Greek Chorus

The Greek chorus. A collection of figures, cloaked in the dramatic traditions of antiquity, whose collective voice resonated through the amphitheatres of ancient Greece . They were the omnipresent commentators, the moral compass, the echo of the populace, weaving their chants and dances into the very fabric of tragedy, comedy, and the boisterous satyr plays . Imagine them, a unified entity, their movements synchronized, their words a single, powerful utterance, offering an indispensable perspective on the unfolding drama. They were not mere bystanders; they were integral to the narrative, a vibrant tableau against the stark actions of the principal players.

The Spectacle of the Chorus

Picture this: a homogeneous ensemble, numbering anywhere from a dozen to fifty individuals, their presence commanding. They were the embodiment of collective emotion and commentary, their performances a symphony of song, dance, and spoken word, delivered in unison. To enhance their dramatic impact and to embody the myriad emotions of the characters they represented, they employed masks. These were not just cosmetic embellishments; they were transformative tools, allowing the performers to shift their emotional tenor, to become the embodiment of grief, rage, or desolation, all within the unified expression of the chorus. It is a fascinating detail, the idea that a single voice could convey such a spectrum of feeling, yet it speaks to the profound artistry of these ancient performers.

Genesis and Evolution

The origins of the Greek chorus are shrouded in the mists of antiquity, but a prevailing theory credits the ancient Greek poet Arion with its genesis, conceiving of the stationary chorus and the verses of the satyrs. Aristotle , in his seminal work Poetics, offers his own perspective, suggesting that tragedy, much like comedy, emerged from improvisational roots. He posits that tragedy’s beginnings were in the spontaneous outbursts of the leaders of dithyrambic choruses , while comedy arose from the spirited pronouncements of those leading phallic performances , a practice that, he notes, persisted in many cities.

The influence and function of the chorus were not static; they ebbed and flowed with the tides of theatrical innovation. Aeschylus , for instance, is credited with elevating the importance of dialogue by augmenting the number of actors on stage, thereby diminishing the chorus’s prominence. Yet, their role extended beyond the theatrical stage; they were deeply embedded within the Athenian polis . The shared experience of performing civic duty within the chorus forged lifelong bonds among its members, a testament to the social and political significance of these ensembles.

It is widely believed that the chorus found its nascent form in the Dionysian dithyrambs , those fervent hymns and dances dedicated to the god Dionysus . From these devotional rituals, other characters gradually coalesced, and subsequently, satyr plays were introduced at the commencement of performances, ensuring that Dionysus remained the honored deity.

The playwrights of the 5th century BCE paid a poignant homage to the chorus’s musical and choreographic heritage. They artfully integrated dance and sung odes into their dramatic works. Aeschylus and Euripides either composed the musical accompaniments for their own tragedies or commissioned them, while Sophocles himself is known to have accompanied at least one of his plays on the cithara , an instrument akin to the ancient lyre.

Even the esteemed German poet and philosopher Friedrich Schiller attempted to revive the chorus in his tragedy, The Bride of Messina . However, upon its premiere in March 1803 in Weimar, the performance, while celebrated by students, drew sharp criticism from reviewers who specifically targeted his use of the chorus. The German poet Carlyle famously lamented that “the chorus retarded the plot, dissipating and diffusing the sympathies.” A rather damning assessment, if you ask me.

In 1910, Sir William Ridgeway, in his work The Origin of Tragedy, put forth the argument that as Greek tragedy evolved from the dithyramb, the genre itself was intrinsically linked to Dionysian traditions. It’s a compelling lineage, tracing the theatrical back to the sacred.

The Chorus’s Dramatic Choreography

Every surviving play from the annals of ancient Greek theatre features a chorus, a constant presence that offered a multifaceted layer of exposition and commentary. They provided essential background and summary information, guiding the audience through the labyrinthine plots. Beyond mere exposition, they delved into the thematic depths of the drama, and as August Wilhelm Schlegel proposed, sparking considerable debate in the early 19th century, they served as a conduit for the audience’s emotional response. Schlegel posited that the chorus was, in essence, “the ideal spectator,” articulating the audience’s own emotions in a lyrical and musical fashion, elevating them to a realm of contemplation.

Within the structure of Greek tragedy, the chorus made its grand entrance during the parodos, the song performed upon their arrival. The tragedy unfolded through a series of episodes, where characters and the chorus engaged in dialogue, interspersed with stasima – choral odes performed at the conclusion of each episode, serving to consolidate and contextualize the events. Finally, in the exodus, the play’s denouement, the chorus delivered a final song, imparting a concluding message or moral before their departure. Paul Woodruff argues that the chorus often mirrored the grief of the main characters, labeling them “grief-leaders.”

Some scholars contend that the chorus itself was considered an actor, an integral player in the dramatic enterprise. Albert Weiner, a scholar in this field, suggests that a chorus is most effective when it is “integrated into the fabric of the play,” functioning as a unified character. He notes that while the choruses of Euripides often appear less cohesive, those of Sophocles generally garner higher praise, with Euripides’ choruses sometimes criticized for their tangential relationship to the central plot. Aristotle , in his Poetics , concurred, stating:

The chorus too must be regarded as one of the actors. It must be part of the whole and share in the action, not as in Euripides but as in Sophocles.

The chorus, in essence, represented the collective populace within the narrative, a stark counterpoint to the individualistic focus on heroes, gods, and goddesses that characterized many ancient Greek plays. They often shared the same gender as the protagonist. For instance, in Aeschylus ’ Agamemnon , the chorus comprises the elder statesmen of Argos . In Euripides’ The Bacchae , they are a band of eastern bacchantes , and in Sophocles’ Electra , they embody the women of Argos. However, in Aeschylus’ The Eumenides , the chorus takes on the formidable role of the avenging Furies .

In certain instances, the Greek chorus served as a crucial intermediary, bridging the gap between the represented population and the audience, particularly in matters of moral judgment. In Seneca’s Thyestes , the chorus vividly recounts offstage events, detailing the gruesome murders of Thyestes’ sons with visceral descriptions designed to evoke disgust at Atreus’s morally reprehensible actions.

Furthermore, in the same play, the chorus is believed to have played a significant role in conveying the play’s central themes, employing imagistic references to hunger to articulate the pervasive themes of desire. This desire manifests not only as literal hunger and consumption but also as an insatiable thirst for revenge. Despite their role as clarifying voices, the Greek chorus was not always privy to all knowledge; the gaps in their understanding occasionally served to highlight the hierarchical distance between the chorus and a protagonist, thereby emphasizing the latter’s elevated status. Consequently, the chorus not only reflected the hierarchical structure of ancient Greek society but also provided insights into the political thoughts and ideals of the era. The text delivered by the chorus in relation to Atreus oscillates between positive, negative, and neutral tones; they critique the monarchy while simultaneously prescribing necessary points of detachment for the king. Their pronouncements, therefore, offer a valuable lens through which to examine the political and societal landscapes of the time, particularly from the perspective of the common citizen.

In the surviving tragedies, the choruses represent a diverse array of figures:

Aeschylus :

• Agamemnon – Elders of Argos
• The Eumenides – Furies
• The Libation Bearers – Enslaved Women
• The Persians – Elders of Susa
• Prometheus Bound – Oceanids
• Seven Against Thebes – Theban Women
• The Suppliants – The Danaïdes

Sophocles :

• Ajax – Sailors from Salamis
• Antigone – Elders of Thebes
• Electra – Mycenaean Women
• Oedipus at Colonus – Elders of Colonus
• Oedipus Rex – Elders of Thebae
• Philoctetes – Sailors of Neoptolemus
• Women of Trachis – Trachinian Women

Euripides :

• Alcestis – Elders of Pherae
• Andromache – Phthian Women
• The Bacchae – Theban Maenads
• Children of Heracles – Elders of Athens
• Electra – Argive Women
• Hecuba – Enslaved Trojan Women
• Helen – Enslaved Greek Women in Egypt
• Heracles – Elders of Thebes
• Hippolytus – Troezenian Women, Attendants to Hippolytus
• Ion – Women in the Service of Creusa
• Iphigenia in Aulis – Chalcidian Women
• Iphigenia in Tauris – Enslaved Greek Women in Taurica
• Medea – Corinthian Women
• Orestes – Argive Women
• The Phoenician Women – Phoenician Women
• Rhesus – Trojan Sentinels
• The Suppliants – Mothers and Sons of the Fallen Thebans
• The Trojan Women – Trojan Noble Women

The Mechanics of Choral Performance

While no definitive visual records survive to fully depict the spectacle of an ancient Greek choral ode, the textual evidence—its etymology and other decisive clues—allows us to reconstruct a compelling picture. A choral ode was a masterful synthesis of lyric poetry, dance, and song, seamlessly interwoven with the dramatic narrative. As scholar H. D. F. Kitto eloquently put it: “The Greek verb choreuo, ‘I am a member of the chorus’, has the sense ‘I am dancing’. The word ode means not something recited or declaimed, but ‘a song’.” The very space designated for the chorus’s performance, the ‘orchestra,’ literally translates to ‘dancing floor.’

The lyrical structure of the choral odes provides compelling evidence of their sung nature. While spoken words adhere to a syllabic structure where long sounds are typically twice the length of short sounds, certain lyrics within Greek odes exhibit long syllables that stretch to three, four, or even five times the length of shorter syllables. This phenomenon is impossible in spoken word, strongly suggesting a rhythm dictated by both dance and song.

The numerical composition of the chorus underwent transformations. At the dawn of the 5th century BCE, the chorus comprised fifty members. It is believed that Aeschylus subsequently reduced this number to twelve, and Sophocles then expanded it to fifteen. This size of fifteen remained consistent through the end of the 5th century BCE. Both Euripides and Sophocles employed fifteen members in their tragedies, while comedies featured a chorus of twenty-four.

Regarding gender, evidence from as early as the 8th century BCE depicts female ensembles or women performing alongside men in mixed choruses. However, these instances seem to diminish by the 5th century. Direct literary evidence for female choruses in Greek literature is scarce, with much of our understanding derived from indirect references that scholars have meticulously interpreted.

For example, Euripides ’ character Electra laments her exclusion from participating in choruses and festivals. In other instances, poets and playwrights employ the term choros to denote female group performances, though this usage was not widespread. Plato refers to women engaging in Corybantic dances using choral terminology, but scholars Budelmann and Power suggest that the context implies he did not consider these on par with traditional Greek choruses. Furthermore, both Sophocles and Pausanias reference the Thyiades as a choros.

Budelmann and Power, while acknowledging the mainstream consensus that female choruses occupied a peripheral role in Greek choral culture, argue for their existence beyond the civic performances dominated by traditional Greek choruses. These female ensembles were notably absent from major events like the City Dionysia , where female roles were instead portrayed by male performers. Instead, they found their stages at polis festivals, private gatherings, women-only festivals, and in areas outside urban centers.

Female choreia at private events included the dekatê, a naming ceremony held on the tenth day after a child’s birth, typically a small affair attended by close friends and family. Greek weddings of the period incorporated dancing and singing by both genders, separately and together, but these occasions differed significantly from formal choral performances.

Female choreia also existed beyond Athens, with segregated gender performances. Both Plutarch and Aristophanes’ Lysistrata allude to women dancing at Kolias during the Classical period, in honor of Demeter and Aphrodite, respectively.

Stagecraft and the Chorus

The chorus employed a diverse range of techniques in their performances, encompassing singing, dancing, narration, and acting. Evidence suggests a strong rhythmic component to their spoken lines. While they often communicated through song, they also delivered their lines in unison. The chorus played a vital role in elucidating the play’s narrative, especially given the limited number of actors on stage—typically only one to three, each portraying multiple characters. The sheer scale of ancient Greek theatres necessitated that the chorus’s actions be exaggerated and their voices projected with clarity to ensure they were visible and audible to all. To achieve this, they employed techniques such as synchronization, echo effects, ripple movements, physical theatre, and the strategic use of masks. A coryphaeus often led the Greek chorus. They also served as the ancient equivalent of a theatrical curtain, with their parodos (processional entrance) signaling the play’s commencement and their exodos (processional exit) marking its conclusion.

The architectural design of ancient Greek theatres included an orchestra area, the literal “dancing space,” which was generally flat. It was here that the chorus performed and interacted with the actors. Initially constructed of packed earth, these spaces evolved to feature paved surfaces, sometimes adorned with marble, during the Classical period. These orchestra areas occasionally housed a thymele , or altar.

The Fading Resonance of Antiquity

Prior to Aeschylus ’s introduction of multiple, interacting actors, the Greek chorus stood as the primary performer in relation to a solitary actor. The significance of the chorus began to wane after the 5th century BCE , as they became increasingly detached from the dramatic action. Later dramatists relied on the chorus less than their predecessors. As dialogue and character development gained prominence, the chorus’s presence diminished. However, historian Alan Hughes offers a counterpoint to this narrative of decline, proposing instead a gradual dissolution of one form into another:

At their best, they may have become performance art, blending music, lyrics, and dance, performed by polished choreutai and accompanied by distinguished musicians. That is neither improvement nor decline: it is simply change.

Echoes in Modern Performance

The tradition of the singing chorus, fulfilling a purpose akin to its ancient Greek predecessor, can still be found in musical theatre and grand opera . As noted in Six Plays by Rodgers and Hammerstein, “The singing chorus is used frequently to interpret the mental and emotional reactions of the principal characters, after the manner of a Greek chorus.” The concept of the Greek chorus as a dramatic device is particularly evident in Michael R. Jackson’s 2020 Pulitzer Prize-winning musical, A Strange Loop , where six “Thoughts” shadow the protagonist, Usher, embodying his “perceptions of reality.”

During the Italian Renaissance , a resurgence of interest in ancient Greek theatre led to the creation of the first operas by the Florentine Camerata . These operas emerged from the intermezzi , which served as comic or musical interludes within dramatic performances. H. C. Montgomery argues that these intermezzi were directly inspired by the Greek chorus.

Richard Wagner extensively discussed Greek drama and the Greek chorus in his writings, including “Art and Revolution ”. His magnum opus, Der Ring des Nibelungen (The Ring of the Nibelung), draws parallels with the structure and rhythm of the Oresteia , though Das Rheingold serves as a prologue to the other three parts. Montgomery further suggests that Wagner’s use of the orchestra mirrors the function of the Greek chorus, as both often conclude the dramatic action, “bridg[ing] the space from the dramatic action back to every-day life.”

The musical Little Shop of Horrors features a modern interpretation of the Greek chorus through the characters Crystal, Ronette, and Chiffon, whose songs propel the narrative.

The film Mighty Aphrodite by Woody Allen also incorporates a Greek chorus, which offers advice to the protagonist, a character grappling with neuroticism . It’s a rather amusing application, really.