Maldives

Island country in South Asia

This article is about the island country in South Asia. For other uses, see Maldives (disambiguation) .

Republic of Maldives

ދިވެހިރާއްޖޭގެ ޖުމްހޫރިއްޔާ (Dhivehi ) Dhivehi Raajjeyge Jumhooriyyaa

Flag Emblem

Motto:   الدولة المحلديبية (Arabic ) Ad-Dawlat Al-Mahaldibiyyat

Anthem:  ޤައުމީ ސަލާމް “Qaumee Salaam ” “National Salute”

Show globe Show map of Maldives

Capital and largest city Malé 4°10′31″N 73°30′32″E / 4.17528°N 73.50889°E / 4.17528; 73.50889

Official language • and national language Dhivehi

Common language English

Religion Sunni Islam (official ) [1]

Demonym(s) Maldivian

Government Unitary presidential republic • President Mohamed Muizzu • Vice President Hussain Mohamed Latheef • Speaker Abdul Raheem Abdulla • Chief Justice Abdul Ghanee Mohamed

Legislature People’s Majlis

Independence from the United Kingdom • Independence declared 26 July 1965 • Second Republic 11 November 1968 • Current constitution 7 August 2008

Area • Total 298 km² (115 sq mi) (187th )

Population • 2024 estimate 601,269 [2] • 2022 census 515,132 [3] (167th ) • Density 1,728.63/km² (4,477.1/sq mi) (7th )

GDP (PPP) • 2024 estimate • Total $13.867 billion [4] (157th ) • Per capita $34,322 [4] (54th )

GDP (nominal) • 2024 estimate • Total $6.984 billion [4] (161st ) • Per capita $17,287 [4] (58th )

Gini (2024)  31.3 [5] • medium inequality

HDI (2023)  0.766 [6] • high (93rd )

Currency Maldivian rufiyaa (MVR) [a]

Time zone UTC +5 (MVT)

Date format dd / mm / yyyy [b]

Calling code +960

ISO 3166 code MV

Internet TLD .mv

Maldives, officially the Republic of Maldives, and historically known as the Maldive Islands, is an archipelagic country in South Asia , strategically positioned in the eastern Arabian Sea , within the vast expanse of the northern Indian Ocean . Its geographical location places it southwest of Sri Lanka and India , approximately 750 kilometres (470 miles; 400 nautical miles) distant from the Asian continent’s mainland. The Maldives is characterized by a striking chain of 26 atolls , stretching languidly across the equator, from the northernmost Ihavandhippolhu Atoll to the southernmost Addu Atoll .

As the smallest country in Asia by land area, Maldives encompasses a mere 298 square kilometres (115 sq mi). However, this seemingly small landmass is dispersed across roughly 90,000 square kilometres (35,000 sq mi) of ocean, establishing it as one of the world’s most spatially fragmented sovereign states. With a population recorded at 515,132 in the 2022 census, it ranks as the second least populous country in Asia and the ninth-smallest country by area . Despite its size, it is also one of the most densely populated countries . The average ground-level elevation in Maldives is a mere 1.5 metres (4 ft 11 in) above sea level, and its highest natural point barely reaches 2.4 metres (7 ft 10 in). This makes Maldives the world’s lowest-lying country, though some sources cite Mount Villingili as reaching 5.1 metres (17 feet).

The capital and most populous city, Malé , is traditionally known as the “King’s Island,” the historical seat of ancient royal dynasties . Maldives boasts a history stretching back over 2,500 years. Documented interactions with the wider world began around 947 AD, with the arrival of Arab travelers. By the 12th century, influenced by the significant role of Persians and Arabs as maritime traders in the Indian Ocean, Islam was introduced to the Maldivian Archipelago. [10] Soon after, Maldives was consolidated as a sultanate , fostering robust commercial and cultural connections with both Asia and Africa. From the mid-16th century, European colonial powers began to exert increasing influence, culminating in Maldives becoming a British protectorate in 1887. Independence from the United Kingdom was achieved in 1965, followed by the establishment of a presidential republic in 1968, governed by an elected People’s Majlis. The subsequent decades have been marked by periods of political turbulence, concerted efforts towards democratic reform, [11] and the ever-present threat of climate change and rising sea levels . [12] Maldives is a founding member of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC).

Historically, fishing has been the primary economic activity, and it continues to be the second-largest sector, trailing the rapidly expanding tourism industry. Maldives is classified as having a “high” Human Development Index , [13] with a per capita income considerably higher than that of other SAARC nations. [14] The World Bank categorizes Maldives as an upper-middle income economy. [15]

Maldives holds membership in several international organizations, including the United Nations , the Commonwealth of Nations , the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation , and the Non-Aligned Movement . It also serves as a Dialogue Partner of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation . [16] In a notable political maneuver, Maldives temporarily withdrew from the Commonwealth in October 2016, citing threats of expulsion due to alleged human rights infringements and democratic backsliding. [17] The country was subsequently readmitted to the Commonwealth on 1 February 2020, following the presentation of evidence of reform and the restoration of functioning democratic processes. [18]

Etymology

• See also: Names of the Maldives

According to local legends, the initial settlers of the Maldives were known as the Dheyvis. [19] The very first Kingdom of Maldives was referred to as the Kingdom of Dheeva Maari. [20] Historical accounts from the 3rd century BCE, referencing visits by emissaries, indicate that the Maldives were then known as Dheeva Mahal. [19]

During the period roughly spanning 1100 to 1166, Maldives was also identified as Diva Kudha. The Laccadive archipelago , which was then considered part of Maldives, was known as Diva Kanbar, according to the renowned scholar and polymath al-Biruni . [21]

The name “Maldives” itself is believed to have origins in Sanskrit , potentially deriving from the words mālā (meaning garland ) and dvīpa (meaning island), [22] or from the Sinhala phrase Maala Divaina, translating to “Necklace Islands.” [23] The indigenous people of the Maldives are known as Dhivehin. The word Dheeb or Deeb (an archaic Dhivehi term, cognate with the Sanskrit dvīpa) signifies “island,” and consequently, Dhives (or Dhivehin) translates to “islanders.” [24] In the Tamil language , the concept of “Garland of Islands” is rendered as Mālaitīvu (மாலைத்தீவு). [25]

The esteemed Sri Lankan chronicle, the Mahavamsa, makes mention of an island designated as Mahiladiva (“Island of Women”, महिलादिभ) in Pali. This designation is thought to have arisen from an erroneous translation of the Sanskrit term, which actually signified “garland.”

Jan Hogendorn, a professor of economics at Colby College , proposed a theory that the name “Maldives” originates from the Sanskrit phrase mālādvīpa (मालाद्वीप), meaning “garland of islands.” [22] In Malayalam , “Garland of Islands” can be expressed as Maladweepu (മാലദ്വീപ്). [26] Similarly, in Kannada , it translates to Maaledweepa (ಮಾಲೆದ್ವೀಪ್). [27] While these specific names may not appear in extant literature, classical Sanskrit texts dating back to the Vedic period do refer to the “Hundred Thousand Islands” (Lakshadweepa ), a generic term that would have encompassed not only the Maldives but also the Laccadives , Aminidivi Islands , Minicoy , and the Chagos Archipelago groups. [28] [29]

Medieval Muslim travelers, such as the renowned Ibn Battuta , referred to the islands as Maḥal Dībīyāt (محل ديبية). This appellation is derived from the Arabic word maḥal, meaning “palace,” which likely stemmed from the Berber traveler’s interpretation of the name of Malé, having previously traversed Muslim North India where Perso-Arabic vocabulary had been integrated into the local lexicon. [30] This is the very name that is currently inscribed on the scroll of the Maldivian state emblem . [31] The classical Persian/Arabic designation for the Maldives is Dibajat. [32] [33] The Dutch, during their colonial era, referred to the islands as the Maldivische Eilanden (pronounced [mɑlˈdivisə ˈʔɛilɑndə(n)]), [34] while the British, in their process of anglicisation , initially adapted the local name to the “Maldive Islands” before eventually shortening it to “Maldives.” [34]

In a notable historical text published in 1563, Garcia de Orta documented: “I must tell you that I have heard it said that the natives do not call it Maldiva but Nalediva. In the Malabar language, nale means four, and diva means island. So that in that language, the word signifies ‘four islands’, while we, corrupting the name, call it Maldiva.” [35]

The indigenous name for the Maldives, used by the Maldivian people in their native Dhivehi tongue, is Dhivehi Raajje (ދިވެހިރާއްޖެ). [36]

History

• Main article: History of the Maldives

Ancient history and settlement

• Main article: History of the Maldives § Early Age

Evidence suggests that Maldives had established kingdoms as early as the 6th–5th century BCE. [19] The nation boasts a historical record spanning over 2,500 years, supported by both historical accounts and enduring legends. [37]

The Mahāvaṃsa , a chronicle dating back to 300 BCE, contains references to people migrating from Sri Lanka to the Maldives. [19] Based on the assumption that cowrie shells, a significant commodity, originated from the Maldives, historians posit the possibility of inhabitants present during the Indus Valley civilisation period (3300–1300 BCE). [38] Furthermore, various archaeological artifacts provide evidence of Hinduism being practiced in the country prior to the advent of Islam. [19]

According to the 17th-century Arabic text Kitāb fi āthār Mīdhu al-qādimah (On the Ancient Ruins of Meedhoo ) by Allama Ahmed Shihabuddine of Meedhoo in Addu Atoll, the initial settlers of the Maldives were a people known as the Dheyvis. [19] They are said to have originated from Kalibanga in India. [19] The precise timing of their arrival remains unknown, but it is believed to have occurred before the reign of Emperor Ashoka (269–232 BCE). The narrative presented by Shihabuddin aligns remarkably well with the recorded history of South Asia and with the details found in the Maldivian copperplate document known as the Loamaafaanu . [19]

The ancient history of the Maldives is pieced together through the study of copperplates, ancient inscriptions etched onto coral artifacts, oral traditions, linguistic analysis, and the diverse ethnicities of the Maldivian populace. [19] The Maapanansa, a collection of copper plates detailing the history of the first Kings of Maldives from the Solar Dynasty, was lost at a very early stage.

A notice from the 4th century, penned by Ammianus Marcellinus (362 CE), mentions gifts dispatched to the Roman emperor Julian by a delegation representing the nation of Divi. The name “Divi” bears a striking resemblance to “Dheyvi,” the purported first settlers of the Maldives. [19]

The earliest inhabitants of the Maldives left behind no discernible archaeological evidence. Their dwellings were likely constructed from perishable materials such as wood and palm fronds, which would have rapidly succumbed to the tropical climate’s salinity and prevailing winds. Furthermore, the societal structure did not involve chiefs residing in elaborate stone palaces, nor did their religious practices necessitate the construction of grand temples or ceremonial complexes. [39]

Comparative analyses of Maldivian oral traditions, linguistic patterns, and cultural practices consistently affirm that the initial settlers originated from the southern coastal regions of the neighboring Indian subcontinent . [40] This includes the Giraavaru people , who are prominently featured in ancient legends and local folklore concerning the establishment of the capital and the institution of monarchical rule in Malé. [41]

A significant cultural substratum of Dravidian and North Indian influences persists within Maldivian society. This is evident in the Elu linguistic substratum found in the language, as well as in place names, kinship terminology, poetry, dance forms, and religious beliefs. [42] The North Indian cultural influence was introduced by the original Sinhalese migrants from Sri Lanka . Additionally, the seafaring cultures of Malabar and the Pandya kingdom led to settlements by Tamil and Malabar seafarers. [42]

Buddhist period

• Main articles: History of the Maldives § Buddhist period , and Buddhism in the Maldives

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The Isdhoo Lōmāfānu is recognized as the oldest copper-plate document discovered in the Maldives to date. This significant artifact was inscribed in 1194 CE (590 AH) using the Evēla script of the Divehi akuru , during the reign of Siri Fennaadheettha Mahaa Radun (Dhinei Kalaminja) .

Despite its often brief mention in historical texts, the 1,400-year-long Buddhist period holds fundamental importance in the narrative of Maldivian history. It was during this era that the distinct culture of the Maldives began to develop and flourish, a culture that continues to resonate today. The Maldivian language , early Maldivian scripts, architectural styles, governing institutions, customs, and social manners all trace their origins to the period when the Maldives existed as a Buddhist kingdom. [43]

Buddhism likely established a foothold in the Maldives around the 3rd century BCE, coinciding with Emperor Ashoka ’s period of expansion. It subsequently became the predominant religion until the 12th century. Archaeological findings from an ancient Buddhist monastery discovered in Kaashidhoo have been radiocarbon dated to between 205 and 560 AD, based on shell deposits excavated from the foundations of stupas and other structures within the monastery complex. [44] The ancient Maldivian rulers actively promoted Buddhism , and the earliest examples of Maldivian writing and artistic achievements, characterized by highly developed sculpture and architecture, originate from this period. The vast majority of archaeological remains unearthed in the Maldives consist of Buddhist stupas and monasteries, and all artifacts recovered to date exhibit unmistakable Buddhist iconography. [ citation needed ]

Islamic period

• See also: History of the Maldives § Islamic Period , Islam in Maldives , List of Maldivian monarchs , and Sultanate of Maldives

The significant role of Arab traders in the Indian Ocean by the 12th century might offer a partial explanation for the conversion of the last Buddhist king of Maldives, Dhovemi , to Islam in 1153 (or possibly 1193). Assuming the Muslim title of Sultan Muhammad al-Adil, he initiated a succession of six Islamic dynasties that persisted until 1932, when the sultanate transitioned to an elective system. The formal title held by the sultan until 1965 was “Sultan of Land and Sea, Lord of the Twelve-Thousand Islands and Sultan of Maldives,” accompanied by the style of Highness .

Tradition attributes this conversion to a Moroccan traveler named Abu al-Barakat Yusuf al-Barbari. [45] According to accounts recorded by Ibn Battutah , a mosque was constructed bearing the inscription: “The Sultan Ahmad Shanurazah accepted Islam at the hand of Abu al-Barakat Yusuf al-Barbari.” [45] [46] A popular legend surrounding the spread of Islam by al-Barbari involves a local belief in an oceanic deity known as Rannamaari . The tale recounts that Rannamaari demanded the monthly sacrifice of a virgin from the populace. This practice continued for an extended period until al-Barbari’s arrival in the Maldives, where he is said to have converted the local ruler and persuaded him and his subjects to abandon the worship of Rannamari. [47] [48] Modern Norwegian archaeologist Egil Mikkelsen posits that the myth of Rannamari was likely heavily influenced by Buddhist tantric rituals and beliefs prevalent in the islands at that time. [49]

Some scholars have put forth the possibility that Ibn Battuta may have misread Maldivian texts and harbored a bias towards the North African, Maghrebi narrative of this Shaykh, overlooking the Persian origin account that was also prevalent. [50] Others suggest he might have been from the Persian city of Tabriz . [51] This latter interpretation, supported by the more authoritative local historical chronicles, Raadavalhi and Taarikh, [52] [53] identifies Abu al-Barakat Yusuf al-Barbari as Abdul Barakat Yusuf Shams ud-Dīn at-Tabrīzī, also known locally as Tabrīzugefānu. [54] The orthography of “al-Barbari” and “al-Tabrizi” in Arabic script is remarkably similar, particularly given that Arabic once featured several consonants that appeared identical and could only be distinguished by context (this has since been rectified by the addition of dots above or below letters to clarify pronunciation. For instance, the letter ‘B’ in modern Arabic has a dot below, while the letter ‘T’ is identical except for two dots above it). Thus, “ٮوسڡ الٮٮرٮرى” could plausibly be read as either “Yusuf at-Tabrizi” or “Yusuf al-Barbari.” [55]

The revered tomb of this scholar is presently located on the grounds of Medhu Ziyaaraiy , across the street from the Friday Mosque, or Hukuru Miskiy , in Malé. This mosque, originally constructed in 1153 and subsequently rebuilt in 1658, [56] stands as one of the oldest extant mosques in the Maldives. In line with the Islamic concept that the pre-Islamic era was a period of Jahiliyya (ignorance), the introduction of Islam in the late 12th century is considered a pivotal moment in the historical narrative of the country. Nevertheless, the cultural imprint of Buddhism endures, a reality that Ibn Battuta himself experienced during his nine-month stay between 1341 and 1345, during which he served as chief judge and married into the royal family of Omar I . [57] He became entangled in local political affairs and departed when his strict judicial rulings began to clash with the more laissez-faire approach of the island kingdom’s rulers. He was particularly displeased by the local women’s customary practice of appearing with their upper bodies uncovered—a cultural norm of the region at the time—which he perceived as a violation of Middle Eastern Islamic standards of modesty, and which the locals seemed to disregard despite his complaints. [58]

Relative to other regions in South Asia, the conversion of the Maldives to Islam occurred relatively late. The islands remained a Buddhist kingdom for an additional 500 years. Arabic supplanted Persian and Urdu as the primary language of administration, and the Maliki school of jurisprudence was introduced, both indicating direct contact with the core Arab world. [ citation needed ]

Middle Eastern seafarers had begun to dominate the Indian Ocean trade routes by the 10th century and identified the Maldives as a crucial link on these routes, serving as the first landfall for traders journeying from Basra to Southeast Asia. The primary trade commodities were cowrie shells —widely utilized as a form of currency across Asia and parts of the East African coast—and coir fibre, essential for rigging dhows that navigated the Indian Ocean. The Bengal Sultanate , where cowrie shells were legal tender, was a principal trading partner of the Maldives, establishing the largest known cowry shell currency trade network in history. [59]

The other vital product exported from the Maldives was coir , derived from the saltwater-resistant fibre of the coconut husk . This material was indispensable for stitching and rigging the dhows that plied the Indian Ocean trade routes. Maldivian coir found its way to markets in Sindh , China , Yemen , and the Persian Gulf .

Protectorate period

The Portuguese presence in Maldives was established in 1558, initiated by Constantino of Braganza , the Viceroy of Portuguese India .

In 1558, the Portuguese established a small garrison, overseen by a Viador (Viyazoaru), or factory manager, in Maldives. This outpost was administered from their primary colony in Goa . Their attempts to forcibly impose Christianity, threatening death upon refusal, ignited a local uprising led by Muhammad Thakurufaanu al-A’uẓam , his two brothers, and Dhuvaafaru Dhandahele. Fifteen years later, this resistance successfully expelled the Portuguese from Maldivian territory. This pivotal event is now commemorated as Qaumee Dhuvas , meaning “National Day,” celebrated on the 1st of Rabi’ al-Awwal , the third month of the Islamic Calendar . [60]

16th-century Portuguese illustration from the Códice Casanatense , depicting workers 18th-century map by Pierre Mortier from the Netherlands , depicting the islands of Maldives with detail

In the mid-17th century, the Dutch, having supplanted the Portuguese as the dominant power in Ceylon , asserted their hegemony over Maldivian affairs. While they maintained control over external relations, they largely refrained from direct intervention in local matters, which continued to be governed according to long-standing Islamic customs.

The British, in 1796, expelled the Dutch from Ceylon and subsequently incorporated Maldives into their sphere of influence as a British protectorate . The formalization of Maldives’ status as a British protectorate was documented in an agreement in 1887. Under this accord, Sultan Muhammad Mueenuddeen II conceded British influence over Maldives’ external relations and defense, while retaining internal autonomy. Home rule continued to be administered through traditional Muslim institutions, in exchange for an annual tribute . This protectorate status mirrored that of other British protectorates in the Indian Ocean region, such as Zanzibar and the Trucial States .

17th-century Portuguese drawing of the fortress of Maldives and the archipelago, featured in Antonio Bocarro’s book of Fortresses (1632) [61]

During the British protectorate period, the Sultan’s executive authority was increasingly assumed by the Chief Minister. This shift caused considerable consternation for the British Governor-General, who found himself obliged to continue dealing with the Sultan, whom he perceived as ineffectual. Consequently, the British administration encouraged the development of a constitutional monarchy , leading to the proclamation of the first Constitution in 1932. However, the new constitutional framework failed to satisfy either the Sultan or the Chief Minister, instead empowering a younger generation of British-educated reformists. This outcome fueled public discontent, resulting in angry mobs instigating unrest against the Constitution, which was ultimately torn up in public.

Maldives maintained its status as a British crown protectorate until 1953. In that year, the sultanate was suspended, and the First Republic was declared under the brief presidency of Mohamed Amin Didi . During his tenure as prime minister in the 1940s, Didi had nationalized the fish export industry. As president, he is remembered for his significant reforms in the education system and his advocacy for women’s rights . His government was eventually ousted by conservative factions in Malé. During a riot sparked by food shortages, Didi was tragically beaten by a mob and later died on a nearby island.

An RAF Short Sunderland moored in the lagoon at Addu Atoll during World War II

The political trajectory of Maldives from the 1950s onward was significantly shaped by the British military presence on the islands. In 1954, the restoration of the sultanate perpetuated the established ruling order. Two years later, the United Kingdom secured permission to re-establish its wartime RAF Gan airfield in the southernmost Addu Atoll, creating employment for hundreds of local residents. However, in 1957, the newly appointed prime minister, Ibrahim Nasir , initiated a review of the agreement. Nasir faced a challenge in 1959 from a secessionist movement in the three southernmost atolls, which had benefited economically from the British presence on Gan . This group declared independence, forming the United Suvadive Republic with Abdullah Afeef as its president and Hithadhoo as its capital. The Suvadive Republic was dissolved a year later after Nasir dispatched gunboats from Malé, supported by government police, leading to Abdullah Afeef’s exile. Concurrently, in 1960, Maldives granted the United Kingdom permission to continue using both the Gan and Hithadhoo facilities for a period of thirty years, with a financial provision of £750,000 allocated for Maldives’ economic development between 1960 and 1965. The airfield was eventually closed in 1976 as part of the broader British military withdrawal from bases ‘East of Suez ’. [62]

Independence and republic

• Main article: Independence of the Maldives

As the British gradually relinquished their colonial grip across Asia, ceding colonies to burgeoning nationalist movements, an agreement was signed on 26 July 1965. This accord, executed by Prime Minister Ibrahim Nasir Rannabandeyri Kilegefan on behalf of the Sultan and Sir Michael Walker , the designated British Ambassador to the Maldive Islands, formally terminated British authority over Maldives’ defense and external affairs. [63] The islands thus attained independence, with the official ceremony held at the British High Commissioner’s Residence in Colombo . Following independence, the sultanate persisted for an additional three years under Sir Muhammad Fareed Didi , who proclaimed himself King upon the nation’s independence. [64]

Flag of the Sultan of Maldives Prime Minister Ibrahim Nasir signs the independence agreement with the British on July 26, 1965.

On 15 November 1967, a vote was held in parliament to determine whether Maldives should continue as a constitutional monarchy or transition to a republic. [65] Out of the 44 members of parliament present, 40 voted in favor of establishing a republic. Subsequently, on 15 March 1968, a national referendum was conducted on this very question, with an overwhelming 93.34% of participants endorsing the establishment of a republic. [66] The republic was officially declared on 11 November 1968, marking the end of the 853-year-old monarchy and its replacement by a republic under the presidency of Ibrahim Nasir. [67] Given that the King had wielded minimal actual power, this transition was largely perceived as a symbolic change, requiring minimal adjustments to the existing governmental structures.

The development of tourism on the archipelago commenced in the early 1970s. [68] The inaugural tourist resort in the Maldives was Kurumba Maldives , which welcomed its first guests on 3 October 1972. [69] The first precise census was conducted in December 1977, revealing a population of 142,832 inhabitants residing in the Maldives. [70]

Political infighting during the 1970s, characterized by factional disputes between Nasir’s supporters and other political figures, led to the arrest and exile of the elected prime minister, Ahmed Zaki , to a remote atoll in 1975. [71] The economy experienced a downturn following the closure of the British airfield at Gan and the collapse of the market for dried fish, a crucial export commodity. With diminishing support for his administration, Nasir absconded to Singapore in 1978, taking with him millions of dollars from the national treasury. [72]

Maumoon Abdul Gayoom commenced his extensive 30-year tenure as president in 1978, securing victory in six consecutive elections without opposition. His accession to the presidency was viewed as ushering in an era of political stability and economic advancement, as Maumoon prioritized the development of the less prosperous islands. Tourism experienced significant growth, and increased international engagement spurred further development. However, Maumoon’s rule was not without controversy; critics accused him of autocratic tendencies, citing the suppression of dissent, limitations on freedoms, and the practice of political favouritism. [73]

A series of coup attempts, orchestrated by supporters of Nasir and various business interests, aimed to destabilize the government in 1980, 1983, and 1988. While the initial two attempts met with limited success, the 1988 coup attempt involved approximately 80 mercenaries from the PLOTE who seized control of the airport. This event forced Maumoon to move between various safe houses until the intervention of 1,600 Indian troops , airlifted into Malé, restored order.

The coup attempt in November 1988 was spearheaded by Ibrahim Lutfee, a businessman, and Sikka Ahmed Ismail Manik, the father of the former first lady of the Maldives, Fazna Ahmed . [74] The assailants were ultimately repelled by the then-existing National Security Services of Maldives . [75] On the night of 3 November 1988, the Indian Air Force airlifted a parachute battalion group from Agra , covering a distance of over 2,000 kilometres (1,200 mi) to reach the Maldives. [75] By the time the Indian armed forces arrived, the mercenary forces had already departed Malé aboard the hijacked vessel MV Progress Light. [75] The Indian paratroopers landed at Hulhulé , secured the airfield, and re-established government control in Malé within a matter of hours. [75] This swift operation, codenamed Operation Cactus, also involved the Indian Navy , which assisted in capturing the freighter MV Progress Light, rescuing its hostages and crew. [75]

21st century

• Main article: History of the Maldives § 21st century

Maldives suffered devastating impact from a tsunami on 26 December 2004, following the massive Indian Ocean earthquake . Only nine islands reportedly escaped flooding, [76] [77] while fifty-seven islands experienced severe damage to critical infrastructure. Fourteen islands necessitated complete evacuation, and six islands were rendered uninhabitable. An additional twenty-one resort islands were forced to close due to tsunami-related damage. The total estimated cost of the damage exceeded US$400 million, accounting for approximately 62% of the nation’s GDP. [78] The tsunami claimed the lives of 102 Maldivians and 6 foreign nationals. [73] The destructive force of the waves on the low-lying islands was somewhat mitigated by the absence of a continental shelf or landmass that would have amplified their height. The tallest waves recorded were approximately 14 feet (4.3 m). [79]

17th SAARC summit in Addu City , Maldives

During the latter part of Maumoon Abdul Gayoom’s rule, independent political movements began to emerge within the Maldives. These movements actively challenged the then-ruling Dhivehi Rayyithunge Party (Maldivian People’s Party, MPP) and campaigned for democratic reforms. The dissident journalist and activist Mohamed Nasheed established the Maldivian Democratic Party (MDP) in 2003, exerting pressure on Maumoon to permit gradual political liberalization. [80] In 2008, a new constitution was approved, and the first direct presidential elections were held, resulting in Nasheed’s victory in the second round. His administration, however, faced numerous challenges, including substantial debt inherited from the previous government, economic repercussions from the 2004 tsunami, excessive spending fueled by currency overprinting (the rufiyaa ), high unemployment, pervasive corruption, and a rise in drug abuse. [81] [ unreliable source? ] Taxation on goods was introduced for the first time in the country, while import duties on numerous goods and services were reduced. Universal health insurance (Aasandha ) and social welfare benefits were extended to individuals aged 65 and above, single parents, and those with special needs. [73]

Social and political unrest intensified in late 2011 , propelled by opposition campaigns framed around the protection of Islam. Nasheed controversially resigned from his post in February 2012 following a significant mutiny by police and army personnel. His vice president, Mohamed Waheed Hassan Manik , was subsequently sworn in as president. [82]

Nasheed was later arrested, [83] convicted of terrorism charges, and sentenced to 13 years imprisonment. The trial was widely perceived as politically motivated and flawed. The UN Working Group on Arbitrary Detention called for Nasheed’s immediate release. [84]

The results of the 2013 Maldivian presidential election were met with considerable contention. Former president Nasheed secured the highest number of votes in the initial round, but the Supreme Court annulled the results, despite positive assessments from international election observers. In the subsequent rerun election, Abdulla Yameen , the half-brother of former president Maumoon, assumed the presidency. [80] Yameen narrowly survived an assassination attempt in late 2015. [85] Vice President Mohamed Jameel Ahmed was removed from office following a no confidence motion passed by the People’s Majlis, amidst allegations of conspiring with opposition political parties and planning riots. [86] Vice President Ahmed Adeeb was subsequently arrested, along with 17 of his supporters, on charges related to “public order offences.” The government then initiated a broader crackdown targeting his accomplices. A state of emergency was later declared in anticipation of a planned anti-government rally, [87] and the People’s Majlis (parliament) expedited the process of Adeeb’s removal from office. [88] [89]

In the 2018 election , Ibrahim Mohamed Solih emerged victorious, securing the majority of votes. He was sworn in as the new president of the Maldives in November 2018. Adeeb was released by the courts in Malé in July 2019 after his conviction on charges of terrorism and corruption was overturned. However, he was subsequently placed under a travel ban after the state prosecutor appealed the ruling in a corruption and money laundering case. Adeeb then escaped via tugboat to seek asylum in India. It was reported that the Indian Coast Guard escorted the tugboat to the International Maritime Boundary Line (IMBL), where he was then “transferred” to a Maldivian Coast Guard vessel, taken into custody by officials. [90]

Former president Abdulla Yameen was sentenced to five years in prison in November 2019 for money laundering. The High Court upheld this sentence in January 2021. [91] However, the Supreme Court overturned Yameen’s conviction in November 2021. [92]

In the 2023 election , People’s National Congress (PNC) candidate Mohamed Muizzu secured victory in the second-round runoff of the Maldivian presidential election, defeating the incumbent president, Ibrahim Solih, with 54% of the vote. [93] On 17 October 2023, Mohamed Muizzu was inaugurated as the eighth President of the Republic of Maldives. [94] Mohamed Muizzu’s presidency is widely perceived as pro-China, leading to a cooling of relations with India. [95] In 2024, former President Abdulla Yameen Abdul Gayoom was released from his 11-year conviction, and the High Court ordered a new trial. [96]

Geography

• Main article: Geography of the Maldives

The Maldives is comprised of 1,192 coral islands organized into a double chain of 26 atolls. These atolls extend approximately 871 kilometres (541 miles) from north to south and 130 kilometres (81 miles) from east to west, covering an oceanic expanse of about 90,000 square kilometres (35,000 sq mi). Of this total area, only 298 km² (115 sq mi) is dry land, making it one of the most geographically dispersed nations globally. The islands are situated between latitudes 1°S and 8°N , and longitudes 72° and 74°E . The atolls themselves are formed from living coral reefs and sand bars , resting upon a submerged ridge that stretches 960 kilometres (600 mi) in length and rises abruptly from the depths of the Indian Ocean.

Maalhosmadulu Atoll seen from space. Northern Maalhosmadulu Atoll and Southern Maalhosmadulu Atoll are visible in this image. Dark clouds bringing heavy rain, a common sight during the rainy season.

Only near the southern extremity of this natural coral barrier are there two navigable passages that allow for safe ship transit between different parts of the Indian Ocean through Maldivian territorial waters. For administrative convenience, the Maldivian government has organized these atolls into 21 administrative divisions . The largest island in the Maldives is Gan , which is part of the Laamu Atoll, also known as Hahdhummathi Maldives. Within Addu Atoll, the westernmost islands are interconnected by causeways built over the reef (collectively referred to as the Link Road), spanning a total length of 14 km (9 mi).

Maldives holds the distinction of being the lowest-lying country in the world. Its maximum natural ground elevation is a mere 2.4 metres (7 ft 10 in) above sea level, with an average elevation of just 1.5 metres (4 ft 11 in). [97] In areas where construction has occurred, ground levels have been artificially raised to several metres. Over 80 percent of the nation’s landmass consists of coral islands that rise less than one metre above sea level. [97] Consequently, the Maldives faces a significant existential threat from rising sea levels . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change has issued warnings that, at current rates of increase, sea levels could rise sufficiently high to render the Maldives uninhabitable by the year 2100. [98] [99]

Climate

A beach on Bathala island.

Under the Köppen climate classification , Maldives experiences a tropical monsoon climate (Am), influenced by the substantial landmass of South Asia to its north. Due to Maldives’ exceptionally low elevation, temperatures remain consistently high, often accompanied by considerable humidity. The proximity of the South Asian landmass induces differential heating between land and water, which in turn triggers the movement of moisture-laden air from the Indian Ocean towards South Asia, resulting in the southwest monsoon . The weather patterns in Maldives are primarily defined by two distinct seasons: the dry season, associated with the winter northeastern monsoon, and the rainy season, linked to the southwest monsoon, which brings strong winds and storms. [100]

The transition from the dry northeast monsoon to the moist southwest monsoon typically occurs during April and May. During this transitional period, southwest winds contribute to the formation of the southwest monsoon, which arrives in the Maldives by early June and persists until the end of November. However, it is important to note that Maldivian weather patterns do not always strictly adhere to the broader monsoon patterns of South Asia. The average annual rainfall varies, ranging from 254 centimetres (100 in) in the north to 381 centimetres (150 in) in the southern regions. [101] [100]

The influence of the monsoons is more pronounced in the northern parts of the Maldives compared to the south, which tends to be more affected by equatorial currents .

The average daily maximum temperature hovers around 31.5 degrees Celsius, while the average daily minimum temperature is approximately 26.4 degrees Celsius. [100]

Climate data for Malé (1981–2010)

Source 1: World Meteorological Organization [102] Source 2: NOAA (relative humidity and sun 1961–1990) [103]

Sea level rise

• Main article: Climate change in the Maldives • See also: Effects of climate change on island nations and The Island President

In 1988, Maldivian authorities expressed grave concern, asserting that rising sea levels would “completely cover this Indian Ocean nation of 1,196 small islands within the next 30 years.” [104]

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ’s 2007 report projected that the upper limit of sea level rise by 2100 would be 59 centimetres (23 in). This projection implied that the majority of the republic’s 200 inhabited islands might necessitate abandonment. [105] Research conducted by scientists at the University of Southampton identified the Maldives as the third most endangered island nation globally due to flooding risks stemming from climate change , when assessed as a percentage of its population. [106]

In 2008, President Nasheed announced ambitious plans to explore the possibility of purchasing new land in countries such as India, Sri Lanka, and Australia. This initiative was driven by his profound concern regarding global warming and the potential inundation of large portions of the islands. The acquisition of land was intended to be financed through a fund generated by the burgeoning tourism industry. The president articulated his vision: “We do not want to leave Maldives, but we also do not want to be climate refugees living in tents for decades.” [107]

During the 2009 International Climate Talks, Nasheed passionately stated:

“For us, swearing off fossil fuels is not only the right thing to do, but it is also in our economic self-interest… Pioneering countries will free themselves from the unpredictable price of foreign oil; they will capitalize on the new green economy of the future, and they will enhance their moral standing, giving them greater political influence on the world stage.” [108]

Former president Mohamed Nasheed issued a stark warning in 2012: “If carbon emissions continue at the rate they are climbing today, my country will be underwater in seven years.” [109] He actively campaigned for increased climate change mitigation efforts, appearing on prominent American television programs such as The Daily Show [110] and the Late Show with David Letterman , [109] and notably hosted “the world’s first underwater cabinet meeting” in 2009 to raise global awareness about the existential threats posed by climate change. [111] [112] Concerns regarding rising sea levels have also been consistently voiced by Nasheed’s predecessor, Maumoon Abdul Gayoom . [113]

In 2020, a three-year study conducted at the University of Plymouth , which focused on the Maldives and the Marshall Islands , revealed a fascinating morphological response. Researchers observed that tidal movements were effectively moving sediment, thereby creating higher elevations on the islands. This natural process, they suggested, could potentially assist low-lying islands in adapting to rising sea levels and maintaining habitability. The research further indicated that the construction of sea walls was actively compromising the islands’ natural ability to adjust to rising sea levels, leading to the conclusion that island submersion is an inevitable outcome for those fortified with coastal structures like sea walls. [114] Hideki Kanamaru, a natural resources officer with the Food and Agriculture Organization in the Asia-Pacific region, commented that the study offered a “new perspective” on how island nations might confront the challenge of sea-level rise. He emphasized that even if islands possessed the capacity for natural adaptation by raising their crests, a concerted global effort to combat global warming and protect island populations remained paramount. [112]

Environment

Beyond the critical issue of sea level rise , environmental challenges in the Maldives include inadequate waste disposal practices and the illicit extraction of sand . Despite the generally pristine appearance of the islands and the relative scarcity of visible litter , many waste disposal sites are often substandard. The majority of waste generated from Malé and surrounding resorts is transported to Thilafushi , an artificial industrial island created in the early 1990s to address waste management issues that had plagued the capital and nearby islands. [115]

A total of 31 protected areas are managed by the Ministry of Climate Change, Environment and Energy, in conjunction with the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) of the Maldives. [116]

Marine ecosystem

Soft coral in the Maldives. Oriental sweetlips (Plectorhinchus vittatus) near Meeru Island , North Male Atoll.

The waters surrounding the Maldives are teeming with diverse marine life, encompassing a rich variety of corals , over 2,000 species of fish, [117] and rare species of significant biological and commercial value. The tuna fisheries have historically represented a vital traditional resource. Freshwater fish, such as the milkfish (Chanos chanos), along with various smaller species, thrive in the ponds, marshes, and other limited freshwater habitats found across the islands. In the 1970s, a United Nations agency [ which? ] facilitated the introduction of the tilapia , also known as the mouth-breeder.

The Maldives presents a mosaic of diverse habitats, including deep sea environments, shallow coastal zones, vibrant reef ecosystems, fringing mangroves , wetlands, and terrestrial areas. The coral reefs are constructed by 187 distinct species of coral. This region of the Indian Ocean alone supports an astonishing array of marine life, including 1,100 species of fish, 5 species of sea turtle , 21 species of whale and dolphin, 400 species of mollusc , and 83 species of echinoderms . The marine biodiversity also extends to numerous crustacean species: 120 copepods , 15 amphipods , over 145 species of crab , and 48 species of shrimp . [118]

Among the extensive marine families represented are pufferfish , fusiliers , jackfish , lionfish , oriental sweetlips , reef sharks , groupers , eels, snappers , bannerfish , batfish , humphead wrasse , spotted eagle rays , scorpionfish , lobsters , nudibranches , angelfish , butterflyfish , squirrelfish , soldierfish , glassfish , surgeonfish , unicornfish , triggerfish , Napoleon wrasse , and barracuda . [119] [120]

These vibrant coral reefs serve as the habitat for a multitude of marine ecosystems, including populations of planktonic organisms and the majestic whale shark . Notably, five species of sponge found in these waters have demonstrated anti-tumor and anti-cancer properties. [121]

In 1998, a significant El Niño phenomenon caused a dramatic increase in sea surface temperatures, rising by as much as 5 °C (9.0 °F). This event led to widespread coral bleaching , resulting in the demise of two-thirds of the nation’s coral reefs. [122]

To facilitate the regeneration of these reefs, scientists deployed electrified cones at depths ranging from 20 to 60 feet (6.1 to 18.3 m). These structures were designed to provide a suitable substrate for the attachment of larval corals. By 2004, scientists observed promising signs of coral regeneration, with corals actively releasing pink-orange eggs and sperm. The growth rate of these electrified corals was found to be five times faster than that of untreated corals. [122] Scientist Azeez Hakim remarked:

“Before 1998, we never thought that this reef would die. We had always taken for granted that these animals would be there, that this reef would be there forever. El Niño gave us a wake-up call that these things are not going to be there forever. Not only this, but they also act as a natural barrier against tropical storms, floods, and tsunamis. Seaweeds grow on the skeletons of dead coral.”

—  [119]

Regrettably, in 2016, the coral reefs of the Maldives experienced another severe bleaching incident. Up to 95% of the coral surrounding some islands perished, and even after a six-month period, 100% of young coral transplants failed to survive. Surface water temperatures reached an unprecedented high in May 2016, peaking at 31 degrees Celsius. [123]

More recent scientific investigations suggest that the composition of fauna can exhibit considerable variation between adjacent atolls, particularly concerning benthic fauna . Differences in fishing pressure, including instances of poaching , are considered potential contributing factors to these variations. [124]

Wildlife

• Main article: Wildlife of the Maldives

Clockwise from top left: Tawny nurse sharks near Vaavu Atoll , a pier in Addu City , Butorides striata , and an Ixora sp.

The wildlife of Maldives encompasses the diverse flora and fauna found across its islands, reefs, and surrounding ocean waters. Contemporary scientific research indicates that faunal distribution exhibits significant variations between atolls , often following a north-south gradient. However, notable differences have also been observed between neighboring atolls, particularly concerning marine life, which may be linked to disparities in fishing intensity, including illegal poaching. [125]

The terrestrial habitats of the Maldives face a substantial threat due to the rapid and extensive development encroaching upon the limited land resources. Islands that were once rarely visited and previously uninhabited are now teetering on the brink of ecological collapse, with virtually no untouched natural expanses remaining. Over recent decades of intensive development, numerous natural environments crucial for indigenous species have suffered severe endangerment or outright destruction.

Coral reef habitats have been significantly damaged, primarily as the demand for land has led to the creation of artificial islands. Some reefs have been filled with rubble, with little consideration given to the resulting alterations in current patterns on the reef shelf and their subsequent impact on coral growth and the associated life forms on the reef edges. [126] Mangroves flourish in the brackish or muddy regions of the Maldives. The archipelago hosts fourteen species of mangroves, spanning ten genera, including the fern Acrostichum aureum, which is indigenous to these islands. [127]

Butorides striata in the Maldives.

Due to their diminutive size, land-dwelling reptiles are scarce on the Maldivian islands. Among the limited terrestrial reptilian inhabitants are a species of gecko , the oriental garden lizard (Calotes versicolor), the white-spotted supple skink (Riopa albopunctata), the Indian wolf snake (Lycodon aulicus), and the Brahmin blind snake (Ramphotyphlops braminus).

In stark contrast, the surrounding seas host a far more diverse array of reptilian life. Maldivian beaches serve as critical nesting grounds for several species of sea turtles, including the green sea turtle (Chelonia mydas), the hawksbill sea turtle , and the leatherback sea turtle . Furthermore, saltwater crocodiles have been occasionally sighted reaching the islands, sometimes establishing temporary residences in marshy areas. [128]

The geographical location of this Indian Ocean archipelago means that its resident avifauna is primarily composed of pelagic birds . [129] A significant portion of these species are Eurasian migratory birds, with only a few species typically associated with the Indian subcontinent. Some, like the frigatebird , are present seasonally. Other birds inhabit marshy areas and island bush, such as the grey heron and the moorhen . White terns are occasionally observed on the southern islands, attracted by the rich habitats available. [130]

Government and politics

• Main article: Politics of the Maldives •

Mohamed Muizzu , President since 2023

Hussain Mohamed Latheef , Vice-President since 2023

Maldives operates as a presidential constitutional republic , where the president, serving as both head of government and head of state , wields considerable influence. The president leads the executive branch and is responsible for appointing the cabinet , whose nominations require approval from the People’s Majlis (Parliament) . The president also holds the position of Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces . The current president, Mohamed Muizzu , assumed office on 17 November 2023. [131] [132] Both the President of the Maldives and the members of the unicameral Majlis serve five-year terms. [133] The total number of parliamentary seats is determined by the populations of the respective atolls. In the 2024 parliamentary election , the People’s National Congress (PNC) secured a super-majority, winning a significant number of seats across the 93 constituencies. [134]

The republican constitution was initially enacted in 1968 and subsequently amended in 1970, 1972, and 1975. [135] On 27 November 1997, it was superseded by a new Constitution assented to by then-President Maumoon Abdul Gayoom . This revised Constitution came into effect on 1 January 1998. [136] The current Constitution of the Maldives was ratified by President Maumoon on 7 August 2008, taking immediate effect and repealing the 1998 constitution. This modern constitution establishes an independent judiciary overseen by a dedicated commission, alongside independent bodies responsible for election oversight and combating corruption. It also aims to reduce the extensive executive powers vested in the president and strengthen the legislative authority of the parliament. All these provisions affirm the role of the president as the head of state, head of government, and Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces of the Maldives.

In 2018, the Progressive Party of Maldives (PPM), the party in power at the time, engaged in escalating tensions with opposition parties, leading to a crackdown that was characterized as an “assault on democracy” by the UN Human Rights chief. [137]

President Ibrahim Mohamed Solih congratulates Mohamed Nasheed , Speaker of the People’s Majlis, in May 2019.

In the parliamentary election held in April 2019, the Maldivian Democratic Party (MDP), led by President Ibrahim Mohamed Solih, achieved a resounding victory, securing 65 out of the 87 seats in parliament. [138] This marked the first time in Maldivian history that a single political party had garnered such a significant majority in the parliament. [139]

The Order of Nishanizzuddeen is recognized as the highest civilian honor bestowed by the Maldives, typically awarded by the president during a formal ceremony. [140]

In April 2024, President Mohamed Muizzu’s pro-China People’s National Congress (PNC) achieved a remarkable victory in the 2024 Maldivian parliamentary election , securing 66 seats. Its allies garnered an additional nine seats, granting the president the support of 75 legislators in the 93-member house. This super-majority provides the president with the legislative power necessary to enact constitutional amendments. [141]

Law

• See also: Judiciary of the Maldives and Law enforcement in the Maldives

According to the Constitution of Maldives , “the judges are independent, and subject only to the Constitution and the law. When deciding matters on which the Constitution or the law is silent, judges must consider Islamic Shari’ah ”. [142]

Islam is the official religion of the Maldives, and the open practice of any other religion is strictly forbidden. [143] The 2008 constitution explicitly states that the republic “is based on the principles of Islam” and that “no law contrary to any principle of Islam can be applied.” Consequently, non-Muslims are prohibited from obtaining Maldivian citizenship. [144]

This requirement to adhere to a specific religion and the prohibition of public worship according to other faiths stand in apparent contradiction to Article 18 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and Article 18 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights , to which the Maldives has recently become a party. [145] This issue was addressed through a reservation lodged by the Maldives upon adhering to the Covenant, stipulating that “The application of the principles set out in Article 18 of the Covenant shall be without prejudice to the Constitution of the Republic of Maldives.” [146]

A new penal code was implemented on 16 July 2015, replacing the previous law from 1968. This modern and comprehensive penal code integrates the fundamental tenets and principles of Islamic law. [147] [148]

Same-sex relations are illegal in the Maldives. However, tourist resorts typically operate as exceptions to this law, allowing for a degree of tolerance within designated areas. [149] [150] [151]

Foreign relations

• Main article: Foreign relations of the Maldives

Since 1996, the Maldives has served as the official progress monitor for the Indian Ocean Commission . In 2002, Maldives expressed interest in joining the commission, although as of 2008, [update] it had not formally applied for membership. Maldives’ interest stems from its identity as a small island state, particularly concerning economic development and environmental preservation, and its desire to foster closer relations with France, a key player in the IOC region.

The Maldives is a founding member of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC ). The republic joined the Commonwealth in 1982, seventeen years after gaining its independence from the United Kingdom. In October 2016, Maldives announced its withdrawal from the Commonwealth [152] in protest against allegations of human rights abuses and democratic backsliding. [153] The Maldives maintains close diplomatic ties with Commonwealth members Seychelles and Mauritius . Furthermore, the Maldives and Comoros are both members of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation . Following his election as president in 2018, Ibrahim Mohamed Solih’s administration actively pursued readmission to the Commonwealth, demonstrating evidence of democratic reforms. [154] This effort culminated in its readmission on 1 February 2020. [155]

In response to sanctions imposed on Russian oligarchs by Western nations following Russia’s invasion of Ukraine in February 2022, numerous Russian tycoons sought refuge for their mega-yachts in the Maldives. This was facilitated by the absence of an extradition treaty between the Maldives and the United States, as well as other countries. [156]

Following a cabinet meeting, the Maldivian government decided in June 2024 to ban holders of Israeli passports from entering the country. This decision was made in protest against the ongoing Gaza war . [157] [158] [159]

Military

• Main article: Maldives National Defence Force

Maldivian soldiers during a presidential address in February 2024.

The Maldives National Defence Force (MNDF) is the unified security organization responsible for safeguarding the security and sovereignty of the Maldives. Its primary mandate encompasses addressing all internal and external security needs of the nation, including the protection of the Exclusive economic zone (EEZ) and the maintenance of peace and security. [160] The MNDF comprises several component branches, including the Coast Guard , Marine Corps , Special Forces , Service Corps, Defence Intelligence Service, Military Police, Corps of Engineers, Special Protection Group, Medical Corps, Adjutant General’s Corps, Air Corps, and the Fire and Rescue Service. Maldives maintains a cooperative arrangement with India, facilitating radar coverage cooperation.

Given its island geography, a significant portion of Maldives’ security concerns revolve around maritime activities. Approximately 99% of the country consists of water, with the remaining 1% of land distributed across an area of 800 km (497 mi) by 120 km (75 mi). The largest island is no more than 8 km² (3 sq mi). Consequently, the duties assigned to the MNDF—maintaining surveillance over Maldivian waters and providing protection against foreign intruders poaching within the EEZ and territorial waters—represent immense logistical and economic challenges.

The Coast Guard plays a pivotal role in executing these functions. To ensure timely security responses, its patrol boats are strategically stationed at various MNDF Regional Headquarters. The Coast Guard is also tasked with responding to maritime distress calls and conducting prompt search and rescue operations.

In 2019, Maldives signed the UN treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons . [161]

Human rights

• Main article: Human rights in the Maldives

The state of human rights in the Maldives is a subject of considerable contention. In its 2011 Freedom in the World report, Freedom House classified the Maldives as “Partly Free,” noting that a reform process that had shown initial progress in 2009 and 2010 had subsequently stalled. [162] The United States Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor indicated in its 2012 report on human rights practices in the country that the most pressing issues included corruption, a lack of religious freedom , instances of abuse, and the unequal treatment of women. [163]

Administrative divisions

• Main article: Administrative divisions of the Maldives

Each administrative atoll is marked, along with the thaana letter used for its identification. Natural atolls are indicated in light blue.

Maldives is comprised of twenty-six natural atolls and several island groups situated on isolated reefs. These have been organized into twenty-one administrative divisions. These divisions consist of 17 administrative atolls and the cities of Malé, Addu, Fuvahmulah , Thinadhoo , and Kulhudhuffushi . [164]

Each atoll is governed by an elected Atoll Council, and the individual islands are administered by their respective Island Councils.

In addition to their geographical names, each administrative division is identified by a Maldivian code, such as “Haa Alif ” for Thiladhunmati Uthuruburi (Thiladhunmathi North). A Latin code letter is also used for convenience. Since some islands in different atolls share the same name, this code is prefixed to the island’s name for administrative purposes; for example: Baa Funadhoo, Kaafu Funadhoo, Gaafu-Alifu Funadhoo. Given that many atolls possess lengthy geographical names, this code system is also employed when the full name is impractical, such as in the naming conventions for atoll websites. [165]

The adoption of these code-letter designations has, at times, led to considerable confusion and misunderstanding, particularly among foreigners. Many have come to erroneously believe that the code letter represents the new, official name of the administrative atoll, having replaced its geographical designation. Consequently, it can be unclear which name is the correct one to use. [165]

Economy

• Main article: Economy of the Maldives

Malé harbour.

Historically, the Maldives was a significant source of cowry shells, which served as an international currency of the early ages . From the 2nd century CE, the islands were known as the ‘Money Isles’ by Arab traders. [166] The species Monetaria moneta was utilized for centuries as currency in Africa, and substantial quantities of Maldivian cowries were introduced into Africa by Western nations during the era of the slave trade . [167] Today, the cowry shell is featured as the symbol of the Maldives Monetary Authority .

In the early 1970s and 1980s, the Maldives was among the world’s 20 poorest countries, with a population of approximately 100,000. [168] The economy at that time was heavily reliant on fisheries and the trade of local products such as coir rope, ambergris (Maavaharu), and coco de mer (Tavakkaashi) with neighboring countries and nations in East Asia . [169]

The Maldivian government initiated a largely successful economic reform program in the 1980s. This involved lifting import quotas and fostering greater opportunities for the private sector. While the tourism sector was in its nascent stages at this time, it would later emerge as a critical driver of the nation’s development. Agriculture and manufacturing continue to play more minor roles in the economy, constrained by the limited availability of arable land and a shortage of domestic labor.

Tourism

• Main articles: Tourism in the Maldives , Diving in the Maldives , and List of mosques in the Maldives

Filitheyo island beach with tall palm trees and clear blue lagoons.

The Maldives remained largely undiscovered by tourists until the early 1970s. Of the 1,192 islands, only 200 are inhabited, accommodating its population of 382,751. [170] [171] The remaining islands are primarily utilized for economic purposes, with tourism and agriculture being the most dominant. Tourism accounts for approximately 28% of the GDP and generates over 60% of the Maldives’ foreign exchange earnings. Import duties and tourism-related taxes contribute over 90% of the government’s tax revenue.

The development of the tourism sector has significantly fueled the overall growth of the country’s economy . It has generated both direct and indirect employment opportunities and fostered income generation in related industries. The first tourist resorts were established in 1972, namely Bandos Island Resort and Kurumba Village (now known as Kurumba Maldives), [172] marking a transformative period for the Maldivian economy.

The resort island of Landaa Giraavaru in Baa atoll.

According to the Ministry of Tourism , the emergence of tourism in 1972 fundamentally reshaped the economy, facilitating a rapid transition from dependence on fisheries to a focus on tourism. Within a span of just three and a half decades, the industry became the primary source of national income. Tourism also emerged as the country’s largest earner of foreign currency and its single most significant contributor to the GDP. As of 2008, [update] Maldives hosted 89 resorts offering more than 17,000 beds, attracting over 600,000 tourists annually. [173] In 2019, the islands welcomed more than 1.7 million visitors. [174]

The number of operational resorts increased from a mere 2 to 92 between 1972 and 2007. As of 2007, [update] over 8,380,000 tourists had visited the Maldives. [175]

The country boasts six heritage Maldivian coral mosques that are currently listed as tentative sites by UNESCO . [176]

Visitors

• See also: § Transportation, and Visa policy of Maldives

Sign outside Velana International Airport.

Visitors to the Maldives are not required to apply for a visa prior to arrival, irrespective of their country of origin. This exemption applies provided they possess a passport valid for at least one month, a confirmed travel itinerary (including return journey confirmed tickets, a pre-paid confirmed booking at a registered facility, [177] proof of sufficient financial means to cover their stay in the Maldives, and entry requirements for their onward destinations, such as visa validity and passport validity), a completed Traveller Declaration form (to be submitted by all foreigners arriving in the Maldives within 96 hours of their flight), and a Yellow Fever Vaccination Certificate, if applicable. [178] However, entry is explicitly denied to individuals holding Israeli passports. [179]

The primary gateway for most international arrivals is Velana International Airport , situated on Hulhulé Island, adjacent to the capital city of Malé. The airport is served by flights connecting to and from India , Sri Lanka , Doha , Dubai , Abu Dhabi , Singapore , Dhaka , Istanbul , and major airports across South-East Asia , such as Kuala Lumpur International Airport in Malaysia. Additionally, charter flights operate from Europe, including routes from Charles De Gaulle Airport in France. Gan Airport , located on the southern atoll of Addu, also handles an international flight to Milan Malpensa Airport in Milan, operating several times a week. British Airways offers direct flights to the Maldives from Heathrow Airport . [180]

Fishing industry

• Main article: Fishing industry in the Maldives

A mechanized traditional inter-island dhoni, stripped of its sails.

For centuries, the economy of the Maldives was exclusively dependent on fishing and other marine products. Fishing continues to be the primary occupation for the majority of the population, and the government places a high priority on the fisheries sector.

The mechanization of the traditional fishing boat , known as the dhoni , in 1974 marked a significant milestone in the development of the fisheries industry. A fish canning plant was established on Felivaru in 1977, in collaboration with a Japanese firm. In 1979, a Fisheries Advisory Board was instituted with the mandate to provide policy guidance to the government for the comprehensive development of the fisheries sector. Manpower development programs were initiated in the early 1980s, and fisheries education was integrated into the school curriculum. Fish aggregating devices and navigational aids were strategically placed at various key locations. Furthermore, the opening of the exclusive economic zone (EEZ) of the Maldives for fisheries activities has significantly contributed to the growth of the sector.

As of 2010, [update] fisheries contributed over 15% of the country’s GDP and employed approximately 30% of the nation’s workforce. Fisheries also served as the second-largest source of foreign exchange earnings, following tourism.

Demographics

• Main article: Demographics of the Maldives

The predominant ethnic group in the Maldives are the Maldivians (Dhivehin), who are indigenous to the historical region of the Maldive Islands, encompassing present-day Maldives and the island of Minicoy in India’s Union territory of Lakshadweep . They share a common culture and speak the Dhivehi language . Genetically, they are primarily an Indo-Aryan people, with admixtures of Middle Eastern, South Asian, Austronesian , and African ancestries present in the population.

Maldives population

In the past, a small Tamil population, known as the Giraavaru people , also resided in the Maldives. This group has since been largely assimilated into the broader Maldivian society. They were native to the island of Giraavaru , which was evacuated in 1968 due to severe coastal erosion. [184] A small Sinhalese population was also present, constituting approximately 0.7% of the total population in 2000. [185]

Social stratification exists within the islands, though it is not rigid. Rank is determined by a combination of factors, including occupation, wealth, adherence to Islamic principles, and family lineage. Rather than a complex caste system, a distinction was historically maintained between the nobility (bēfulhu) and commoners in the Maldives. Members of the social elite are predominantly concentrated in Malé. [ citation needed ]

Life expectancy in Maldives

The population doubled by 1978, and the population growth rate reached its peak of 3.4% in 1985. By the 2006 census, the population had reached 298,968, [186] although the 2000 census indicated a decline in the population growth rate to 1.9%. Life expectancy at birth was recorded at 46 years in 1978, subsequently rising to 72 years. Infant mortality has decreased significantly, from 12.7% in 1977 to the current rate of 1.2%. Adult literacy has reached an impressive 99%, and combined school enrollment rates are in the high 90s. The population was projected to reach 317,280 in 2010. [187]

The 2022 Population, Housing, and Economic Census reported a total population of 515,132 in the Maldives. Of this number, 382,639 were resident Maldivians, and 132,493 were resident foreigners. The foreign-born population constituted 26% of the total population. The six largest nationalities among the migrant population were Bangladeshi (56.4 percent), Indian (24.9 percent), Sri Lankan (8.6 percent), Nepali (3.9 percent), Indonesian (1.7 percent), and Filipino (1.3 percent). [188] [189]

An increasing proportion of the Maldivian population is now concentrated in Malé. In 2022, approximately 41% of the population resided in the capital city, a notable increase from just 27% in 2000. [188]

Largest localities in Maldives by registered population as of December 31, 2018

Religion

• See also: Religion in the Maldives

Following the extended Buddhist period of Maldivian history , [190] Muslim traders introduced Islam, and the Maldivian populace converted by the mid-12th century. The islands have a long history of Sufic orders, evidenced by the historical construction of tombs, which were utilized until as recently as the 1980s for seeking the intercession of buried saints . These tombs are often found adjacent to ancient mosques and are considered an integral part of Maldives’ cultural heritage .

Other aspects of tassawuf , such as ritualized dhikr ceremonies known as Maulūdu (Mawlid ), which incorporated melodic recitations and specific supplications, persisted until very recent times. These Maulūdu festivals were customarily held in ornate tents specifically erected for the occasion. [ citation needed ] Currently, Islam is the official religion for the entire population, as adherence to Islam is a prerequisite for citizenship. [1]

According to the account of Arab traveler Ibn Battuta , the individual credited with facilitating this conversion was a Sunni Muslim visitor named Abu al-Barakat Yusuf al-Barbari, who journeyed from what is now Morocco . He is also referred to as Tabrizugefaanu. His venerated tomb is located on the grounds of Medhu Ziyaaraiy, opposite the Friday Mosque, or Hukuru Miskiy , in Malé. Originally built in 1153 and subsequently rebuilt in 1658, [56] this mosque is one of the oldest surviving religious structures in the Maldives.

Felix Wilfred notes the Christian population in the Maldives at approximately 1,400 individuals, representing 0.4% of the country’s population. [191]

Since the adoption of the 2008 constitution , Islam has been formally established as the state religion of the Maldives, and all Maldivian citizens are legally required to adhere to Sunni Islam . [1] However, independent studies conducted in 2020 indicated that approximately 0.29% of the population identifies as Christian, with a roughly equal split between Catholic and Protestant denominations. [192]

Languages

• See also: Maldivian language

The official and national language of the Maldives is Dhivehi , an Indo-Aryan language closely related to the Sinhala language spoken in Sri Lanka. The earliest known script used for writing Dhivehi is the eveyla akuru script, which is found in historical records of the Maldivian kings (raadhavalhi). Subsequently, a script known as Dhives Akuru was in use for an extended period. The current script employed is called Thaana , written from right to left. Thaana is a hybrid script, incorporating elements from the older indigenous Dhives Akuru script and the Arabic abjad . It is believed that Thaana was introduced during the reign of Mohamed Thakurufaanu .

Thaana script

English is widely spoken among the local population of the Maldives. [193] As noted in a publication: “Following the nation’s opening to the outside world, the introduction of English as a medium of instruction at the secondary and tertiary levels of education, and its government’s recognition of the opportunities offered through tourism, English has now firmly established itself in the country. As such, Maldives are quite similar to the countries in the Gulf region… The nation is undergoing vast societal change, and English is part of this.” [194]

Additionally, Arabic is taught in schools and mosques, reflecting Sunni Islam ’s status as the state religion . Maldivian students receive formal or informal instruction in reading, writing, and pronunciation of the Arabic language as part of their compulsory religious education in primary and secondary schools. [1]

Thikijehi Thaana

These additional letters were incorporated into the Thaana alphabet by appending dots (nukuthaa) to existing letters. This was done to facilitate the transliteration of Arabic loanwords, as previously, Arabic loanwords were written using the Arabic script itself. The usage of these additional letters is inconsistent and is becoming less frequent as the orthography evolves to reflect the pronunciation by Maldivians rather than the original Arabic pronunciation, as these words become absorbed into the Maldivian language.

Health

• Main article: Health in the Maldives

The Human Rights Measurement Initiative reports that the Maldives is achieving 5.1 out of a possible 10 points for the right to health, considering its income level. [195] Specifically concerning children’s health rights, the Maldives attains 98.0% of the expected level based on its current income. [195] Regarding adult health rights, the country achieves 99.7% of the expected fulfillment relative to its income level. However, in terms of reproductive health rights, the Maldives falls into the “very bad” category, fulfilling only 18.2% of the expected achievement based on its available resources. [196]

Life expectancy at birth in the Maldives was 77 years in 2011. [197] Infant mortality rates decreased from 34 per 1,000 live births in 1990 to 15 per 1,000 in 2004. There is a growing disparity in healthcare access between the capital city and the outer islands. Malnutrition also presents a challenge, exacerbated by the high cost of imported food. [198]

On 24 May 2021, the Maldives experienced the world’s fastest-growing COVID-19 outbreak , recording the highest number of infections per million people over the preceding 7 and 14-day periods, according to data compiled by Bloomberg . [199] Medical professionals warned that the escalating demand for COVID-19 care could potentially compromise their capacity to address other health emergencies within the Maldives. [200] The surge in cases was attributed to the spread of the Delta variant .

Transportation

• Main articles: Transport in the Maldives and List of airports in the Maldives

Velana International Airport Seaplane Terminal

Velana International Airport serves as the primary international gateway to the Maldives. It is located adjacent to the capital city, Malé, and is connected by the Sinamalé Bridge . International travel services are provided by the government-owned Island Aviation Services , operating under the brand name Maldivian. This airline utilizes DHC-6 Twin Otter seaplanes for routes to nearly all domestic airports in the Maldives, complemented by several Bombardier Dash 8 aircraft. Additionally, one Airbus A320 is used for international services to destinations including India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Thailand, and China.

Travel between islands in the Maldives primarily occurs through three main modes: domestic flights, seaplane transfers, or boat services. [201] For several years, two seaplane companies operated: TMA (Trans Maldivian Airways ) and Maldivian Air Taxi . These companies merged in 2013 under the TMA banner. The seaplane fleet exclusively consists of DHC-6 Twin Otter aircraft. Another airline, Villa Air , operates ATR planes to domestic airports, notably Villa-Maamigili Airport , Dharavandhoo Airport , and several others. Manta Air commenced its scheduled seaplane services in 2019, utilizing a fleet of DHC-6 Twin Otter aircraft. In addition to its seaplane operations, Manta Air deploys ATR 72–600 aircraft for domestic flights connecting Dhaalu Airport , Dharavandhoo Airport , and Kooddoo Airport with the main Velana International Airport . [202] Depending on the distance between the departure airport and the destination island, resorts typically arrange speedboat transfers or seaplane flights directly to their respective island jetties for their guests. Scheduled ferry services also operate from Malé to numerous atolls. The traditional Maldivian boat, known as a dhoni , is one of the oldest seafaring vessels historically used in the Maldives. [203] While speedboats and seaplanes tend to be more expensive, travel by dhoni, though slower, is comparatively more affordable and convenient.

Education

• Main article: Education in the Maldives

The Maldives National University is one of the prominent institutions of higher learning in the country. [e] [204] In 1973, the Allied Health Services Training Centre, the precursor to the Faculty of Health Sciences, was established by the Ministry of Health . [205] The Vocational Training Centre was founded in 1974, offering training in mechanical and electrical trades. [206] In 1984, the Institute for Teacher Education was created, followed by the establishment of the School of Hotel and Catering Services in 1987 to provide trained personnel for the burgeoning tourist industry. [207] In 1991, the Institute of Management and Administration was established to train staff for public and private sector services. Maldives College of Higher Education was founded in 1998. The Institute of Shar’ah and Law was established in January 1999. In 2000, the college launched its inaugural degree program, a Bachelor of Arts. On 17 January 2011, the Maldives National University Act was passed by the President of the Maldives, and the Maldives National University was officially named on 15 February 2011. In 2015, by presidential decree, the College of Islamic Studies was transformed into the Islamic University of Maldives (IUM). [208]

The Maldivian government currently offers three distinct scholarship programs to students who have achieved above a certain threshold in their higher secondary education. The ranking of the scholarship awarded is determined by the academic merits demonstrated by students in their year 12 examinations. [209]

Culture

• Main article: Culture of the Maldives • See also: Maldivian cuisine and Folklore of the Maldives •

This section is missing information about Music of the Maldives , or even a wikilink to it. Please expand this section by submitting an edit request to include this information. Further details might be available on the talk page . (December 2025)

The culture of the Maldives is a rich tapestry woven from the influences of diverse ethnic groups who have settled on the islands throughout history. Maahefun Festival in Fuvahmulah .

Since the 12th century AD, the Maldives has also experienced significant cultural and linguistic influences from Arabia , largely due to its conversion to Islam and its strategic location as a crossroads in the central Indian Ocean. [210] This cultural exchange is a direct reflection of the long-standing historical trade routes connecting the Far East and the Middle East.

A notable reflection of this cultural fluidity is Maldives’ remarkably high national divorce rate, which has persisted for many decades. This phenomenon is hypothesized to stem from a confluence of liberal Islamic interpretations regarding divorce and the relatively flexible marital bonds identified as common among non- and semi-sedentary populations lacking a deeply entrenched history of agrarian property and kinship structures. [211]

Media

• Main articles: Television Maldives , Voice of Maldives , and List of newspapers in the Maldives

PSM News serves as the nation’s primary media outlet and is owned by the government of Maldives . [212] The newspaper was established on 3 May 2017, coinciding with the celebration of World Press Freedom Day . [213] Maldives has been ranked 100th in the World Press Freedom Index for 2023 and 106th in 2024. [214] The country’s first daily newspaper, Haveeru Daily News, was the inaugural and longest-serving newspaper in Maldivian history. It was registered on 28 December 1978, and ceased operations in 2016. [215]

Article 28 of the Maldivian Constitution guarantees freedom of the press and stipulates that:

• No person shall be compelled to disclose the source of any information that is espoused, disseminated, or published by that person. [216]

However, this protection is somewhat undermined by the Evidence Act, which came into effect in January 2023. This act grants courts the authority to compel journalists to reveal their confidential sources. The Maldives Media Council (MMC) and the Maldives Journalists Association (MJA) function as crucial watchdogs, actively working to address and counteract these threats. Prominent private news outlets include Sun Online, Mihaaru (and its English edition, The Edition ), and Avas. [217]

Sports

Flyboarding in the Maldives.

Sports are deeply integrated into the culture of the Maldives, encompassing a range of activities from traditional pastimes to modern sporting pursuits. Given its geographical composition of scattered islands surrounded by the Indian Ocean, water sports naturally hold a prominent position. Surfing , in particular, has garnered international recognition, with locations such as the atolls of North and South Malé , Thulusdhoo , and Himmafushi offering ideal conditions for the sport. [218] Additionally, diving and snorkeling are immensely popular activities, attracting enthusiasts from around the globe. [219]

Maldives playing against Bangladesh at the 2021 SAFF Championship .

Football in Maldives is one of the most widely played and passionately followed sports in the country. [220] The Maldives national football team actively participates in regional and international tournaments. The nation also boasts its own domestic football league, the Dhivehi Premier League , where clubs from various atolls compete for championship titles. [221] Matches in this league frequently draw large and enthusiastic crowds. Futsal is also popular, particularly among younger generations, with numerous indoor facilities providing venues for both casual matches and competitive leagues.

Bodu Beru, a traditional rhythmic drumming and dance performance , often accompanies traditional sporting events. These include games such as “Baibalaa,” which resembles volleyball but is played with a woven ball made from dried coconut palm leaves, and “Fenei Bashi,” a form of wrestling .

See also

• Maldives portal • Asia portal • List of Maldives-related topics • Outline of Maldives • Maldives Sign Language • Maldives Inland Revenue Authority

Notes

• ^ The Maldives predominantly uses the Maldivian Rufiyaa (MVR) as its official currency. However, U.S. dollars are commonly accepted in tourist establishments due to the high number of visitors from USD-based countries. • ^ See List of date formats by country . • ^ /ˈmɔːldivz/ ⓘ MAWL-deevz; Dhivehi : ދިވެހިރާއްޖެ, romanised : Dhivehi Raajje, pronounced [diʋehi ɾaːd͡ʒːe] . • ^ Dhivehi : ދިވެހިރާއްޖޭގެ ޖުމްހޫރިއްޔާ, romanised : Dhivehi Raajjeyge Jumhooriyyaa, pronounced [diʋehi ɾaːd͡ʒːeːge d͡ʒumhuːɾijjaː] . • ^ There are 209 registered Higher Education Institutes as of May 2022.

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