Mesolithic

Mesolithic

The Mesolithic, also known as the Middle Stone Age, represents the archaeological period that bridges the Upper Paleolithic and the Neolithic eras in the Old World. The term Epipaleolithic is frequently used as a synonym, particularly when discussing regions outside of northern Europe, and specifically for the corresponding period in the Levant and the Caucasus . The temporal scope of the Mesolithic varies across different regions of Eurasia . It fundamentally signifies the concluding phase of hunter-gatherer cultures in Europe and the Middle East, occurring between the end of the Last Glacial Maximum and the advent of the Neolithic Revolution . In Europe, this period generally spans from approximately 15,000 to 5,000 BP , while in the Middle East (the Epipalaeolithic Near East ), it is dated from roughly 20,000 to 10,000 BP . The term “Mesolithic” is less commonly applied to areas further east and is not used for regions beyond Eurasia and North Africa .

The cultural characteristics associated with the Mesolithic period exhibit regional variations. However, it is broadly characterized by a shift away from the large-group hunting of megafauna towards a more diversified hunter-gatherer lifestyle. This period also saw the development of more refined and typically smaller lithic tools and weapons, a departure from the heavier-chipped implements characteristic of the Paleolithic. In certain regions, evidence of pottery and textiles may be found at sites attributed to the Mesolithic. However, the definitive presence of agriculture is generally considered the marker for the transition into the Neolithic . Settlements that were more permanent tended to be situated near coastal areas or inland water bodies, which provided abundant food resources. Mesolithic societies are not typically characterized as highly complex, and their burials are generally simple, a stark contrast to the elaborate burial mounds that are a hallmark of the Neolithic.

Terminology

The terms “Paleolithic” and “Neolithic” were first introduced by John Lubbock in his seminal work Pre-historic Times in 1865. The addition of a “Mesolithic” category as an intermediate period was proposed by Hodder Westropp in 1866. This suggestion, however, was met with immediate controversy. A prominent British school of thought, led by John Evans , argued against the necessity of an intermediate phase, likening the transition to the seamless blending of colors in a rainbow. Conversely, a European school, under the leadership of Gabriel de Mortillet , maintained that a distinct gap existed between the earlier and later periods.

Edouard Piette claimed to have bridged this gap with his designation of the Azilian Culture. Knut Stjerna proposed an alternative concept, the “Epipaleolithic,” suggesting a final phase of the Paleolithic rather than a distinct intermediate age positioned between the Paleolithic and Neolithic.

By the time Vere Gordon Childe published The Dawn of Europe in 1947, sufficient data had been amassed to support the utility of a transitional period between the Paleolithic and the Neolithic. [2] Nevertheless, the terms “Mesolithic” and “Epipaleolithic” continue to be subjects of debate and varying conventions of usage. In the field of Northern European archaeology, for instance, covering regions like Great Britain, Germany, Scandinavia, Ukraine, and Russia, the term “Mesolithic” is almost universally employed. In other areas, however, authors may prefer the term “Epipaleolithic,” or there can be significant divergences among scholars regarding the precise meaning and application of each term. In the archaeology of the New World, neither term is generally used, with the exception of provisional applications in the Arctic.

The term “Epipaleolithic” is sometimes used in conjunction with “Mesolithic” to denote the final stages of the Upper Paleolithic that immediately precede the Mesolithic. [3] Given that “Mesolithic” implies an intermediate period leading into the Neolithic, some scholars favor “Epipaleolithic” for hunter-gatherer cultures that were not succeeded by agricultural traditions. They reserve “Mesolithic” for those cultures that clearly transitioned into the Neolithic Revolution, such as the Natufian culture . Other researchers, however, employ “Mesolithic” as a broad designation for hunter-gatherer cultures that emerged after the Last Glacial Maximum, irrespective of whether they showed transitional characteristics towards agriculture. Furthermore, terminology can vary significantly between archaeological sub-disciplines, with “Mesolithic” being widely adopted in European archaeology, while “Epipaleolithic” finds more frequent use in Near Eastern archaeology.

Europe

The Balkan Mesolithic period commenced around 15,000 years ago. In Western Europe, the Early Mesolithic, often identified as the Azilian period, began approximately 14,000 years ago in the Franco-Cantabrian region , encompassing parts of northern Spain and Southern France . In other European regions, the Mesolithic started around 11,500 years ago, coinciding with the beginning of the Holocene epoch, and concluded with the introduction of farming, which occurred between approximately 8,500 and 5,500 years ago, depending on the specific locale. Regions that experienced more pronounced environmental shifts following the end of the last glacial period exhibit a more distinctly defined Mesolithic era that spanned millennia. [4] For instance, in Northern Europe, societies thrived on the abundant food resources provided by the marshlands that formed in the warmer climate. These conditions fostered unique human behaviors, the evidence of which is preserved in the archaeological record, such as in the Maglemosian and Azilian cultures. These favorable conditions also contributed to a delay in the arrival of the Neolithic until around 5,500 BP in Northern Europe.

One of the most defining characteristics of the Mesolithic is the nature of its stone toolkit. The period is associated with microlithic technology , which involved the creation of composite tools utilizing Mode V chipped stone tools , specifically microliths . This contrasts with the Paleolithic, which utilized tool modes I through IV. However, in certain areas, such as Ireland, parts of Portugal, the Isle of Man, and the Tyrrhenian Islands, a macrolithic technology was employed during the Mesolithic. [5] The subsequent Neolithic period saw the replacement of microlithic technology with macrolithic tools, accompanied by an increased use of polished stone implements like stone axes.

There is some evidence suggesting the early development of constructions with ritualistic or astronomical significance. This includes sites like Stonehenge , which features a short row of large post holes aligned east–west, and a potential “lunar calendar” at Warren Field in Scotland, characterized by pits of post holes of varying sizes believed to correspond to lunar phases . Both of these sites are dated to before approximately 9,000 BP (the 8th millennium BC). [6]

An ancient piece of chewed birch bark pitch, discovered in southern Denmark and dating back approximately 5,700 years, revealed that an individual had consumed hazelnuts and duck. [7] [8] Mesolithic people played a role in shaping Europe’s forests, actively introducing favored plants like hazel. [9]

As the “Neolithic package”—comprising farming, herding, polished stone axes, timber longhouses , and pottery—spread across Europe, the Mesolithic way of life gradually diminished and eventually disappeared. Mesolithic adaptations, such as sedentism, increased population size, and the utilization of plant-based foods, are considered indicators of the transition to agriculture. [10] Conversely, some Mesolithic communities actively resisted the adoption of the Neolithic package, potentially due to ideological reasons, differing worldviews, or a conscious rejection of the sedentary-farming lifestyle. [11] At the Blätterhöhle site in Hagen , for example, it appears that the descendants of Mesolithic people maintained a foraging existence for over 2,000 years after farming societies had established themselves in the region. [12] Such societies are sometimes referred to as “Subneolithic ”. The integration of hunter-gatherer communities into existing farming societies facilitated their eventual adoption of an agricultural lifestyle, primarily due to their social openness to new members. [11] In northeastern Europe, the hunting and fishing traditions persisted well into the Medieval period in areas less conducive to agriculture. In Scandinavia , a distinct Mesolithic period is sometimes not recognized, with the local progression from the “Older Stone Age” to the “Younger Stone Age” being the preferred nomenclature. [13]

Art

Compared to the preceding Upper Paleolithic and the subsequent Neolithic periods, there is a comparatively smaller body of surviving art from the Mesolithic. The Rock art of the Iberian Mediterranean Basin , which likely originated in the Upper Paleolithic, is a widespread phenomenon. It is less well-known than the cave paintings of the Upper Paleolithic, and it presents an interesting contrast. These sites are predominantly located on open-air cliff faces, and their subjects are primarily human figures rather than animals, often depicted in large groups with small figures; for instance, Roca dels Moros features 45 figures. The art depicts clothing, as well as scenes of dancing, fighting, hunting, and food gathering. The figures are significantly smaller than the animals portrayed in Paleolithic art and are rendered in a much more schematic style, though often in dynamic poses. [14] A few small engraved pendants with suspension holes and simple engraved designs have been discovered, some made of amber from northern Europe, and one from Star Carr in Britain, crafted from shale . [15] The Elk’s Head of Huittinen is a rare example of a Mesolithic animal carving, made of soapstone and originating from Finland .

The rock art found in the Urals also appears to reflect similar shifts after the Paleolithic period. The wooden Shigir Idol is a rare surviving artifact that likely represents a material commonly used for sculpture during this time. It is a larch plank carved with geometric motifs and topped with a human head. Although now in fragments, it is estimated to have originally stood over five meters tall. [16] The Ain Sakhri figurine , discovered in Palestine, is a Natufian carving made of calcite .

A total of 33 antler frontlets have been unearthed at Star Carr. [17] These artifacts are red deer skulls that have been modified to be worn by humans. Modified frontlets have also been discovered at other sites, including Bedburg-Königshoven, Hohen Viecheln, Plau, and Berlin-Biesdorf. [18]

Weaving

Weaving techniques were employed to create footwear and baskets. The latter were often finely constructed and embellished with dyes. Examples of such artifacts have been found in Cueva de los Murciélagos in Southern Spain, with recent dating in 2023 placing them at 9,500 years old. [20] [21]

Ceramic Mesolithic

In northeastern Europe , Siberia , and at certain sites in southern Europe and North Africa , a “ceramic Mesolithic” period is identified, spanning roughly from 9,000 to 5,850 BP. Russian archaeologists often prefer to classify these pottery-producing cultures as Neolithic, even in the absence of agricultural practices. These Mesolithic pottery-making cultures are found in peripheral areas relative to the sedentary Neolithic cultures. They produced a distinctive type of pottery characterized by pointed or knobbed bases and flared rims, manufactured using methods distinct from those employed by Neolithic farmers. While each region developed its own individual style of Mesolithic ceramics, common features suggest a shared origin. [22] The earliest evidence of this type of pottery may be found in the region surrounding Lake Baikal in Siberia. It appears in the Yelshanka culture along the Volga River in Russia, dating back 9,000 years, [23] [24] and subsequently spread via the Dnieper-Donets culture to the Narva culture of the Eastern Baltic. Moving westward along the coastline, it is found in the Ertebølle culture of Denmark and the Ellerbek culture of Northern Germany, as well as the related Swifterbant culture in the Low Countries . [25] [26]

Pottery fragments exhibiting evidence of repair, found in Xianrendong cave, have been dated to between 20,000 and 10,000 years ago. [27] A 2012 publication in the journal Science reported the discovery of the world’s earliest known pottery in Xianrendong cave, China, radiocarbon dated to between 20,000 and 19,000 years before present, corresponding to the end of the Last Glacial Period . [28] [29] The carbon-14 dating was determined through meticulous analysis of surrounding sediments. [29] [30] Many of the pottery shards bore scorch marks, indicating their use in cooking. [30] These early ceramic vessels were created long before the invention of agriculture (dated between 10,000 and 8,000 BC) by mobile foraging groups who subsisted on hunting and gathering during the Late Glacial Maximum. [30]

Cultures

The Comb Ceramic culture , which existed from approximately 4200 BC to around 2000 BC, is thought to have been primarily associated with the Mesolithic hunter-gatherer lifestyle for its bearers.

Mesolithic outside of Europe

In the context of the archaeology of China , the terms “Paleolithic” and “Neolithic” are considered well-established and applicable. However, the term “Mesolithic” was introduced later, primarily after 1945, and is not generally regarded as a necessary or useful term for periodization within China. Chinese sites that have been previously identified as Mesolithic are now more commonly classified as Early Neolithic. [34]

Within the archaeology of India , the Mesolithic period, typically dated between 12,000 and 8,000 BP, remains a relevant concept in academic discourse. [35]

In the archaeology of the Americas , the Archaic or Meso-Indian period, which follows the Lithic stage , bears some resemblance to the Mesolithic period.

The Saharan rock paintings , found at Tassili n’Ajjer in central Sahara and other locations, offer vivid depictions of daily life in central North Africa . Some of these paintings were created by a hunting population inhabiting a savanna environment rich in water-dependent species like the hippopotamus , animals that are no longer present in the arid region today. [36]

Central Asia did not experience a distinct Neolithic period, instead transitioning directly from the Mesolithic to the Chalcolithic in the fourth millennium BC. The early emergence of the Mesolithic in Central Asia and its significance for later European Mesolithic cultures only became widely understood after 2015, following the radiocarbon dating of the Shigir idol to 11,500 years ago.

The term “Mesolithic” is not considered a particularly useful descriptor for the periodization of the South Asian Stone Age. This is partly because certain tribes in the interior of the Indian subcontinent maintained a Mesolithic culture well into modern times, and there is no consistent academic usage of the term. The broad timeframe of 12,000–4,000 BP is derived from a combination of ranges cited by Agrawal et al. (1978) and Sen (1999), and it overlaps with the early Neolithic period at Mehrgarh .

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