Native Hawaiians

Native Hawaiians (also known as Indigenous Hawaiians, Kānaka Maoli, Aboriginal Hawaiians, or simply Hawaiians; in Hawaiian: kānaka, kānaka ʻōiwi, Kānaka Maoli, and Hawaiʻi maoli) are the Indigenous peoples of the Hawaiian Islands .

The islands of Hawaiʻi were first settled, at least 800 years ago, by Polynesians who embarked on epic voyages from the Society Islands . Over time, these settlers gradually became geographically and culturally detached from their ancestral homeland, forging a distinct Hawaiian culture and identity within their new island home. This process involved the creation of unique religious and cultural structures, designed to adapt to their new environment and to ensure the transmission of knowledge across generations. Consequently, the Hawaiian religion became deeply intertwined with the land and community, emphasizing ways of living in harmony with nature and fostering a strong sense of collective identity. Despite this unique development, a profound connection and resonance with other Polynesian peoples across the vast Pacific Ocean persisted, evident in shared linguistic roots, as the Hawaiian language shares many similarities with other Polynesian languages.

The Hawaiian Kingdom was formally established in 1795. This pivotal moment occurred when Kamehameha the Great , then ruler of the independent island of Hawaiʻi , successfully unified the independent islands of Oʻahu , Maui , Molokaʻi , and Lānaʻi under his rule, thereby forming the kingdom. By 1810, the islands of Kauaʻi and Niʻihau voluntarily joined the Kingdom, marking the final consolidation of the archipelago. During the subsequent years, the Hawaiian Kingdom experienced significant immigration from various parts of the world, notably the United States and Asia . In more recent times, the Hawaiian sovereignty movement has gained traction, advocating for greater autonomy or outright independence for Hawaiʻi.

According to the 2010 U.S. census , individuals identifying with Native Hawaiian ancestry were found residing in all 50 U.S. states, as well as in Washington, D.C., and Puerto Rico. Within the United States in 2010, a total of 540,013 residents reported Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander ancestry, with 135,422 of these individuals living in Hawaii. Across the entire United States, 1.2 million people identified as Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander, either exclusively or in combination with one or more other racial categories. Notably, the Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander population was recognized as one of the fastest-growing demographic groups between 2000 and 2010.

History

This section requires further development to fully encompass the rich historical tapestry of Native Hawaiians.

Origins

There are differing theories regarding the initial Polynesian settlement of Hawaiʻi. One prominent theory suggests that the first Polynesians arrived in Hawaiʻi around the 3rd century, journeying from the Marquesas in groups of waka , followed by Tahitians around AD 1300, who may have conquered the earlier inhabitants. An alternative perspective posits a single, extended period of settlement that gradually populated the islands. Evidence supporting the theory of Tahitian conquest includes oral traditions, such as the legends of Hawaiʻiloa , and the accounts of the navigator-priest Paʻao , who is said to have undertaken voyages between Hawaiʻi and a distant land known as “Kahiki” (believed to be Tahiti), introducing numerous customs. Early scholars, including Abraham Fornander and Martha Beckwith , subscribed to this Tahitian invasion theory. However, later historians, such as Patrick Kirch , have not found sufficient evidence to support it. Additionally, King Kalākaua proposed that Paʻao originated from Sāmoa .

Some accounts suggest that earlier settlers were displaced into remote valleys by these later arrivals. Stories concerning the Menehune , a race of small people credited with building heiau (temples) and fishponds , are sometimes cited as evidence of an ancient population that inhabited the islands prior to the arrival of the Hawaiians. However, similar folkloric figures and narratives are found throughout Polynesia, making definitive conclusions challenging.

Monarchy

This section is currently underdeveloped and requires significant expansion to detail the complex history of the Hawaiian monarchy.

Cultural Resurgence

This section requires further elaboration to fully capture the nuances of the Hawaiian Renaissance.

Independence Movement

This section needs to be expanded to provide a comprehensive overview of the Hawaiian sovereignty movement.

Demographics

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Native Hawaiian Americans

Upon the arrival of Captain Cook in 1778, the Native Hawaiian population is estimated to have ranged between 250,000 and 800,000, representing the zenith of their numbers. In the century following initial contact, the Kānaka Maoli population experienced a devastating decline, largely due to diseases introduced by immigrants and visitors. Native Hawaiians possessed no immunity to ailments such as smallpox , measles , and whooping cough , which proved similarly catastrophic to indigenous populations in the Americas .

The current population figure of 293,000 includes individuals of dual Native Hawaiian lineage as well as those of mixed or multi-racial backgrounds. This represents the largest number of Kānaka Maoli living on the islands in nearly 226 years, a period marked by an initial mortality rate of approximately 1 in 17, which gradually escalated to a peak of 8–10 deaths per contact period by the low point in 1950.

The 1900 U.S. census recorded 37,656 residents with full or partial Native Hawaiian ancestry. By the 2000 U.S. census , this number had risen to 283,430 residents identifying as Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander , indicating a consistent growth trend over the preceding century.

Diaspora

Historically, some Hawaiians departed the islands during the period of the Hawaiian Kingdom . A notable example is Harry Maitey , who became the first Hawaiian documented to have traveled to Prussia .

Kiha Kaʻawa, born in Palawai, Lānaʻi, was adopted in his youth by George Nebeker, the President of the Sandwich Islands Mormon Mission. With permission from King Lunalilo , Kaʻawa emigrated to the mainland United States in 1873, becoming the first native Hawaiian to achieve U.S. citizenship. Kiha Ka’awa Nebeker resided in the U.S. until his death on December 26, 1931.

The Native Hawaiian population has also seen significant growth outside the state of Hawaiʻi , with states such as California and Washington experiencing substantial increases. The notable presence of Hawaiians in Las Vegas has led to the city being colloquially referred to as the “Ninth Island,” a nod to the eight main islands of Hawaiʻi.

Culture and Arts

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Cultural Preservation and Revival

Several organizations dedicated to cultural preservation have been established. The most prominent among these is the Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum , founded in 1889 and now designated as the Hawaiʻi State Museum of Natural and Cultural History. This museum houses an extensive collection of native Hawaiian artifacts, historical documents, and invaluable information. The museum actively collaborates with major educational institutions worldwide to facilitate research and scholarship.

The Polynesian Voyaging Society has played a crucial role in revitalizing interest in traditional Polynesian seafaring techniques, encompassing both canoe construction and navigation without modern instruments. The Society has successfully built multiple double-hulled canoes, commencing with the renowned Hōkūleʻa and followed by vessels such as Makaliʻi, Alingano Maisu, and Mo‘okiha O Pi‘ilani. These canoes and their extensive global voyages have significantly contributed to the renewal and widespread appreciation of Hawaiian culture.

Religion and Society

A depiction of a royal heiau (Hawaiian temple) at Kealakekua Bay , c. 1816.

The cultural heritage of Native Hawaiians is deeply rooted in their Polynesian origins, evolving into a distinct local religion and set of cultural practices. This spiritual framework centers on the profound concepts of land (ʻāina) and family (ʻohana). The land is revered as a sacred and integral part of existence, intrinsically linked to familial bonds. Hawaiian religion is predominantly polytheistic , with a significant focus on the primordial deities Wākea and Papahānaumoku , who are considered the sky father and earth mother of the Hawaiian islands, respectively. Their stillborn child is said to have formed the deep foundations of Hawaiʻi, while their second child, Hāloa , is revered as the ancestor from whom all Hawaiians descend.

Hawaiian society traditionally operated on a caste -oriented structure, with specific societal roles and responsibilities determined by social standing. These hierarchical distinctions were often reflected in the system of land ownership and management.

Land Tenure

Each island was divided into administrative districts known as moku, which were typically granted to individuals of high rank and maintained within families. Each moku was further subdivided into smaller units called ahupuaʻa, each extending from the coastline to the summit of the nearest mountain. This geographical arrangement was designed to ensure that every ahupuaʻa contained a diverse range of resources essential for sustenance, including timber and various food sources. The management of each ahupuaʻa was entrusted to overseers, who were responsible for collecting tributes from the residents on behalf of the island chief. The size and structure of these subdivisions within an ahupuaʻa were often determined by the level of tribute rendered. The primary subdivisions were known as ʻIli. Each ʻIli paid tribute to the chief of its ahupuaʻa and an additional tribute to the island chief . In contrast to the European system of feudalism , Hawaiian peasants were not bound to the land and retained the freedom to relocate as they wished.

Native Hawaiians refer to themselves as kamaʻāina , a term signifying “people of the land,” reflecting their profound connection to and responsibility for the land. This concept was also deeply embedded in their spiritual beliefs, which attributed their origins to the land itself. This connection is further exemplified by the cultivation of taro , a plant believed to be a physical manifestation of Hāloa . Taro symbolizes the deep roots that anchor Hawaiians to their islands and represents the interconnected networks that Hawaiian people have established.

Hula

Hula stands as one of Hawaiʻi’s most iconic indigenous art forms. Traditionally, hula served as a sacred ritualistic dance performed to honor the gods and goddesses. Hula is generally classified into two main styles: hula kahiko and hula ʻauana. Each dance form is a narrative, conveying stories through its intricate movements and gestures.

Hula kahiko represents the traditional style, characterized by its grace and evocative storytelling. These dances are accompanied by percussion instruments and traditional chanting . The traditional instruments employed include the pahu hula (drum), kilu or punui (smaller drums), ipu (gourd drum), hano or ʻohe hano ihu (nose flute), ka (spoon flute), pu (conch shell trumpet), oeoe (nose flute), pahupahu (stamping tubes), kaʻekeʻeke (bamboo stamping tubes), hokio, and wi (flute). Dancers enhance the performance using various implements such as ʻuli (rattles), puʻili (split bamboo rattles), ʻiliʻili (lava stones), papahehi (stamping boards), and kalaʻau (percussion sticks).

Hula ʻauana emerged as a style influenced by later Western cultural elements. It is typically accompanied by non-traditional musical instruments and features vibrant, colorful attire. This style gained widespread popularity, particularly among tourists, and is now the most commonly practiced form of hula beyond the Hawaiian Islands. Instruments such as the ʻukulele and guitars are frequently incorporated.

Holidays

The Hawaiian people observe a variety of traditions and holidays. The Lūʻau is perhaps the most widely recognized form of celebration in Hawaiʻi. A lūʻau is a traditional Hawaiian feast, often featuring classic dishes such as poi, poke, lomi-lomi salmon, kālua pig, and haupia, accompanied by entertainment like ʻukulele music and hula performances.

One of the most significant holidays is Prince Kūhiō Day , celebrated annually on March 26th, commemorating the birthday of Prince Jonah Kūhiō Kalanianaʻole . This holiday honors the Prince, a former Congressman, for his instrumental role in helping Native Hawaiian families secure land ownership. Celebrations typically include canoe races and luaus held across the islands. Every June 11th, Kānaka Maoli celebrate King Kamehameha Day , honoring Kamehameha I , the monarch who unified the islands and established the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi. Known for his prowess as a warrior, his diplomatic acumen, and his respected leadership, King Kamehameha I is commemorated through parades and elaborate lei draping ceremonies. During these ceremonies, Kānaka Maoli adorn King Kamehameha statues located throughout the islands with traditional flower necklaces (lei) to honor his profound contributions to the people of Hawaiʻi.

Hawaiian Cultural Revival

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The Native Hawaiian culture experienced a significant resurgence, known as the Hawaiian Renaissance , beginning in the 1970s. This cultural awakening was partly catalyzed by the 1978 Hawaiʻi State Constitutional Convention , held two centuries after Captain Cook’s arrival. During this convention, the state government formally committed itself to the study, preservation, and promotion of Hawaiian culture, history, and language.

As a result of these initiatives, Hawaiian culture was integrated into the public school curriculum, offering instruction in Hawaiian art, traditional lifestyles, geography, hula, and the Hawaiian language. Intermediate and high schools were mandated to include Hawaiian history in their curriculum for all students.

However, many aspects of Hawaiian culture have also been commercialized to cater to international tourism. This includes the popularization of hula, the widespread use of the term “Aloha,” the gifting of lei, and the assimilation of Hawaiian cultural elements into non-native lifestyles. While this commercialization has provided substantial financial support for cultural practices, it has also led to an emphasis on aspects with broad popular appeal, sometimes at the expense of traditional protocols and deeper cultural significance.

Statutes and charter amendments have been enacted to acknowledge and prioritize the use of Hawaiian place and street names. For instance, following the closure of Barbers Point Naval Air Station in the 1990s, the area formerly occupied by the base was officially renamed Kalaeloa .

Activism

This section requires further expansion to detail the various forms and historical context of Native Hawaiian activism.

While Native Hawaiian protest has a long and continuous history, dating back to the period immediately following the overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom , several notable protests gained prominence during and after the Hawaiian cultural revival. These include the Kalama Valley protests , the Waiāhole-Waikāne struggle , the protests concerning the island of Kahoʻolawe , and ongoing demonstrations related to the presence and management of astronomical observatories atop Hawaiʻi’s mountains, most notably the Thirty Meter Telescope protests .

Hawaiian Language

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Hawaiian Traditional Language

The Hawaiian language, or ʻŌlelo Hawaiʻi, was once the primary language of the native Hawaiian people. Today, Kānaka Maoli predominantly speak English. A significant factor contributing to this shift was an 1896 law that mandated English as the “only medium and basis of instruction in all public and private schools,” effectively removing the Hawaiian language from educational settings. Despite this suppression, a number of Kānaka Maoli, as well as non-Kānaka Maoli, continued to learn and speak ʻŌlelo Hawaiʻi. As with other residents of Hawaiʻi, Kānaka Maoli commonly converse in Hawaiian Creole English , locally referred to as Pidgin , in their daily lives. Pidgin is a creole language that developed during the plantation era in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, blending vocabulary and grammatical structures from the diverse ethnic groups residing in Hawaiʻi at that time.

Subsequently, ʻŌlelo Hawaiʻi was reinstated as an official language of the State of Hawaiʻi, alongside English. In 1978, the state implemented a comprehensive program of cultural preservation, which included the establishment of Hawaiian language immersion schools and the creation of a Hawaiian language department at the University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa . Since then, fluency in the Hawaiian language has seen a notable increase across all racial demographics.

In 2006, the University of Hawaiʻi at Hilo established a master’s degree program in Hawaiian studies, and in 2006, it introduced a Ph.D. program. This marked the first doctoral program created for the study of any pre-contact language within the United States.

The Hawaiian dialect is the primary language spoken by the residents of Niʻihau .

Hawaiʻi Sign Language

Alongside ʻŌlelo Hawaiʻi, some Kānaka Maoli utilized Hawaiʻi Sign Language, a language that has been the subject of limited linguistic study.

Education

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In Hawaiʻi, the public school system is administered by the Hawaiʻi State Department of Education , rather than by local school districts. During the tenure of Governor Benjamin J. Cayetano from 1994 to 2002, the state’s educational system introduced Hawaiian language immersion schools. In these institutions, all academic subjects are taught exclusively in the Hawaiian language and incorporate Hawaiian cultural content. These immersion schools are open to students of all backgrounds, not exclusively Native Hawaiians.

Kānaka Maoli are eligible for educational opportunities at Kamehameha Schools (KS), an institution established through the final testament of Bernice Pauahi Bishop of the Kamehameha Dynasty . As the largest and wealthiest private school system in the United States, KS was originally intended to provide for orphans and the needy, with a preferential admissions policy for Kānaka Maoli. The schools currently educate thousands of children of native Hawaiian ancestry and offer summer and off-campus programs that are not restricted by ancestry. However, KS’s practice of admitting primarily gifted students has generated controversy within the Native Hawaiian community. Many families argue that gifted students can succeed in any educational environment and that the Hawaiian community would benefit more significantly from educating disadvantaged children, thereby fostering their development into responsible community contributors.

A substantial number of Kānaka Maoli also attend public schools or other private educational institutions.

Office of Hawaiian Affairs

The Office of Hawaiian Affairs (OHA) functions as a self-governing corporate entity within the State of Hawaii , established by the 1978 Hawaii State Constitutional Convention . It is frequently characterized as the fourth branch of government in Hawaiʻi.

OHA’s primary mission is to advance the educational, health, housing, and economic well-being of ( Kānaka Maoli ) Native Hawaiians. OHA actively engages in research and advocacy to influence public policy and collaborates with communities to disseminate information and build support for Hawaiian issues.

OHA was vested with control over specific public lands and has acquired additional landholdings to facilitate housing initiatives, support agricultural endeavors, and sustain cultural institutions. The lands initially transferred to OHA were formerly crown lands of the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi, which had undergone various forms of public administration since the overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom.

OHA is governed by a semi-autonomous board of trustees, consisting of nine members elected by the citizens of the State of Hawaiʻi through popular vote.

Federal Developments

United States Annexation

In 1893, amidst the Hawaiian rebellions of 1887–1895 and following the ascension of Queen Liliʻuokalani to the Hawaiian throne in 1891, Sanford Dole spearheaded the formation of the “Committee of Safety,” which subsequently overthrew the monarchy . This action was partly a response to the Queen’s rejection of the 1887 Constitution, which had significantly curtailed her authority. This event effectively dismantled traditional governance structures and installed a U.S.-backed government dominated by plantation interests. One of the primary motivations for the overthrow was King Kalākaua ’s refusal to sign an amended Treaty of Reciprocity, which was perceived as detrimental to Hawaiian trade and would have facilitated the establishment of a Pearl Harbor military base on Oʻahu.

Although initially challenged by President Grover Cleveland , the annexation was ultimately supported by President William McKinley as part of his Manifest Destiny agenda, which had profound negative impacts on indigenous populations both in the continental United States and Hawaiʻi. This political shift resulted in Kānaka Maoli being the only major indigenous group without formal “nation-to-nation” negotiation status or a degree of self-determination.

Native American Programs Act

In 1974, the Native American Programs Act was amended to include Kānaka Maoli, granting them eligibility for certain federal assistance programs originally designated for continental Native Americans . Current federal regulations, specifically Title 45 CFR Part 1336.62, define a Native Hawaiian as “an individual any of whose ancestors were natives of the area which consists of the Hawaiian Islands prior to 1778.”

United States Apology Resolution

On November 23, 1993, U.S. President Bill Clinton signed into law United States Public Law 103–150, widely known as the Apology Resolution . This resolution formally “apologizes to Kānaka Maoli on behalf of the people of the United States for the overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi.”

Native Hawaiian Government Reorganization Act of 2009

In the early 2000s, the congressional delegation representing the State of Hawaiʻi introduced the Native Hawaiian Federal Recognition Bill (Akaka bill) , an legislative effort aimed at recognizing and establishing a Native Hawaiian government entity authorized to engage in negotiations with state and federal authorities. This bill proposed, for the first time, the formal establishment of a political and legal relationship between a designated Native Hawaiian entity and the U.S. government. Proponents, including Hawaiʻi’s congressional delegation and former Governor Linda Lingle , viewed the legislation as an acknowledgment and partial redress for historical injustices. Conversely, opponents included the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights , which questioned the constitutionality of establishing a race-based government; libertarian activists, who contested the validity of the claims of injustice; and certain Hawaiian sovereignty activists , who argued that the legislation would impede the pursuit of complete independence from the United States.

A Ward Research poll conducted in 2003 for the Office of Hawaiian Affairs indicated strong support for the bill among Native Hawaiians, with 86% of polled Hawaiian residents responding affirmatively, while only 7% opposed it. Among non-Hawaiians polled, nearly 80% (78%) supported federal recognition, with 16% opposed. However, a Zogby International poll commissioned in 2009 by the Grassroot Institute of Hawaii suggested a plurality (39%) of Hawaiʻi residents opposed the bill, and a significant 76% indicated an unwillingness to pay higher taxes to offset any potential loss of tax revenue resulting from the act. The bill ultimately did not pass.

Ka Huli Ao: Center for Excellence in Native Hawaiian Law

In 2005, with the crucial support of U.S. Senator Daniel Inouye , federal funding was secured through the Native Hawaiian Education Act to establish the Center for Excellence in Native Hawaiian Law at the William S. Richardson School of Law at UH Mānoa. This program became known as Ka Huli Ao: Center for Excellence in Native Hawaiian Law.

Ka Huli Ao’s work encompasses research, scholarly pursuits, and community outreach initiatives. The center actively maintains a social media presence and offers summer fellowships to law students. Graduates of the law school are also eligible to apply for post-J.D. fellowships.

Department of Interior Self-Governance Proposal

In 2016, the Department of Interior (DOI), under the leadership of Secretary Sally Jewell , initiated a process to recognize the right of Native Hawaiians to self-governance and to establish a framework for nation-to-nation negotiation status and rights. This initiative encountered opposition from segments of the Hawaiian Sovereignty movement, who contended that Kānaka Maoli should not be required to operate within U.S. structures to regain sovereignty and viewed the proposed process as incomplete. The outcome of this initiative ultimately permitted nation-to-nation relationships contingent upon Kānaka Maoli establishing their own governing body and formally seeking such a relationship. However, the process of government formation was subsequently halted by Justice Anthony Kennedy , referencing his earlier precedent in Rice v. Cayetano , which held that “ancestry was a proxy for race” in ancestry-based elections, though the voting itself was not prohibited.

Asian American, Native Hawaiian and Pacific Islander Heritage Month

The United States government has officially designated the month of May as Asian American, Native Hawaiian and Pacific Islander Heritage Month . Prior to 2021, this observance was known as Asian Pacific American Heritage Month .

Native Hawaiian Community Consultation Policy

On October 18, 2022, the Department of Interior released a press statement announcing the implementation of a new policy mandating formal consultation between the federal government and the Native Hawaiian Community. This policy aims to “further affirm and honor the special political and trust relationship between the United States and the Native Hawaiian Community.” Secretary Deb Haaland emphasized in the press release that the new consultation policy would contribute to upholding the sovereignty and the right to self-determination of Native Hawaiian communities.

In addition to semi-annual meetings between the Secretary and representatives of Native Hawaiian organizations concerning “matters of mutual interest,” and mandatory training for federal personnel, the Consultation policy requires federal agencies to engage in consultation with the Native Hawaiian Community before undertaking any actions that “have the potential to significantly affect Native Hawaiian resources, rights, or lands.” This is achieved by tasking the Office of Hawaiian Affairs with the full integration of the policy and practice of meaningful consultation by such Federal agencies. The proposal articulated the unique relationship between Native Hawaiians and the U.S. government, defined as “government-to-sovereign” and recognized in 150 statutes, emphasizing the unrelinquished sovereignty that Kānaka Maoli legally possess in the absence of a formal “government-to-government” relationship.

Violence Against Women Act

In December 2022, the Violence Against Women Act was amended to extend eligibility for grant funding to Kānaka Maoli survivors of gender-based violence and to Native Hawaiian organizations.

Notable Kānaka Maoli

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In 1873, the first Kānaka Maoli received permission from King Lunalilo to permanently emigrate to the United States (prior emigration from Hawaiʻi had not been permitted). These individuals were Kiha Kaʻawa and Kahana Pukahi. While Kahana Pukahi returned to Hawaiʻi in the late 1870s, remaining a subject of the Kingdom of Hawaii, Kiha Kaʻawa remained in the U.S. Upon his arrival, he was adopted by George Nebeker, the President of the Sandwich Islands (Hawaiian Islands) Mormon Mission, thus making Kiha Kaʻawa (later adopting the surname Nebeker) the very first native Hawaiian to become a U.S. citizen in 1873, predating Hawaiʻi’s annexation. Kiha Ka’awa was born on November 15, 1862, in the village of Palawai, Lānaʻi ʻ, within Maui County , Hawaiʻi. As a young boy, he relocated to Lāʻie , situated on the northeastern coast of Oʻahu, to assist in the development of the Mormon presence alongside George Nebeker and his family at the site now occupied by the Mormon church and the Polynesian Cultural Center. From Lāʻie, Kiha Ka’awa, accompanied by Kahana Pukahi, the Nebekers, and William King, embarked on a voyage by ship to Salt Lake City, Utah. Kiha remained in Utah, married twice, and raised several children, primarily in the Salt Lake City area, until his passing on December 26, 1931. During King Kalākaua’s visit to the U.S., he met with Kiha in Ogden, Utah, where the two engaged in an extended conversation for several hours in their native language before the King’s schedule required him to continue his journey.