Ivory Trade

The ivory trade is the commercial, often illegal, trade in the ivory tusks of various animals, including the hippopotamus , walrus , narwhal , black and white rhinos , mammoth , and most commonly, African and Asian elephants . This trade has a long and complex history, marked by periods of intense exploitation, regulatory efforts, and ongoing controversies.

History and Uses of Ivory

Ivory has been traded for centuries, prized for its aesthetic qualities and durability. Historically, it was used to make piano keys, billiard balls, and various decorative items. The piano industry, for instance, abandoned ivory as a key covering material in the 1980s, opting for alternatives such as plastic . Additionally, synthetic ivory has been developed as a substitute for making piano keys, offering a more sustainable and ethical option.

Elephant Ivory Trade

Early Trade and Exploitation

The trade in elephant ivory dates back millennia, with records going back to the 14th century BCE . The transportation of ivory was always challenging due to its weight, and with the establishment of the early-modern slave trades from East and West Africa, freshly captured slaves were often used to carry the heavy tusks to the ports. At the peak of the ivory trade, during the colonization of Africa , around 800 to 1,000 tonnes of ivory were sent to Europe alone every year.

Post-War Resurgence and Japanese Demand

The World Wars and subsequent economic depressions caused a lull in the ivory trade, but the post-World War II economic expansion saw a resurgence in demand. Japan , relieved from its exchange restrictions, started to buy up raw ivory, putting pressure on the forest elephants of Africa and Asia. The ivory was used for piano keys, billiard balls, and other expressions of exotic wealth. The Japanese market, in particular, drove the demand for ivory, using it for the production of hanko , name seal stamps used like a signature.

Poaching Crisis and International Response

By the 1970s, Japan consumed about 40% of the global ivory trade, with another 40% consumed by Europe and North America. The massive demand for hanko drove the majority of Japan’s consumption, but ivory was also used in the production of high-status cultural objects, including components for the Japanese tea ceremony (Chanoyu).

The poaching crisis of the 1980s saw a dramatic decline in African elephant populations. In 1979, the African elephant population was estimated to be around 1.3 million in 37 range states , but by 1989, only 600,000 remained. Throughout this decade, around 75,000 African elephants were killed for the ivory trade annually, worth around 1 billion dollars. About 80% of this was estimated to come from illegally killed elephants.

CITES and the Ivory Ban

The international deliberations over the measures required to prevent the serious decline in elephant numbers led to the involvement of CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora). In 1986, CITES introduced a new control system involving paper permits, registration of ivory stockpiles, and monitoring of legal ivory movements. However, these controls were undermined by corruption and the involvement of international criminals.

Finally, in October 1989, the African elephant was put on Appendix One of CITES, effectively banning the international trade in ivory. The ban was enacted in January 1990, leading to a significant reduction in poaching and a drop in ivory prices. The ban was widely accepted as effective, with ivory markets around the world closing, almost all of which were in Europe and the US.

Southern African Opposition and Renewed Sales

Despite the ban, a group of southern African countries, including South Africa, Zimbabwe, Botswana, Namibia, and Swaziland, opposed the decision. These countries claimed to have well-managed elephant populations and needed the revenue from ivory sales to fund conservation. In 1997, CITES parties agreed to allow the populations of African elephants in Botswana, Namibia, and Zimbabwe to be “downlisted” to Appendix Two, allowing international trade in elephant parts under strict controls.

In 2000, South Africa also “downlisted” its elephant population to CITES Appendix Two with a stated desire to sell its ivory stockpile. The effect of these sales was hotly debated, with some claiming that the sales had changed the perception of ivory and led to increased poaching.

Modern Poaching Crisis and Asian Demand

The rise of Asia, particularly China, has been a significant factor in the modern poaching crisis. China’s increased involvement in infrastructure projects in Africa and the purchase of natural resources have alarmed conservationists. Since China was given “approved buyer” status by CITES, the smuggling of ivory has increased alarmingly. In 2014, Uganda reported the theft of about 3,000 lb (1,400 kg) of ivory from its state-run wildlife protection agency.

The price of ivory in China has greatly increased, possibly due to deliberate price fixing by those who bought the stockpile or the exploding number of Chinese able to purchase luxury goods. A study funded by Save the Elephants showed that the price of ivory tripled in China during four years following 2011, leading to increased poaching.

Recent Developments and Bans

In 2017, China announced a ban on all ivory trade and processing activities by the end of the year, with the commercial processing and sale of ivory stopping by 31 March 2017. This announcement was welcomed by conservation groups, who called it a “historic announcement… signalling an end to the world’s primary legal ivory market and a major boost to international efforts to tackle the elephant poaching crisis.”

In 2018, the UK Ivory Act received Royal Assent, effectively banning the buying and selling of all forms of ivory in the UK, with some narrow exemptions. The ban has been described as one of the “world’s toughest” ivory bans.

Asian Elephant Ivory

International trade in Asian elephant ivory was banned in 1975 when the Asian elephant was placed on Appendix One of CITES. By the late 1980s, it was believed that only around 50,000 remained in the wild. There has been little controversy in the decision to ban trade in Asian elephant ivory, but the species is still threatened by the ivory trade.

Walrus Ivory

Trade in walrus ivory has taken place for hundreds of years in large regions of the northern hemisphere, involving groups such as the Norse , Russians , other Europeans, the Inuit , and the people of Greenland . In North America, Alaska natives are allowed to harvest walrus for subsistence, and the ivory can be sold under certain conditions.

Narwhal Ivory

The people of Greenland likely traded narwhal ivory amongst themselves before any contact with Europeans. Trading continues today between Greenland and other countries, with Denmark being the leading purchaser. In Canada, there is an international export ban of narwhal tusks from 17 Nunavut communities imposed by the Canadian federal government.

Mammoth Ivory

The first known instance of mammoth ivory reaching western Europe was in 1611, when a piece purchased from Samoyeds in Siberia reached London. After 1582, when Russia conquered Siberia, the ivory became a more regularly available commodity. In 1998, over 300 mammoth tusks were discovered in an underground ice cave in the Taimyr Peninsula in North Siberia.