Curriculum - Sarcasm Wiki

Contents

1. Overview
2. Etymology
3. Cultural Impact

The following article is a rewrite and extension of the provided Wikipedia content, presented in Emma’s distinctive style.

Educational Plan

Let’s not confuse this with a mere Curriculum vitae , though one might argue a well-executed plan is a life’s work etched in intent.

The term “Core Curriculum” redirects here. For the specific, almost fanatical, curriculum employed at Columbia University , one must delve into the depths of Core Curriculum (Columbia College) .

In the grand, often messy, theater of education , a curriculum—pronounced /kəˈrɪkjʊləm/ , with its plural forms either the mundane curriculums or the more classical curricula /kəˈrɪkjʊlə/ —represents the totality of a student’s journey within the educational process. [1] [2] It’s rarely just about the facts crammed into heads; it’s about the experiences, the planned sequences of instruction, and, crucially, the educator’s or institution’s grand design for what a student should become. Think of it as a meticulously plotted map, or sometimes, a tangled web. A curriculum might orchestrate the interaction between eager, or perhaps not-so-eager, pupils and the vast ocean of instructional content, resources, and the ever-present evaluative mechanisms designed to gauge their supposed attainment of educational objectives. [3] These grand designs are often dissected into categories, a rather neat, if overly simplistic, division: the explicit, the implicit (which often includes the far more interesting, the hidden), the excluded, and, for those with surplus energy, the extracurricular. [4] [5] [6]

Some curricula are ironclad, standardized to the point of suffocation, while others grant the instructor or the learner a degree of autonomy that can be either liberating or terrifying. [7] Many nations, in their infinite wisdom or perhaps just their administrative efficiency, impose national curricula on their primary and secondary education systems. The United Kingdom, for instance, has its famously rigid National Curriculum .

And then there’s UNESCO ’s International Bureau of Education , diligently cataloging and studying these curricula worldwide. One has to wonder if they ever get tired of it all.

Etymology

The word “curriculum” itself has a rather… athletic origin. It began as a Latin word signifying “a race” or, more poetically, “the course of a race,” derived from the verb currere, meaning “to run” or “to proceed.” [8] The etymologists trace it back to a Modern Latin usage of classical Latin curriculum, meaning “a running, course, career,” and even “a fast chariot, racing car.” All from the ancient Proto-Indo-European root kers- meaning “to run.” [9] Its first documented appearance in an educational context is a bit of a historical footnote, found in the Professio Regia, a posthumously published work by Petrus Ramus , a professor at the University of Paris , dating back to 1576. [10] By 1582, it had popped up in the records of the University of Leiden . [11] It seems the word’s genesis is closely tied to the Calvinist drive for order, a desire to impose structure on the chaotic process of learning. [12]

By the 17th century, the University of Glasgow was using “curriculum” to describe its “course” of study, marking its first known appearance in the English language in 1633. [8] Fast forward to the 19th century, and European universities were routinely employing the term to denote both the entire program of study—say, for a degree in surgery—and the specific courses within them. By 1824, it was formally defined as “a course, especially a fixed course of study at a college, university, or school.” [9] The language of racing, of structured paths, has always been there, hasn’t it?

Definitions and Interpretations

The professional world, bless its heart, can’t seem to agree on a single, definitive meaning for “curriculum.” [13] It’s a term that shifts and morphs, described in a multitude of ways.

Drawing from the wisdom—or perhaps the ponderings—of figures like Dewey, [14] Kelly, [15] Smith, [16] and Eisner, [17] we can delineate four broad categories of curricula:

Explicit curriculum: This is the stuff you can point to. The subjects slated for instruction, the stated mission of the institution, the explicit knowledge and skills that successful students are expected to master. It’s the syllabus, the lesson plans, the official pronouncements.
Implicit curriculum: This is where things get interesting. It’s the subtler lessons learned from the very culture of the school—the unspoken behaviors, attitudes, and expectations that permeate the environment. It’s the curriculum that arises not from explicit teaching, but from the way things are. The unintended curriculum, as it were.
Hidden curriculum: Ah, the hidden gem. This refers to what students absorb not because it’s on the syllabus, but “because of the way in which the work of the school is planned and organized.” [18] It’s the stuff that isn’t overtly planned, or even consciously acknowledged by those in charge. Philip W. Jackson is credited with coining this term, and it’s not always a negative. When harnessed, the hidden curriculum can be a powerful, albeit subtle, force for student development. It encompasses not just the physical space of the school but the intricate web of relationships—or lack thereof—between students and their peers, and between students and their teachers.
Excluded curriculum (or null curriculum): This is what’s deliberately left out. The topics, the perspectives, the entire universes of knowledge that are simply not included. It’s the silence where a voice should be, the void where understanding could have bloomed.

And then there’s the whole realm of extracurricular activities, the optional extras. These can range from school-sponsored programs—think sports , academic clubs, the dramatic flair of performing arts —designed to supplement the academic grind, to community-based initiatives that might extend beyond school hours. These programs often build upon classroom learning. A student might encounter environmental conservation in a textbook, then join a community club to actively participate in a conservation project. Hancock, Dyk, & Jones (2012) list examples like “environmental clubs, 4-H, boy/girl scouts, and religious groups” as community-based extracurriculars. [19]

Kerr offers a rather comprehensive definition: “all the learning which is planned and guided by the school, whether it is carried on in groups or individually, inside or outside of school.” [4] A sweeping statement, isn’t it?

Braslavsky sees curriculum as a negotiation, an agreement forged between communities, educational professionals, and the State, dictating “what learners should take on during specific periods of their lives.” It’s about defining “why, what, when, where, how, and with whom to learn.” [6]

Smith (1996, 2000) suggests that a syllabus, often mistaken for the curriculum itself, is merely a skeletal outline. “[A] syllabus will not generally indicate the relative importance of its topics or the order in which they are to be studied. Where people still equate curriculum with a syllabus they are likely to limit their planning to a consideration of the content or the body of knowledge that they wish to transmit.” This, of course, is a rather pedestrian view.

According to Smith, a true curriculum unfolds as a procedure: [16]

Diagnosis of needs: Understanding what’s lacking, what’s missing.
Formulation of objectives: Defining the desired outcomes, the targets to aim for.
Selection of content: Choosing the raw materials of knowledge.
Organization of content: Structuring that knowledge in a logical, or perhaps deliberately illogical, fashion.
Selection of learning experiences: Deciding on the methods, the activities, the encounters.
Organization of learning experiences: Arranging those experiences in a sequence.
Determination of evaluation: Figuring out what to measure and how to measure it.

Types of Curricula

Under certain interpretations, the curriculum is a rigid prescription, an extension of a more general syllabus that merely outlines topics and the expected level of mastery for a given grade or standard. It’s a checklist, a set of hurdles.

A curriculum can also be seen as a prescribed course of study, a mandatory sequence of learning that students must complete to advance. An elementary school might tout its curriculum as a pathway to improved national test scores or the acquisition of fundamental skills . Teachers, too, might refer to “their curriculum,” meaning the subjects they intend to cover within a school year, arranged in a sequence intended to facilitate learning. In schools, this concept typically spans multiple grades, a long, winding road.

Conversely, a high school might define its curricula by the requirements for a diploma . Or, it might echo the elementary school’s definition, encompassing both the individual courses needed to pass and the broader array of offerings designed to prepare students for life beyond the classroom.

The view of curriculum can shift depending on the observer. What societies deem important for teaching and learning constitutes the “intended” curriculum. [15] Often formalized in official documents, this is also known as the “written” or “official” curriculum. [15] However, at the classroom level, this intended curriculum can be reshaped by a myriad of interactions, leading to the “implemented” curriculum—what is actually delivered. [15] And what the learners truly absorb, what can be assessed and demonstrated as learning outcomes or competencies , is the “achieved” or “learned” curriculum. [15] Furthermore, curriculum theory acknowledges a “hidden” curriculum—the unintended cultivation of personal values and beliefs, the unexpected ripples of a learning process. [15] Those who craft the intended curriculum ought to keep all these dimensions in mind. [15] While the “written” curriculum doesn’t encompass the entirety of what curriculum means, it holds significance as it embodies the society’s vision. [15] This “written” curriculum is typically presented in accessible documents like curriculum frameworks or subject syllabi, accompanied by supporting materials such as textbooks , teacher guides, and assessment tools. [15]

Some, in their narrow focus, perceive curriculum solely as the subjects taught, as dictated by textbooks, neglecting the broader goals of competency and personal growth. [14] This is precisely why a curriculum framework is essential. It situates the subjects within a larger context, illustrating how learning experiences contribute to these overarching aims. [14]

Curriculum is almost invariably discussed in relation to formal schooling. [16] It’s often seen as the primary differentiator between formal and informal education . [16] However, its application can extend to informal settings or free-choice learning environments. A science museum , for instance, might articulate its own “curriculum” of topics or exhibits. Many after-school programs attempt to apply this concept, often with more success when they move away from a rigid, product-oriented view of curriculum and embrace it as a practice, a form of praxis . (Smith, 2020)

Historical Conception

“Action is response; it is adaptation, adjustment.” — John Dewey [14]

Regardless of the initial intentions or origins of early curricula, the practice of inculcating culture was already established by the time of ancient Babylonia. [20] Ancient Roman curricula began to place a significant emphasis on both Greek and Latin language skills, with a particular focus on the study of classical poetry. This model cast a long shadow, influencing the curricula of medieval and Renaissance [21] education.

In the early decades of the 20th century, the prevailing view of curriculum was that “it is a body of subjects or subject matter prepared by the teachers for the students to learn.” It was essentially interchangeable with “course of study” and “syllabus.”

In The Curriculum, [22] the groundbreaking textbook on the subject published in 1918, John Franklin Bobbitt posited that curriculum, as a concept, has its roots in the Latin word for a race track. He envisioned the curriculum as the sequence of deeds and experiences through which children are transformed into the adults they are intended to become, equipping them for future success. Moreover, Bobbitt argued that the curriculum encompasses the full spectrum of formative deeds and experiences, both within and outside the confines of school—including unplanned and undirected experiences, as well as those intentionally designed for the purposeful shaping of adult members of society. He explicitly stated it was not limited to experiences within school . (See image [ citation needed ] at right for a visual representation.)

Bobbitt viewed the curriculum as a stage for social-engineering . Guided by his cultural assumptions and social definitions, his formulation of curriculum possessed two distinctive characteristics:

The assertion that scientific experts, by virtue of their specialized knowledge of desirable adult qualities and the experiences that cultivate them, were uniquely qualified and justified in designing curricula.
The definition of curriculum as the specific deeds and experiences a student ought to undergo to become the adult they are supposed to become.

Consequently, he defined the curriculum as an ideal, rather than as the tangible reality of the deeds and experiences that shape individuals.

Contemporary perspectives on curriculum largely reject these tenets of Bobbitt’s postulates. However, they retain the fundamental notion of curriculum as a course of formative experience that molds individuals into persons. The formation of individuals through curricula is examined at both personal and group levels, encompassing the shaping of cultures and societies (e.g., professional development, the formation of an academic discipline through historical experience). The formation of a group is inherently reciprocal, influencing and being influenced by its individual members.

While the term formally appeared in Bobbitt’s definition , the concept of curriculum as a course of formative experience is also deeply embedded in the work of John Dewey (1859–1952), who held differing views from Bobbitt on significant matters. Although Bobbitt’s and Dewey’s idealistic interpretations of “curriculum” diverge from current, more restricted applications of the word, scholars and practitioners in curriculum development generally share this substantive understanding. [23] [24] Development, in this context, is not merely about extracting something from the mind; [14] it is a process of evolving experience and growing into experiences that are genuinely desired. [14]

Robert M. Hutchins (1899–1977), a former president of the University of Chicago , advocated for curriculum as “permanent studies,” emphasizing foundational elements like grammar, rhetoric, logic, and mathematics for basic education. He believed basic education should focus on the three Rs , while college education should be grounded in liberal arts. In contrast, Arthur Bestor (1908–1994), a staunch essentialist , argued that the school’s primary mission was intellectual training. Therefore, he contended, the curriculum should concentrate on the fundamental intellectual disciplines: grammar, literature, and writing, alongside mathematics, science, history, and foreign languages.

According to Joseph Schwab, the academic discipline is the sole wellspring of curriculum. [ citation needed ] Within our [ whose? ] educational system, curriculum is typically segmented into discrete bodies of knowledge, or subject areas, in basic education such as English, mathematics, science, and social studies. At the college level, disciplines broaden to encompass humanities, sciences, languages, and numerous others. The argument is that curricula should be composed entirely of knowledge derived from these various disciplines. [ citation needed ] Dewey, with his characteristic pragmatism, proposed that learning a lesson should be a more engaging and beneficial experience than enduring punishment, ridicule, or detention. [25]

Thus, curriculum can be perceived as a distinct field of study in itself. It draws upon its foundational pillars—philosophical, historical, psychological, and social—and its various domains of knowledge, alongside its unique research theories and principles. As an area of study, curriculum should be both scholarly and theoretical, engaging with broad, historical, philosophical, social issues, and academic pursuits. Mark Smith offers a foundational definition of “curriculum” initially proposed by John Kerr and later adopted by Vic Kelly in his seminal work on the subject: “All the learning which is planned and guided by the school, whether it is carried on in groups or individually, inside or outside the school.” [16]

There are four primary approaches to curriculum theory and practice: [16]

Curriculum as a body of knowledge to be transmitted: The traditional, teacher-centered model, where knowledge is seen as a static entity to be passed down.
Curriculum as an attempt to help students achieve a goal: A more outcome-oriented approach, focusing on specific objectives and measurable results.
Curriculum as a process: Emphasizing the dynamic and interactive nature of learning, where the journey is as important as the destination.
Curriculum as praxis : A synthesis of theory and practice, where learning involves critical reflection and action in the world.

In recent years [ when? ], the scope of education and curriculum has expanded beyond the traditional classroom walls, reaching into settings like museums . Within these environments, curriculum becomes an even more multifaceted concept, incorporating various educators, inanimate objects like audio-tour devices, and even the learners themselves. Much like in traditional settings, curriculum in a free-choice learning environment can comprise both an explicit, stated curriculum and a hidden curriculum, both contributing to the learner’s experience and the lessons derived from it. [26] These elements are further influenced by the specific setting, prevailing cultural norms, and the learner’s individual state of mind. [27] Museums and similar institutions are frequently integrated into traditional classroom settings as supplementary resources when educators design curricula that incorporate visits to these venues, as well as zoos and aquariums. [28]

Progressivist Views

From a progressivist standpoint, a mere list of school subjects, syllabi, courses of study, or specific discipline offerings does not constitute a curriculum. These elements only attain the status of curriculum when they are actively actualized by the learner. Broadly interpreted, curriculum is defined as the entirety of an individual’s learning experiences. This definition finds its anchor in John Dewey ’s conceptualization of experience and education. He posited that reflective thinking serves as the unifying force for curricular elements, asserting that thought is not merely derived from action but is rigorously tested through practical application.

Caswell and Campbell defined curricula as “all experiences children have under the guidance of teachers.” This definition is echoed by Smith, Stanley, and Shores, who described curriculum as “a sequence of potential experiences set up in schools for the purpose of disciplining children and youth in group ways of thinking and acting.”

Curriculum as a process involves a teacher entering a specific educational setting with a capacity for critical thought, an understanding of their role and the expectations placed upon them, and a proposed course of action that outlines essential principles and characteristics of the educational encounter. [16] Guided by these elements, the teacher facilitates dialogues among and with the individuals involved in the situation, leading to the development of a shared course of thinking and action. [16] Furthermore, the teacher continuously evaluates the process and the observable outcomes. [16]

Marsh and Willis characterize curricula as encompassing all “experiences in the classroom which are planned and enacted by teacher, and also learned by the students.” [29]

Any definition of curriculum, to be practically effective and productive, must extend beyond a mere statement of knowledge content or the subjects to be taught, transmitted, or delivered. [15] Some argue that the values inherent in the arrangements schools make for their students are quite apparent to teachers and planners, particularly when politicians are involved. These values are clearly accepted by them as part of what students should learn, even if not overtly recognized by the students themselves. [15] In essence, those who design curricula deliberately shape the schools’ “expressive culture.” If this is the case, then the curriculum is ‘hidden’ only from the students, and the values intended to be learned are an integral part of the planned educational experience. Consequently, these values must be fully accepted as part of the curriculum, and critically examined, especially concerning the legitimacy of such practices. [15]

Currently, the concept of a spiral curriculum is gaining traction, advocating for students to revisit subject matter at progressively advanced levels of understanding. The constructivist approach suggests that children learn most effectively through proactive engagement with their educational environment, akin to learning through discovery.

Primary and Secondary Education

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A curriculum can be, in part or in whole, dictated by an external authority—think of the National Curriculum for England in English schools, or the International Primary Curriculum for those institutions catering to a global clientele.

Central to any curriculum are its objectives, typically articulated as learning outcomes, which invariably include the program’s assessment strategy. These outcomes and assessments are then grouped into units or modules, and thus, the curriculum is a collection of these specialized components. A typical curriculum might include units on communication, numeracy, information technology, and social skills, each with its own specific pedagogical approach.

Core curricula are frequently established at the primary and secondary levels by school boards, Departments of Education, or other administrative bodies responsible for overseeing education. A core curriculum is considered central and is usually mandatory for all students within a school or school system. However, even with core requirements, students may not always be forced into one specific class or activity. For example, a school might mandate music appreciation, but students could fulfill this requirement by enrolling in a performing arts class instead.

Australia

In Australia , the Australian Curriculum was implemented nationwide in 2014, [30] following a comprehensive curriculum development process initiated in 2010. [31] Prior to this, each state’s Education Department independently established its own curricula. The Australian Curriculum now encompasses eight subject areas for years up to year 10, and an additional seven subjects for the senior secondary years. [30]

Canada

In Canada , each province and territory holds the authority to develop its own curriculum. However, the Northwest Territories and Nunavut have opted to adopt elements of the Alberta Curriculum for certain parts of their educational programs. These territories also utilize Alberta’s standardized tests in specific subjects. [32]

Iran

Iran has recently reverted to a six-year elementary school system, moving away from the previous five-year structure. It now features two three-year divisions for junior and senior middle/high school. [33] Additionally, Islamic seminaries, known as Hawzas, offer programs that can extend from 10 to 14 years in duration.

South Korea

The National Curriculum of Korea covers kindergarten , primary, secondary, and special education levels. [34] The current iteration is the 7th National Curriculum, which has undergone revisions in 2007 and 2009. [34] This curriculum provides a foundational framework of common subjects through the 9th grade, followed by elective subjects for grades 10 through 12. [35]

Japan

In Japan, curriculum development is guided by the directives issued by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT), specifically through its guidelines for education and learning. When establishing curricula for individual schools, organizers refer to manuals and explanatory materials provided by MEXT and other relevant government bodies, with schools then developing their own annual plans. The Courses of Education and Courses of Study are subject to comprehensive revisions every ten years. Prior to World War II, curricula were determined by regulations specific to each type of school. [36]

The Netherlands

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The Dutch educational system operates under directives from the Ministry of Education, Culture and Science (OCW). Primary and secondary education utilize key objectives to shape their curricula. For primary education, the number of objectives has been significantly reduced, from 122 in 1993 to 58 in 2006. Starting in 2009 and 2010, all key objectives became mandatory for primary education. These objectives are organized around subject areas such as language, mathematics, social and environmental awareness, arts, and physical education. Each objective is accompanied by concrete activities. Final exams are also determined by the OCW and are compulsory. Some portions of these exams are administered nationally, developed by the Centrale Examencommissie Vaststelling Opgaven (CEVO). Furthermore, the OCW dictates the allocated hours for each subject. Beyond these central directives, individual schools retain the autonomy to determine their own specific curricula.

Nigeria

In 2005, the Nigerian government introduced a national Basic Education Curriculum for grades 1 through 9. This policy emerged from the Universal Basic Education program, launched in 1999, with the aim of providing free and compulsory education for these years. [ citation needed ] In 2014, the government revised the national curriculum, streamlining the number of subjects from 20 down to 10.

Russia

Core curricula have historically been a significant emphasis in Soviet and Russian universities and technical institutes. [ citation needed ]

United Kingdom

England and Wales

The National Curriculum was established in England , Wales , and Northern Ireland as a nationwide framework for primary and secondary state schools following the Education Reform Act 1988 . [38] It does not apply to private schools , which are free to devise their own curricula. However, it ensures a common curriculum across state schools in all local education authorities . Academy schools , on the other hand, possess considerable autonomy to deviate from the National Curriculum.

Every state school is mandated to provide a curriculum that is both balanced and broadly based. This curriculum must foster the spiritual, moral, cultural, mental, and physical development of its pupils and society, preparing them for the opportunities, responsibilities, and experiences of later life. For each statutory curriculum subject, the Secretary of State for Education is required to define a Programme of Study, detailing the content and subject matter that must be taught at relevant Key Stages. [39] Teachers are expected to set ambitious expectations for every pupil, designing challenging work for those who significantly exceed the expected standard. Appropriate assessments should be used to set deliberately ambitious targets.

Scotland

In Scotland , the Curriculum for Excellence (CfE) was implemented in all schools in August 2010. [40] The Scottish Qualifications Authority (SQA) introduced national qualifications in 2013, including the Life Skills Coursework (SFL), National 3 (NAT3), National 4 (NAT4), National 5 (NAT5), Higher , and [Advanced Higher].

United States

In the U.S. , curriculum decisions rest with each state and its individual school districts . [41] However, states often develop their curricula with significant input from national academic subject groups, such as the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) for mathematics instruction, as selected by the United States Department of Education .

The Common Core State Standards Initiative (CCSSI) proposes a standardized set of expectations regarding the information and skills students should acquire at each grade level to graduate. States have the option to adopt these standards, in whole or in part, and to augment them. Schools and states then develop their curricula to meet these standards, with the degree of local control varying. This coordinated effort aims to facilitate the use of common textbooks across states and to establish a more uniform minimum level of educational attainment.

According to the CCSSI, “[d]ecisions on how to implement the standards, including the right supports to put in place, are made at the state and local levels. As such, states and localities are taking different approaches to implementing the standards and providing their teachers with the supports they need to help students successfully reach the standards.” [43]

Higher Education

Students at the Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology examine the university’s main class schedule board on the first day of classes, seeking to identify the courses they—and all students in their specialization (sub-major)—will attend that semester.

Many educational institutions are currently navigating a delicate balance between two competing forces. On one side, there’s the belief that students should possess a common foundation of knowledge, often manifested as a core curriculum. On the other, there’s the desire for students to pursue their individual educational interests, frequently through early specialization in a major or the free selection of courses. This tension has been amplified by events such as Harvard University ’s reorganization of its core requirements. [44] [45]

A fundamental element of curriculum design, evident in every college catalog and at every level of schooling, is the specification of prerequisites for each course. [ clarification needed ] These prerequisites can be satisfied through specific courses, sometimes by examination, or by other means, such as relevant work experience. Generally, more advanced courses in a subject necessitate a grounding in foundational courses, but some coursework requires study in other departments, as seen in the sequence of mathematics classes required for a physics major, or the language requirements for students pursuing literature, music, or scientific research. A more detailed curriculum design must address prerequisites within each course for every topic covered. This, in turn, leads to challenges in course organization and scheduling once the interdependencies between topics are understood. [ citation needed ]

Core Curriculum

Students at Shimer College engage in discussions of texts central to the school’s core curriculum.

At the undergraduate level, individual college and university administrations and faculties sometimes mandate core curricula, particularly within the liberal arts . However, due to the increasing specialization and depth required in a student’s major field of study, a typical core curriculum in higher education accounts for a significantly smaller proportion of a student’s coursework compared to the requirements of a high school or elementary school core curriculum. [ citation needed ]

Among the most well-known and extensive core curriculum programs at leading American colleges and universities are those at Columbia University and the University of Chicago . Both can require up to two years of study without advanced standing and are designed to cultivate critical skills across a broad spectrum of academic disciplines, including social sciences, humanities, physical and biological sciences, mathematics, writing, and foreign languages. [ citation needed ]

In 1999, the University of Chicago announced plans to reduce and modify the content of its core curriculum, decreasing the number of required courses from 21 to 15 and offering a wider range of content options. This decision garnered significant attention from major news outlets like The New York Times and The Economist , making the university a focal point of a national debate on education. University administrators, notably then-President Hugo F. Sonnenschein , argued that reducing the core curriculum had become both a financial and educational necessity, as the university faced challenges in attracting a comparable volume of undergraduate applicants compared to peer institutions, largely attributed to what proponents of the change perceived as a negative reaction from “the average eighteen-year-old” to the extensive core requirements. [46]

As core curricula began to diminish in prominence throughout the 20th century at many American institutions, some smaller colleges gained renown for embracing a core curriculum that encompassed nearly the entirety of a student’s undergraduate education. These programs often utilized classic texts from the western canon as the basis for teaching all subjects, including science. Five Great Books colleges in the United States follow this pedagogical approach: St. John’s , Shimer , Thomas Aquinas , Gutenberg College , and Thomas More . [47]

Distribution Requirements

Some colleges adopt a middle-ground approach between highly specified and entirely unspecified curricula by implementing a system of distribution requirements. In this model, students are obligated to take courses within particular fields of learning , but they retain the freedom to select the specific courses within those fields. [ citation needed ]

Open Curriculum

Brown University celebrated the 50th anniversary of its Open Curriculum in 2019.

Other institutions have largely abandoned core requirements altogether. Brown University , for instance, offers its “Open Curriculum” , established after a student-led reform movement in 1969. This system permits students to enroll in courses without adhering to any requirements beyond those specific to their chosen concentrations (majors), plus two mandatory writing courses. Consequently, it is possible for students to graduate without having taken college-level science or math courses, or conversely, to exclusively pursue science or math coursework. Amherst College mandates that students take one of a selection of first-year seminars but imposes no other required classes or distribution requirements. Similarly, Grinnell College requires students to participate in a First-Year Tutorial during their initial semester, with no further course or distribution requirements. Other institutions with similar models include Evergreen State College , Hamilton College , and Smith College . [48]

Wesleyan University is another institution that does not mandate specific distribution of courses. However, Wesleyan does articulate “General Education Expectations,” and failure to meet these expectations can preclude a student from receiving academic honors upon graduation. [49]

Gender Inequality in Curricula

Main article: Gender inequality in curricula

Gender inequality within curricula manifests as unequal treatment of men and women in various educational programs. Specifically, gender disparities are observable in the curricula of both schools and Teacher Education Institutes (TEIs). Physical education (PE) serves as a prime example where issues of gender equality are highlighted due to ingrained stereotyping of boys and girls. The prevalent belief is that boys inherently possess greater aptitude for physical activities than girls, while girls are considered more adept at domestic tasks like sewing and cooking. This is a pervasive issue across many cultures globally, not confined to a single society. [50]

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Crisostomo, Jay (14 January 2019). “Multilingual Writing Practices and Translation in Advanced Lexical Education”. Translation as Scholarship: Language, Writing, and Bilingual Education in Ancient Babylonia. Studies in Ancient Near Eastern Records (SANER) - volume 22. Boston: Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. ISBN: 9781501509759 . Scribal identity was explicitly connected to the curriculum and specifically Sumerian in a number of literary works […]. […] The […] scribal curriculum […] was all about learning Sumerian. Through copying lists of Sumerian lexemes and especially in the reproduction of Sumerian literature, the curriculum inculcated the student scribe in Sumerian culture.
Atwill, Janet M. (2009) [1998]. Rhetoric Reclaimed: Aristotle and the Liberal Arts Tradition. Cornell paperbacks. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. p. 16. ISBN: 9780801476051 . […] Renaissance curricula were far more influenced by Quintilian’s pedagogical program than by Cicero’s goals for the training of an orator.
Bobbitt, John Franklin. The Curriculum. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1918.
Jackson, Philip W. “Conceptions of Curriculum and Curriculum Specialists.” In Handbook of Research on Curriculum: A Project of the American Educational Research Association, edited by Philip W. Jackson, 3–40. New York: Macmillan Pub. Co., 1992.
Pinar, William F., William M. Reynolds, Patrick Slattery, and Peter M. Taubman. Understanding Curriculum: An Introduction to the Study of Historical and Contemporary Curriculum Discourses. New York: Peter Lang, 1995.
Dewey, John (1902). The child and the curriculum. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 29. Retrieved 27 March 2023. To learn the lesson is more interesting than to take a scolding, be held up to general ridicule, stay after school, receive degradingly low marks, or fail to be promoted.
“Museum Education as Curriculum: Four Models, Leading to a Fifth”, Elizabeth Vallance, Studies in Art Education Vol. 45, No. 4 (Summer, 2004), pp. 343–358
Falk, J.H. & Dierking, L.D. (2000). Learning from museums: Visitor experiences and the making of meaning. Walnut Creek, CA; AltaMira Press.
Kim, M., & Dopico, E. (2014). Science education through informal education. Cultural Studies of Science Education, 1–7.
Bilbao, Purita P., Lucido, Paz I., Iringan, Tomasa C., and Javier, Rodrigo B. (2008). Curriculum Development. Quezon City: Lorimar Publishing, Inc.
“Australian Curriculum”. Retrieved 2015-01-12.
“Senior secondary Australian Curriculum”. Queensland Curriculum & Assessment Authority. 16 October 2015.
French, Janet. “Northwest-Terrirtories and Nunavut to Have Input in Albertas K—12 Curriculum Redesign”. Retrieved November 23, 2016.
“Education Curriculum in Iran | K12 Academics”. 6 February 2017.
“National Curriculum of Korea Source Inventory”. National Curriculum Information Center. Retrieved 2015-01-12.
“THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM OF THE REPUBLIC OF KOREA: Proclamation of the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology: #2009-41” (PDF). Retrieved 2015-01-12.
“NCEE - Japan Overview”. www.ncee.org . Retrieved 15 April 2018.
Mohammed, Amina (2014-08-14). “Nigeria revises basic education curriculum”. Premium Times. Retrieved 2015-01-12.
“National curriculum”. GOV.UK. 2 December 2014.
National Archives (1 April 2018). “Education Act 2002 Part 6”. H M Government. Retrieved 14 October 2020. Text was copied from this source, which is available under an Open Government Licence v3.0. © Crown copyright.
Curriculum for Excellence
National Education Standards…They’re Back! (article)
Diane Ravitch, National Standards in American Education A Citizen’s Guide Archived 2008-08-28 at the Wayback Machine (book)
Common Core Frequently Asked Questions (article)
“Harvard Gazette: Discussing the Core Curriculum”. Harvard University. Archived from the original on 3 July 2013. Retrieved 9 February 2013.
“Harvard approves new general education curriculum”. The Boston Globe. 15 May 2007. Retrieved 9 February 2013.
Bronner, Ethan (5 June 1999). “U. of Chicago President to Return to Teaching”. The New York Times. ISSN: 0362-4331 . Retrieved 2021-05-15 – via NYTimes.com.
Johnson, Dirk (2007-11-04). “Small Campus, Big Books”. The New York Times. Retrieved 2010-05-22.
“Examples in Action: Our List of Open Curriculum Colleges & Universities”. Open Jar Foundation. Archived from the original on 4 August 2012. Retrieved 7 February 2014.
“General Education Expectations, Registrar”. Wesleyan University. Archived from the original on 20 July 2011. Retrieved 7 February 2014.
UNESCO (2015). A Guide for Gender Equality in Teacher Education Policy and Practices (PDF). Paris, UNESCO. pp. 9, 59. ISBN: 978-92-3-100069-0 .

External links

Look up curriculum in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Library resources about Curriculum
- Resources in your library
World Council for Curriculum and Instruction Archived 2010-12-28 at the Wayback Machine
OnCourse Systems for Education - Curriculum Builder
George M. Wiley (1920). “Education, Courses of Study in”. Encyclopedia Americana .
UNESCO International Bureau of Education
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics