon the insights of the Chicago school and strain theory, and drawing inspiration from Edwin Sutherland ’s concept of differential association , sub-cultural theorists focused on how smaller cultural groups diverge from the mainstream, developing their own unique values and interpretations of life.

Albert K. Cohen , for example, integrated strain theory with Sigmund Freud ’s concept of reaction formation , suggesting that delinquency among lower-class youths is often a reaction against the dominant middle-class social norms. In environments where opportunities are scarce, some youths may adopt localized social norms that emphasize “toughness” and defiance of authority, leading to criminal acts as a means of conforming to these deviant subcultural values.

Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin further proposed that delinquency can stem from a differential access to illegitimate opportunities, particularly for lower-class youth. They argued that when conventional avenues for economic advancement are blocked, some individuals may opt for criminal pathways that offer more lucrative benefits than low-paying, conventional jobs.

Theorists like Albert Cohen extensively documented that delinquency is often prevalent among lower-working-class males who face significant resource limitations and reside in impoverished areas. He also highlighted potential biases within law enforcement agencies that may unfairly target minority groups.

British sub-cultural theorists, meanwhile, placed a greater emphasis on social class , viewing certain criminal activities as “imaginary solutions” to the status anxieties and frustrations associated with belonging to a subordinate class. Further research from the Chicago School explored the dynamics within gangs, examining the influence of peer interaction and adult supervision.

Sociologists such as Raymond D. Gastil have investigated the impact of a Southern culture of honor on rates of violent crime, suggesting regional cultural norms can play a significant role.

Control Theory

An alternative perspective is offered by social bond or social control theory . Rather than seeking to identify factors that cause crime, these theories endeavor to explain why individuals refrain from engaging in criminal behavior. Travis Hirschi identified four key components of the social bond: “attachment to others,” “belief in the moral validity of rules,” “commitment to achievement,” and “involvement in conventional activities.” According to Hirschi, the stronger an individual’s connection to these elements, the less likely they are to deviate from societal norms. Conversely, a weakening of these bonds increases the likelihood of criminal behavior. Hirschi later expanded on this by suggesting that low self-control is a significant predictor of criminality. These theories, therefore, invert the traditional criminological question, asking not “Why do people commit crime?” but “Why don’t more people commit crime?”

A simple illustration: Imagine someone desires a luxury item they cannot afford. An individual with low self-control might be tempted to acquire it through illegal means. In contrast, someone with high self-control is more likely to defer gratification, seek legitimate solutions, or simply accept the limitation without resorting to crime. Hirschi also posited that social bonds, forged through relationships with peers , parents, and others, can act as a counterbalance to low self-control. For families in lower socio-economic strata, the level of parental control and supervision has been identified as a crucial factor distinguishing families with delinquent children from those without. Furthermore, theorists like David Matza and Gresham Sykes introduced the concept of “techniques of neutralization ,” arguing that offenders can temporarily suspend their moral and social inhibitions to justify their criminal actions.

Psychoanalytic Theory

Psychoanalysis , a psychological framework developed by Sigmund Freud , posits that unconscious drives, repressed memories, and unresolved trauma are central to understanding behavior, particularly deviant actions. Freud’s concept of the “repetition compulsion” and the “death drive” suggests that individuals may be unconsciously drawn to self-destructive behaviors, which can manifest as criminal activity. Phillida Rosnick, in her work on “Mental Pain and Social Trauma,” explores how profound psychological distress can alter an individual’s perception of reality, potentially contributing to criminal behavior. Scholars like Sander Gilman have investigated the potential biological underpinnings, examining the human brain and nervous system for links between unconscious desires for punishment and the impulse to commit crime.

Symbolic Interactionism

Rooted in the phenomenology of Edmund Husserl and the social philosophy of George Herbert Mead , symbolic interactionism, along with sub-cultural and conflict theory , offers a unique lens on crime. This perspective emphasizes the role of social interaction and interpretation in shaping behavior. It suggests that powerful groups—such as the state, media, and ruling elites—can influence the meaning-making processes of less powerful groups, often by “labeling” their behavior as deviant or criminal. This labeling process, according to theorists like Howard Becker and Edwin Lemert , can become a “self-fulfilling prophecy ,” leading individuals to internalize the label and engage in further criminal acts. Stanley Cohen further developed this by conceptualizing “moral panic ,” describing societal overreactions to perceived threats, often amplified by media portrayals, such as the post-war youth subcultures of the Mods and Rockers , the AIDS epidemic , or football hooliganism .

Labeling Theory

Labeling theory, extensively studied by Howard Becker, focuses on how individuals are defined and categorized by others, and how these labels influence their subsequent behavior. Derived from sociology, it is frequently applied in criminological contexts. When an individual is labeled a “criminal,” they may either resist this label or internalize it, leading to continued offending. Even initial resistance can erode as the label becomes more pervasive, particularly within peer groups. This stigmatization can intensify deviance, a phenomenon known as deviancy amplification . Research by Malcolm Klein has indicated that the impact of labeling theory varies among different groups of young offenders.

Traitor Theory

At the more extreme end of theoretical perspectives, criminologist Lonnie Athens developed a theory suggesting that a process of brutalization, often experienced in childhood through parental or peer abuse, can lead to violent criminal behavior in adulthood. Richard Rhodes’ book Why They Kill elaborates on Athens’ observations of violent backgrounds among offenders. Both Athens and Rhodes explicitly reject genetic inheritance as a primary explanation for violent crime.

Rational Choice Theory

Rational choice theory draws heavily from the utilitarian and classical school philosophies of Cesare Beccaria and Jeremy Bentham . They argued that punishment, when it is certain, swift, and proportionate to the crime, serves as a potent deterrent, as the risks involved outweigh the potential benefits for the offender. In his seminal work Dei delitti e delle pene , Beccaria advocated for a rational approach to penology , viewing punishment as the necessary application of law and urging judges to adhere strictly to legal statutes. Beccaria also distinguished between crime and sin , and notably, he opposed the death penalty , as well as torture and inhumane treatment, deeming them irrational and ineffective deterrents.

This classical perspective, largely eclipsed by positivist and Chicago school theories, experienced a resurgence in the 1970s through the writings of scholars like James Q. Wilson and Gary Becker , whose 1965 article “Crime and Punishment” and George Stigler ’s 1970 paper “The Optimum Enforcement of Laws” revitalized the concept. Rational choice theory posits that individuals, including criminals, make decisions by weighing costs and benefits, often in economic terms. They are seen as actively seeking to minimize risks by considering situational factors like time, place, and opportunity.

Gary Becker, for instance, acknowledged that while most people adhere to strong moral constraints, criminals rationally assess that the rewards of their actions outweigh the costs, which include the probability of apprehension, conviction, and the severity of punishment, alongside their available legitimate opportunities. From a public policy standpoint, this perspective suggests that increasing the potential fine for a crime might be a more cost-effective deterrent than increasing surveillance, as the marginal cost of fines is lower than that of extensive monitoring.

Consequently, crime prevention strategies based on rational choice theory often focus on increasing the effort required to commit a crime, such as through target hardening measures. Likewise, enhancing the perceived risk of being caught—through increased surveillance, police presence, improved street lighting, and other preventative measures—is considered an effective means of reducing crime.

A key distinction between this modern iteration and Bentham’s original concept lies in their ultimate goals. While Bentham envisioned the potential eradication of crime through perfect systems like the panopticon , Becker’s theory acknowledges that crime cannot be eliminated entirely. Instead, it aims to reduce crime to a manageable level, recognizing that the resources required to achieve absolute zero would far outweigh the benefits. This pragmatic approach aligns with the principles of classical liberalism , tempering idealistic goals with practical considerations.

Rational choice theories, often linked with neoliberalism , have significantly influenced crime prevention through environmental design strategies and underpin the Market Reduction Approach to theft, developed by Mike Sutton . This approach systematically targets markets for stolen goods, aiming to reduce the motivation for theft by disrupting the supply chain.

Routine Activity Theory

Developed by Marcus Felson and Lawrence Cohen, Routine activity theory builds upon control theories and explains criminal behavior as a function of opportunities that arise within everyday life. The convergence of three elements is considered necessary for a crime to occur: a motivated offender, a suitable target or victim, and the absence of a capable guardian. A guardian can be a formal security presence or even ordinary citizens who witness a crime and might intervene or report it to law enforcement. John Eck further refined this theory by introducing a fourth element: the “place manager,” such as property managers who can implement measures to mitigate crime in their vicinity.

Biosocial Theory

Biosocial criminology is an interdisciplinary field dedicated to understanding crime and antisocial behavior by examining the interplay of biological and environmental factors. While sociological theories have historically dominated criminology, biosocial approaches increasingly acknowledge the contributions of fields like behavioral genetics , personality psychology , and evolutionary psychology . Theoretical frameworks such as evolutionary neuroandrogenic theory attempt to explain trends in criminality, particularly the higher rates observed in men and the propensity for young men to exhibit criminal behavior, through the lens of evolutionary biology.

Aggressive behavior has been linked to dysfunctions in key regulatory systems within the body, including serotonin systems, catecholamine systems, and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis . These systems can be further influenced by stress , whether acute or chronic.

Despite its growing influence, biosocial criminology remains a controversial area within the scientific community, prompting ongoing debate and research.

Marxist Criminology

In 1968, a group of young British sociologists formed the National Deviance Conference (NDC). Among them, Ian Taylor , Paul Walton, and Jock Young challenged existing explanations for crime and deviance, proposing a new Marxist criminological approach. In their influential work, The New Criminology, they critically examined and rejected the biological “positivism” espoused by figures like Lombroso and Hans Eysenck .

From a Marxist perspective, “defiance is normal – the sense that men are now consciously involved … in assuring their human diversity.” Marxist criminologists advocate for a society that embraces human diversity in all its forms, rather than criminalizing it. They argue that the roots of crime lie not in genetic or psychological predispositions but in the material conditions and economic structures of a given society.

State crime is a particularly significant area of study within Marxist criminology. This perspective views crimes committed by states—such as genocides , environmental degradation , and war —as among the most harmful to society, not merely as acts of malice but as instruments of power used to maintain systems of control and hegemony. This framework also encompasses state-corporate crime , highlighting the symbiotic relationship between state power and corporate interests in perpetuating societal harm.

Convict Criminology

Convict criminology represents a distinct school of thought within the field, characterized by researchers who have direct, lived experience within the criminal justice system , often having spent significant time in prison. Scholars like John Irwin and Stephan Richards argue that this insider perspective offers a more profound understanding of criminological phenomena than traditional academic approaches. Martin Leyva further posits that the process of “prisonization”—the internalization of prison culture and norms—can begin long before an individual enters the correctional system, originating in the home, community, and schools.

According to Rod Earle, convict criminology gained prominence in the United States following the substantial expansion of prisons in the 1970s, and the U.S. continues to be a primary focus for research in this area.

Queer Criminology

Queer criminology is a field dedicated to examining the experiences of LGBT individuals within the criminal justice system. Its core objectives include:

  • Understanding the historical legal and social injustices faced by LGBT communities.
  • Investigating the reasons behind the incarceration rates of LGBT individuals and whether they are arrested at higher rates than their heterosexual and cisgender counterparts.
  • Documenting the efforts of queer activists in challenging discriminatory laws that criminalized LGBT identities and behaviors.
  • Utilizing research as a tool for activism and education to promote reform and understanding.

The legitimacy and scope of queer criminology are sometimes debated. While some question its relevance to the broader field, others argue it is essential for highlighting the unique ways LGBT individuals are affected by the criminal justice system. This research also offers the potential to “queer” the criminology curriculum, shifting the focus from control and surveillance to liberation and protection. As societal understanding of gender and sexuality evolves, queer criminology gains increasing importance. Simultaneously, in some jurisdictions, laws continue to criminalize LGBTQ+ conduct, relationships, and organizing. ‘Digiqueer criminology’ has emerged as a sub-discipline, exploring the intersection of digital technology, LGBTQ+ identity, and justice.

Cultural Criminology

Cultural criminology approaches the study of crime and its control by situating them within the broader context of culture. Theorists like Jeff Ferrell suggest that criminologists can gain insight by examining the actions of criminals, control agents, and media producers to understand how the meaning of crime is constructed. Ferrell emphasizes the dominant role of culture in shaping these meanings. Stephanie Kane adds that cultural criminology often explores three key tropes: the village (representing localized social interactions), the city street (a space influenced by poverty, health issues, and urban structures), and the media (which disseminates cultural narratives). These elements collectively shape individuals’ understanding of right and wrong and their engagement with societal norms.

Later scholars, such as Naegler and Salman, integrated feminist theory into cultural criminology, exploring themes of masculinity , femininity , sexuality, and intersectionality. They argued that Ferrell’s framework was too narrow and could be enriched by considering the experiences of women and those who do not fit conventional gender molds. Keith Hayward further expanded the field by incorporating green theory and examining concepts like adrenaline, the “soft city” (a metaphorical space where rigidity bends and rules are relaxed), the transgressive subject (an individual drawn to rule-breaking), and the attentive gaze (the immersive, observational approach of ethnography). Through these lenses, cultural criminology seeks to understand how an individual’s environment and cultural context profoundly influence their criminal behavior.

Relative Deprivation

Relative deprivation describes the psychological process wherein individuals assess their own well-being and possessions by comparing themselves to others, often perceiving themselves as being worse off. This perception of being unfairly disadvantaged can lead to feelings of anger, jealousy, and resentment, potentially culminating in criminal behavior.

Samuel A. Stouffer, a pioneer in this theory within sociology, observed during World War II that soldiers evaluated their success based on the experiences within their immediate units rather than broader military standards. Relative deprivation can stem from societal, political, economic, or personal factors that foster a sense of injustice. It is distinct from absolute poverty , which denotes a lack of basic necessities. Instead, relative deprivation highlights that even individuals with stable financial means can experience discontent if they perceive others as having more. This feeling of being relatively deprived can drive criminal actions or ethically questionable decisions. In criminology, the theory of relative deprivation helps explain how rising living standards can sometimes coincide with rising crime rates, as increased exposure to perceived wealth can fuel envy and a desire for illicit acquisition.

Rural Criminology

“Rural crime” refers to criminal activity occurring outside of metropolitan and suburban areas. Rural criminology, a specialized subfield, examines these trends, often employing social disorganization and routine activity theories. FBI Uniform Crime Reports indicate that rural communities exhibit distinct crime patterns compared to urban areas. Narcotic-related offenses, including production, use, and trafficking, are often prominent. Social disorganization theory is applied to understand these trends, linking them to limited educational opportunities and high unemployment in rural settings. Routine activity theory is used to analyze lower-level street crimes like theft, particularly in areas where a lack of capable guardians makes individuals and property more vulnerable.

Public Criminology

Public criminology aligns with the principles of “public sociology ,” aiming to disseminate criminological research and insights to a broader audience beyond academia. Advocates argue that criminologists should engage directly with affected communities, sharing their research to inform public policy and decision-making. This approach seeks to overcome the limitations of traditional, insular academic research. Public criminology manifests in various forms, including media engagement, policy advising, activism, community outreach, expert testimony, and collaborative knowledge production.

Ultra-Realism

Ultra-realism is a 21st-century theoretical framework and research program that bridges criminology and zemiology (the study of social harm). Ultra-realists revisit the fundamental question of why individuals, groups, or institutions choose to inflict harm on others in pursuit of their own interests, rather than prioritizing solidarity and cooperation. Early proponents, such as Steve Hall and Simon Winlow, introduced concepts like the “pseudo-pacification process,” “special liberty,” and “objectless anxiety” in the mid-1990s. The ultra-realist framework has since evolved through several key works, solidifying its theoretical structure.

Ultra-realist researchers engage in diverse areas of study, including deviant leisure and consumer culture; crime, harm, and place; crime, harm, work, and employment; the impact of Covid-19 and lockdowns on social harm; riots and far-right politics; violence and masculinity; glocal markets and crime; policing and corruption; homicide and serial murder; crime, harm, and mass media; crime, corruption, and compliance; the history of violence; crime, corruption, and sport; hate crime; technology, harm, and crime; the phenomenon of crime decline; child abuse; military studies; subjectivity and investment fraud; crime, harm, and drugs; and the criminology of borders.

Types and Definitions of Crime

Both the positivist and classical schools generally adhere to a consensus view of crime, defining it as an act that violates the fundamental values and beliefs shared by members of a society, as codified in laws. However, the nature of these laws and the extent of societal consensus are subjects of debate.

  • Natural Laws: These laws are considered to be rooted in core values universally shared across cultures. They typically protect against harm to individuals (e.g., murder, rape, assault) and property (e.g., theft, larceny, robbery) and form the basis of many common law systems.
  • Statutes: These are laws enacted by legislative bodies and often reflect contemporary cultural mores . However, some statutes can be controversial, such as those prohibiting the use of cannabis or regulating gambling.

Marxist criminology, conflict criminology, and critical criminology challenge the notion of a consensual social contract, arguing that the relationships between the state and its citizens are often non-consensual. They contend that criminal law may not always represent the collective beliefs and wishes of the public but rather serves the interests of the ruling or dominant class. Conversely, more right-wing criminological perspectives tend to uphold the idea of a consensual social contract between the state and its citizens.

In contemporary criminological discourse, there has been a movement to transcend the limitations of liberal pluralism , culturalism , and postmodernism by introducing the universal concept of “harm” as a more encompassing alternative to the legalistic term “crime.”

Subtopics

The field of criminology encompasses a wide array of specialized areas of study, including:

See Also

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