Ossian

Purported author of a cycle of epic poems

For other uses, see Ossian (disambiguation) .

Ossian (/ˈɒʃən, ˈɒsiən/ ), a name echoing through the annals of literary deception and romantic fervor, is the supposed narrator and the alleged author of a sprawling cycle of epic poems . These works, which captivated an entire continent, were first brought to light by the Scottish poet James Macpherson . His initial publications included Fingal in 1761 and Temora in 1763, 1 later meticulously—or perhaps, audaciously—combined and presented under the grand, unifying title of The Poems of Ossian. Macpherson, with a straight face and an impressive degree of conviction, asserted that he had merely acted as a diligent collector, gathering these ancient tales and verses through word-of-mouth in the rugged Scottish Gaelic Highlands. He then claimed that the published volumes were simply his faithful translations of this long-lost, venerable material.

The figure of Ossian himself is ostensibly rooted in Oisín , the legendary son of Fionn mac Cumhaill (a name more commonly anglicised to Finn McCool), 2 a celebrated bard and warrior deeply embedded within the rich tapestry of Irish mythology . This genealogical claim, as we shall see, became a significant point of contention. While Macpherson’s contemporaries found themselves sharply divided on the question of the work’s fundamental authenticity—a debate that raged with considerable intellectual heat—the prevailing scholarly consensus today has, rather unsentimentally, concluded that Macpherson, for the most part, was the primary architect of these poems. He crafted them with considerable literary skill, certainly, though he did draw, at least in part, upon fragments of traditional Gaelic poetry he had managed to collect during his expeditions. 3 One might say he didn’t so much translate as transmute.

Regardless of its dubious origins, the work achieved astonishing and widespread international popularity. It was translated into virtually every significant literary language of Europe, permeating the intellectual and artistic landscape of the era. Its influence was profound and dual-edged, playing a pivotal role both in the burgeoning development of the Romantic movement and in the subsequent stirrings of the Gaelic revival . Macpherson’s remarkable literary coup was ultimately cemented when he was accorded the singular honor of burial among the literary giants in Westminster Abbey . As W. P. Ker rather pointedly observed in the Cambridge History of English Literature, “all Macpherson’s craft as a philological impostor would have been nothing without his literary skill.” 4 A testament, perhaps, to the enduring power of a compelling narrative, even if its foundations were built on a rather elaborate fiction.

Poems

The genesis of this literary phenomenon began in 1760, when James Macpherson unveiled an initial collection of English-language verses titled Fragments of ancient poetry, collected in the Highlands of Scotland, and translated from the Gaelic or Erse language. 5 This proved to be a successful trial run, because later that very same year, Macpherson—conveniently, one might observe—announced that he had managed to obtain even more extensive manuscripts. By 1761, his claims had escalated, culminating in the sensational discovery of a full-fledged epic poem, a grand narrative centered on a heroic figure named Fingal. This Fingal, or Fionnghall, a name which rather romantically means ‘fair stranger’ and typically denoted distinctive hair or eye color, 6 was, according to Macpherson, the creation of the ancient bard Ossian himself.

Macpherson, ever the reluctant translator, explained in his prefatory remarks that his publisher had insisted, rather emphatically, that there was simply no viable market for these works in their original Gaelic form. English, they decreed, was the only language that would allow them to reach a broad audience. Thus, Macpherson, driven by what he presented as commercial necessity, embarked on the task of translating these alleged ancient texts. He released these purported translations over the subsequent few years, a process that reached its zenith with the publication of a collected edition, The Works of Ossian, in 1765. The most celebrated and influential of these Ossianic poems was undoubtedly Fingal, first published in 1761 and formally dated to 1762.

The poems, presented as translations of original Gaelic works, adopt a distinctive style: poetic prose, characterized by its brevity and simplicity of sentence structure. The pervasive mood is undeniably epic, yet it lacks a singular, cohesive narrative thread. Instead, it offers a mosaic of interconnected episodes, though the same cast of recurring characters provides a sense of continuity. At the heart of these tales is Ossian himself, who recounts the stories from his later years, burdened by old age and blindness – a classic trope, if ever there was one. His formidable father, Fingal, is a central figure, albeit very loosely based on the revered Irish hero Fionn mac Cumhaill . Then there is his tragically deceased son, Oscar, who also possesses an Irish counterpart in traditional lore. Completing this melancholic tableau is Malvina (a name, much like Fiona , that Macpherson himself is credited with inventing), who dutifully attends to the aging, sightless Ossian. The narratives, though “of endless battles and unhappy loves,” 7 possess a peculiar vagueness. The enemies are rarely fleshed out, the causes of conflict often remain frustratingly undefined, and the context for the incessant strife is conspicuously absent.

Characters within this universe are prone to dramatic, often accidental, acts of violence against their loved ones, or succumb to the overwhelming forces of grief or, paradoxically, joy. Information regarding the characters’ religion, their cultural practices, or the societal structures they inhabit is conspicuously sparse. Even physical structures, like buildings, are barely mentioned, if at all. The true protagonist, it seems, is the landscape itself, which “is more real than the people who inhabit it. Drowned in eternal mist, illuminated by a decrepit sun or by ephemeral meteors, it is a world of greyness.” 7 Fingal is depicted as the king of a region situated in south-west Scotland, a territory that bears a striking resemblance to the historical kingdom of Dál Riata . The poems are implicitly set around the 3rd century, with the ubiquitous “king of the world” being an unmistakable reference to the Roman Emperor . Macpherson and his ardent supporters, ever eager to bolster the authenticity claims, even meticulously pointed out what they believed were direct references to historical Roman figures: Caracalla (who died in 217 AD, appearing as “Caracul”) and Carausius (who died in 293 AD, identified as “Caros,” the intriguing “king of ships”). 8 It’s almost as if he wanted to leave no stone unturned in his fabrication. Or, rather, his ’translation’.

Reception and influence

The poetic cycle of Ossian, despite—or perhaps because of—its shrouded origins, achieved an extraordinary level of international acclaim. It wasn’t just a literary curiosity; it became a cultural phenomenon. Figures as towering as Napoleon and Diderot were among its most prominent and vocal admirers, while even the perpetually skeptical Voltaire found it sufficiently compelling to pen parodies of its distinctive style. 9 Thomas Jefferson , the polymathic American statesman, went so far as to declare Ossian “the greatest poet that has ever existed,” 10 and, in a testament to his profound admiration, even contemplated learning Gaelic specifically to immerse himself in the poems in their purported original language. 11

These works were not merely praised; they were enthusiastically proclaimed as a direct Celtic counterpart to the revered Classical epics penned by titans such as Homer . Indeed, Henry David Thoreau famously opined that “The genuine remains of Ossian … are in many respects of the same stamp as the Iliad.” 12 A vast array of influential writers, including the likes of Walter Scott , drew inspiration from these evocative tales. Beyond literature, the influence spilled over into the visual and auditory arts, with numerous painters and composers selecting Ossianic subjects as the focus of their creative endeavors.

The Hungarian national poet, Sándor Petőfi , eloquently captured this comparative reverence in his poem titled Homer and Ossian, which, as the title suggests, directly juxtaposes the two legendary authors. The opening verse of his work paints a vivid, almost melancholic, picture of their enduring legacy:

Oh where are you Hellenes and Celts? Already you have vanished, like Two cities drowning In the waters of the deep. Only the tips of towers stand out from the water, Two tips of towers: Homer, Ossian.

Despite the persistent and, ultimately, well-founded doubts surrounding its authenticity, the Ossian cycle played an undeniable role in popularizing Celtic mythology across the European continent. It emerged as one of the earliest and, crucially, one of the most widely embraced texts that ignited and sustained the flames of romantic nationalism throughout the ensuing century. European historians widely concur that the Ossian poems, with their evocative vision of a mythical and ancient Scotland, were instrumental in fostering an enlightened sense of patriotism across the continent, thereby laying a foundational groundwork for the emergence of modern European nationalism. 1 A significant achievement for a work largely conjured from one man’s imagination.

However, the cycle’s impact was markedly less enthusiastic within the British Isles themselves. The formidable Samuel Johnson , never one to mince words or tolerate what he perceived as intellectual dishonesty, dismissed it as “another proof of Scotch conspiracy in national falsehood.” The Irish, with their own deeply ingrained Fenian Cycle of Irish mythology , harbored strong objections, viewing Macpherson’s work as a blatant misappropriation of their cherished cultural heritage. Even David Hume , who had initially lent his considerable intellectual weight to Macpherson’s claims, eventually retracted his support, quipping with characteristic dry wit that he simply could not accept the purported authenticity of the poems, “even if fifty bare-arsed Highlanders” were to vouch for it. By the early 19th century, the Ossian cycle, once a blazing comet across the European literary sky, had settled into a more limited, albeit still present, role within Scottish patriotic rhetoric. 1 The novelty, it seems, had worn off at home.

Authenticity debate

The moment Macpherson’s grand pronouncements began to circulate, the disputes over his claims were immediate, fierce, and multifaceted, encompassing both literary and deeply political grounds. Macpherson, with an agenda that was perhaps thinly veiled, vigorously promoted a Scottish origin for his material. This stance was met with equally heated opposition from Irish historians and scholars who, quite understandably, felt that their ancient heritage was being unceremoniously appropriated. The irony, of course, is that both Scotland and Ireland, during the very historical period in which these poems were purportedly set, shared a profoundly common Gaelic culture. Indeed, it is a well-established fact that a significant portion of the shared Fenian literature, common to both nations, had actually been composed in Scotland. This shared cultural bedrock only served to intensify the debate, as the lines of ownership became increasingly blurred and emotionally charged.

Samuel Johnson , the eminent English author, critic, and biographer, remained utterly unconvinced by Macpherson’s elaborate narrative. He famously—and rather brutally—declared Macpherson to be “a mountebank, a liar, and a fraud, and that the poems were forgeries.” 13 Johnson was not merely questioning the authenticity; he also unequivocally dismissed the literary quality of the poems themselves. When confronted with the challenge, “But Doctor Johnson, do you really believe that any man today could write such poetry?” he delivered his now-legendary retort: “Yes. Many men. Many women. And many children.” He further cemented his disdain by calling the entire Ossian story “as gross an imposition as ever the world was troubled with.” 14 To bolster his argument, Johnson, perhaps with a touch of deliberate provocation, characterized Gaelic as “the rude speech of a barbarous people,” and boldly asserted that no manuscripts in the language existed that were more than a mere century old. This particular claim, however, was swiftly and decisively refuted: it was proven that the Advocates’ Library in Edinburgh housed Gaelic manuscripts that were over 500 years old, with at least one boasting an even greater antiquity. 15 A rather embarrassing misstep for the good Doctor, but one he likely took in stride.

Unsurprisingly, Johnson’s dismissive remarks, delivered during what was, in fact, the vibrant 18th-century golden age of Scottish Gaelic literature , earned him considerable ire. He found himself swiftly reviled in a flurry of Gaelic satirical poetry . Among the many who skewered him in verse was James MacIntyre, the Clan MacIntyre Tacksman of Glen Noe, situated near the majestic Ben Cruachan , in a piece titled (Scottish Gaelic](/Scottish_Gaelic_language): Òran don Ollamh MacIain, or “A Song to Dr Johnson”). This particular satire was deemed significant enough to be included by Raonuill Dubh MacDhòmhnuill—the eldest son of the esteemed Gaelic national poet Alasdair Mac Mhaighstir Alasdair and a Clanranald tacksman of Laig—in the prominent Gaelic poetry anthology known as The Eigg Collection, which saw its publication in Edinburgh in 1776. 16 The literary battle, it seems, was fought on multiple fronts and in multiple languages.

In stark contrast to Johnson’s scathing critique, the Scottish author Hugh Blair published A Critical Dissertation on the Poems of Ossian in 1763, an impassioned defense that upheld the work’s authenticity. So influential was Blair’s dissertation that, from 1765 onwards, it was included in every subsequent edition of Ossian, serving as a constant, albeit increasingly questioned, pillar of credibility for the work. The poems also resonated powerfully with the prevailing intellectual and emotional currents of the era, particularly for those who were swept up by the intoxicating tide of the emerging Romantic movement and the captivating theory of the “noble savage ”. Furthermore, their themes and aesthetic sensibilities echoed the widespread popularity of Edmund Burke’s seminal philosophical treatise, A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful , published a few years prior in 1757. 17 It seems Macpherson inadvertently tapped into the zeitgeist.

However, not all Celtic scholars were so easily swayed. In 1766, the distinguished antiquarian and Celticist Charles O’Conor , a direct descendant of the ancient Gaelic nobility of Ireland , delivered a significant blow to Ossian’s claims. He unequivocally dismissed its authenticity in a new chapter, “Remarks on Mr. Mac Pherson’s translation of Fingal and Temora,” which he appended to the second edition of his own foundational history. 18 O’Conor further elaborated on his criticisms in 1775 with the publication of a new book, Dissertation on the origin and antiquities of the antient Scots, methodically dismantling Macpherson’s narrative.

Faced with this escalating and increasingly public controversy, the Committee of the Highland Society took the rather obvious, if belated, step of formally inquiring into the authenticity of Macpherson’s supposed original Gaelic sources. It was under these specific circumstances that the document known as the Glenmasan manuscript (catalogued as Adv. 72.2.3) came to scholarly attention in the late 18th century. This compilation notably contains the tale Oided mac n-Uisnig, a version of the Irish Longes mac n-Uislenn. While this text does indeed offer a narrative that bears some superficial comparison to Macpherson’s “Darthula,” it is crucial to note that it diverges radically in numerous fundamental respects. Donald Smith, in his report for the committee, cited this manuscript, further complicating Macpherson’s claims. 19

The authenticity debate, a veritable literary tempest, raged on unabated into the early years of the 19th century. Disputes continued to swirl, centering on whether the poems were primarily based on genuine Irish sources, on existing sources in English, or on fragmentary Gaelic verses artfully interwoven into Macpherson’s own original compositions, as Johnson had so cuttingly concluded. 20 Alternatively, some still championed Macpherson’s original assertion that they were largely derived from authentic Scots Gaelic oral traditions and ancient manuscripts. However, by the late 19th century, a definitive and rather damning revelation emerged: it was conclusively demonstrated that the only “original” Gaelic manuscripts Macpherson had ever managed to produce for his poems were, in fact, merely back-translations of his own English-language work. 3 The carefully constructed illusion finally crumbled. During this same period, however, a lone voice of defense emerged in Peter Hately Waddell , who, in his 1875 work Ossian and the Clyde, argued for the poems’ authenticity by pointing to topographical references that he claimed Macpherson could not possibly have known without genuine ancient sources. 21 A valiant, if ultimately futile, stand.

In 1952, the Scottish literary scholar Derick Thomson undertook a comprehensive investigation into the sources underpinning Macpherson’s work. His conclusions were nuanced, and, for Macpherson, somewhat mixed. Thomson determined that Macpherson had indeed collected genuine Scottish Gaelic ballads , even employing scribes to meticulously record those verses that had been preserved through oral tradition, and had also collated existing manuscripts. However, Thomson also concluded that Macpherson, acting as a pioneering figure of mythopoeia , had then taken these often contradictory accounts of the same legends and artfully adapted them into a coherent, overarching plotline. This process involved significant alterations to the original characters and their associated ideas, and, crucially, the introduction of a substantial amount of his own original material. 22 So, not a pure forgery, but a rather aggressive act of literary reimagining.

More recently, historians Colin Kidd and James Coleman, in their 2012 work, offered a refined perspective. They suggested that Fingal (1761, dated 1762) owed its existence not only to traditional Gaelic poetry composed in the 15th and 16th centuries but also significantly to Macpherson’s “own creativity and editorial laxity.” The second epic, Temora (1763), they concluded, was largely a product of Macpherson’s singular imagination. 1 Today, the work is often categorized as a classic example of the found manuscript trope, 23 a testament to its enduring, if controversial, place in literary history.

Translations and adaptations

The ripple effect of Ossian’s poems spread with remarkable speed across Europe. A partial translation into French appeared as early as 1762, and by 1777, the entire corpus had been rendered into the language. 24 In the fragmented German-speaking states, Michael Denis produced the first complete translation between 1768 and 1769, igniting a fervent spark among proto-nationalist poets like Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock and, most notably, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe . Goethe himself was so profoundly moved that his own German translation of a segment of Macpherson’s work features prominently and climactically in his seminal novel, The Sorrows of Young Werther (1774). 25 26 Goethe’s close associate, Johann Gottfried Herder , further championed the work with his influential essay, Extract from a correspondence about Ossian and the Songs of Ancient Peoples (1773), published during the nascent stages of the powerful Sturm und Drang movement.

The Nordic countries were equally captivated. Complete Danish translations emerged in 1790, followed by Swedish versions between 1794 and 1800. Interestingly, in Scandinavia and Germany, the distinctly Celtic nature of the poems’ setting was often overlooked or simply not fully grasped. Instead, Ossian was reinterpreted as a Nordic or Germanic figure, effectively becoming a potent symbol for burgeoning nationalist aspirations in these regions. 27 A rather convenient re-branding, if you ask me.

Perhaps one of the most enduring and unexpected adaptations stemmed from the personal admiration of Napoleon . In 1799, the French general Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte , at Napoleon’s suggestion and as the child’s godfather, named his only son Oscar, directly after the character from Ossian. 24 Bernadotte would later ascend to the throne as King of Sweden and Norway . His son, in turn, became King Oscar I of Sweden and Norway in 1844, and was succeeded by his own sons, Charles XV and Oscar II (who died in 1907). This royal endorsement firmly established “Oscar” as a prominent regal name, leading to its widespread adoption as a common male first name, particularly in Scandinavia, but also extending its reach across other European countries. A lasting legacy from a literary phantom.

In Italy, Melchiore Cesarotti , a clergyman of considerable literary talent, produced a translation that many critics consider to have actually surpassed the original in its poetic quality. Cesarotti was an indefatigable promoter of the Ossian poems, championing them not only throughout Italy but also in intellectual centers like Vienna and Warsaw . It was specifically his Italian translation that so deeply impressed Napoleon, 24 and it went on to influence a host of Italian literary figures, including Ugo Foscolo , who had been Cesarotti’s student at the esteemed University of Padua .

, Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres , 1813

The British composer Harriet Wainwright brought Ossian to the operatic stage, premiering her work Comala, based on text from the poems, in London in 1792.

The first partial Polish translation of Ossian was undertaken by Ignacy Krasicki in 1793, but it wasn’t until 1838 that a complete translation appeared, skillfully rendered by Seweryn Goszczyński .

By the turn of the 19th century, specifically by 1800, Ossian had been translated into Spanish and Russian, with Dutch following suit in 1805, and Polish, Czech, and Hungarian editions appearing between 1827 and 1833. 24 The poems captivated the Hungarian imagination with an intensity comparable to their reception in France and Germany. The aforementioned Hungarian János Arany penned “Homer and Ossian” as a direct response, and a multitude of other Hungarian writers—including Baróti Szabó , Csokonai , Sándor Kisfaludy , Kazinczy , Kölcsey , Ferenc Toldy , and Ágost Greguss—all bore the distinct impress of Ossian’s influence. 28

The opera Ossian, ou Les bardes by Jean-François Le Sueur , featuring the renowned and visually stunning “Ossian’s Dream” scene, enjoyed a sensational, sold-out run at the Paris Opera in 1804, a triumph that utterly transformed the composer’s career. The poems also cast a long shadow over the burgeoning field of Romantic music . Franz Schubert , in particular, was deeply inspired, composing numerous Lieder that set many of Ossian’s poems to music. In 1829, Felix Mendelssohn ’s imagination was so stirred that he embarked on a journey to the Hebrides, a pilgrimage that directly inspired his iconic Hebrides Overture , also famously known as Fingal’s Cave. His close friend, Niels Gade , dedicated his very first published work, the concert overture Efterklange af Ossian (“Echoes of Ossian”), composed in 1840, to the very same evocative subject. The phantom bard, it seems, truly had a global reach.

Gaelic studies

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Macpherson’s widely disseminated, if ultimately controversial, Ossian made a profound and lasting impression on Dugald Buchanan (1716–1768). Buchanan, a distinguished Perthshire poet, was renowned for his celebrated Spiritual Hymns, works written in a Scots Gaelic of exceptional quality that, to a significant extent, mirrored the sophisticated Classical Gaelic literary language that had once been the common tongue of bards in both Ireland and Scotland. Buchanan, operating under the sincere belief that the poems of Ossian were genuinely authentic ancient works, was moved to undertake a critical re-evaluation of the true, unadulterated traditions and the rich cultural heritage of the Gaels. It was a silver lining, perhaps, that a magnificent fraud could inspire genuine scholarship.

Around the same historical juncture, Buchanan corresponded with Sir James Clerk of Penicuik , who was then a leading antiquary within the burgeoning movement dedicated to preserving Scottish heritage. In his correspondence, Buchanan proposed a vital initiative: that an individual should be dispatched to travel through the remote islands and along the rugged western coast of Scotland. The purpose of this expedition would be to meticulously collect and record the works of both ancient and contemporary bards, as it was in these living traditions, he argued, that the Gaelic language could be found in its purest, most uncorrupted form.

Much later, as the 19th century gave way to the 20th, this crucial task, so eloquently articulated by Buchanan, was finally taken up with earnest. Dedicated collectors such as Alexander Carmichael 29 and Lady Evelyn Stewart Murray 30 embarked on extensive efforts to gather and preserve these invaluable linguistic and cultural treasures. Their pioneering work laid the groundwork for the ongoing efforts of institutions like the School of Scottish Studies and the Scottish Gaelic Texts Society, which continue to record, transcribe, and ensure the survival of Scotland’s rich Gaelic literary and oral traditions. It’s almost as if Macpherson, in his grand deception, inadvertently spurred the preservation of the very heritage he was accused of fabricating. A cosmic joke, really.

In art

The evocative subjects drawn from the Ossian poems found a particularly fertile ground in the artistic landscapes of northern Europe, though the periods of their greatest popularity varied considerably from country to country. It’s rather telling that by the time French artists fully embraced Ossian, their British counterparts had, for the most part, already moved on. Ossian proved to be especially beloved in Danish art , but his spectral presence also manifested strongly in Germany and across the rest of Scandinavia.

Britain, Germany and Scandinavia

British artists were among the first to render the Ossian poems into visual form. One of the earliest and most significant undertakings was a grand cycle of paintings commissioned in 1772 to adorn the ceiling of the “Grand Hall” at Penicuik House in Midlothian , the residence of Sir James Clerk . These monumental works were executed by the Scottish painter Alexander Runciman . Tragically, they were lost when the house succumbed to fire in 1899, though preparatory drawings and etchings survive, offering a glimpse into their original splendor. Two pamphlets detailing these paintings were also published in the 18th century, ensuring their memory persisted. 31

In 1773, a subject inspired by Ossian, created by the renowned Angelica Kauffman , was showcased at the Royal Academy Exhibition of 1773 . Ossian himself was also depicted within Elysium, a section of the Irish painter James Barry’s ambitious magnum opus that decorated the walls of the Royal Society of Arts at the Adelphi Buildings in London, where it remains in situ to this day. 32

Several works on paper by notable artists such as Thomas Girtin and John Sell Cotman have survived, offering further evidence of Ossian’s early artistic impact in Britain. However, some significant works have been lost to time, including the Ossianic landscapes by George Augustus Wallis, which were highly praised by the fervent Ossian admirer August Wilhelm Schlegel in a letter to Goethe. A painting by J. M. W. Turner , exhibited in 1802, also seems to have vanished. Henry Singleton exhibited a number of paintings inspired by the poems, some of which were subsequently engraved and utilized in various editions of the works, thereby broadening their visual reach. 33

In Germany, a fragment penned by Novalis in 1789 speaks volumes, referring to Ossian as an inspired, holy, and profoundly poetical singer. 34 This reverence highlights the deep spiritual and aesthetic connection many German Romantics felt towards the bard’s melancholic world.

The Danish painter Nicolai Abildgaard , who served as the director of the influential Copenhagen Academy from 1789, produced several compelling scenes inspired by Ossian. His artistic vision was carried forward by his pupils, including the talented Asmus Jacob Carstens . 35 Abildgaard’s friend, Joseph Anton Koch , also painted a number of Ossianic subjects and even embarked on two extensive series of illustrations for the poems, though, regrettably, these never saw proper publication. Like many Ossianic works by artists such as Wallis, Carstens, Krafft, and others, some of these were paradoxically painted in Rome—perhaps not the most ideal location to capture the dim, mist-shrouded northern light that defines the poems’ atmosphere. In Germany, a request in 1804 for a few illustrative drawings so profoundly excited Philipp Otto Runge that he meticulously planned a series of 100, far exceeding the initial commission. These were conceived in a style heavily influenced by the linear elegance of John Flaxman ’s illustrations; however, they remain only as drawings. 36 Records indicate the existence of many other German works, some dating as late as the 1840s. 37 The growing British skepticism regarding the authenticity of the Ossian poems was either slow to penetrate the continental artistic consciousness or, more likely, simply deemed irrelevant in the face of their profound emotional and aesthetic impact. Art, it seems, often prefers a beautiful lie to an inconvenient truth.

France

In France, the pervasive enthusiasm of Napoleon for the Ossian poems single-handedly accounts for a significant proportion of the artistic depictions, and, crucially, for the involvement of some of the most celebrated artists of the era. However, the movement predates Napoleon’s direct patronage. A painting exhibited at the Paris Salon of 1800 by Paul Duqueylar (now housed in the Musée Granet in Aix-en-Provence ) sparked considerable excitement among Les Barbus (“the Bearded Ones”). This group of primitivist artists, which included Pierre-Maurice Quays (or Quaï), advocated for a lifestyle and artistic approach modeled on the “early civilizations as described in Homer, Ossian, and the Bible.” 38 Quays, with a flair for the dramatic, is reported to have mused: “Homère? Ossian? … le soleil? la lune? Voilà la question. En vérité, je crois que je préfère la lune. C’est plus simple, plus grand, plus primitif.” (“Homer? Ossian? … the sun? the moon? That’s the question. Truthfully I think I prefer the moon. It’s more simple, more grand, more primitive”). 39 A clear preference for the melancholic, the mysterious, and the fabricated.

In that very same year, Napoleon was meticulously planning the ambitious renovation of the Château de Malmaison , intending it to serve as his opulent summer palace. While he doesn’t appear to have explicitly dictated Ossianic subjects to his chosen painters, two large and exceptionally significant works were among those commissioned for the reception hall, a space for which six artists had been engaged.

These pivotal works were Girodet’s painting of 1801–02, Ossian receiving the Ghosts of the French Heroes, and Ossian Evoking ghosts on the Edge of the Lora (1801), executed by François Pascal Simon Gérard . Gérard’s original painting met an unfortunate end, lost in a shipwreck after being acquired by the King of Sweden following Napoleon’s downfall. However, its composition survives through three meticulous replicas by the artist himself (a fourth, in Berlin, was tragically lost in 1945). One of these replicas now resides at Malmaison (measuring 184.5 × 194.5 cm / 72.6 × 76.6 in), while the Kunsthalle Hamburg houses another (180.5 × 198.5 cm). A watercolour copy by Jean-Baptiste Isabey was even placed as the frontispiece to Napoleon’s personal copy of the poems, underscoring his deep connection to the work. 40 41 42

Duqueylar, Girodet, and Gérard, much like Johann Peter Krafft (mentioned earlier) and the majority of the Barbus, were all pupils of the influential Jacques-Louis David . The distinctly unclassical subjects offered by the Ossian poems proved immensely valuable for the emergent French Romantic painting, serving as a powerful counterpoint and a deliberate revolt against David’s rigid Neoclassical preference for historical subject-matter. David’s recorded reactions to these Ossianic paintings were, predictably, either guarded or outright hostile. He famously remarked of Girodet’s work: “Either Girodet is mad or I no longer know anything of the art of painting.” 43 A sentiment that speaks volumes about the clash of artistic ideologies.

Girodet’s painting (which also remains at Malmaison, measuring 192.5 × 184 cm) became a veritable succès de scandale when it was exhibited in 1802. It endures as a pivotal work in tracing the emergence of French Romantic painting, though the specific political allusions Girodet intended it to convey were largely lost on the contemporary public. These nuances were, in part, overtaken by the signing of the Peace of Amiens with Great Britain in 1802, which occurred between the painting’s completion and its exhibition. 44 45 Girodet also produced other Ossianic works, including Malvina dying in the arms of Fingal (c. 1802), further solidifying his contribution to this peculiar artistic trend.

Later in the century, another distinguished pupil of David, Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres , would dedicate a significant portion of his long and illustrious career to depicting Ossianic scenes. He created a drawing in 1809 while studying in Rome, and then, in 1810 or 1811, received a commission for two paintings: The Dream of Ossian and a complementary classical scene. These were intended to adorn the bedroom that Napoleon was slated to occupy in the Palazzo Quirinale during a planned visit to Rome. As fate would have it, the visit never materialized, and in 1835, Ingres repurchased the work, which by then was in rather poor condition.

Even towards the end of the century, the American painter Wilbur Winfield Woodward , based in Paris, exhibited an “Ossian” at the prestigious 1880 Salon. 46 The ghost of Ossian, it seems, lingered in the artistic imagination for generations.

Editions

The National Library of Scotland proudly houses an extensive and invaluable resource: its Ossian Collection, comprising a remarkable 327 books and an array of associated materials. This comprehensive collection was originally meticulously assembled by J. Norman Methven of Perth. It encompasses a diverse range of editions and translations of James Macpherson ’s epic poem ‘Ossian’, some of which even include a map delineating the ‘Kingdom of Connor’—a detail that adds another layer to Macpherson’s world-building efforts. Beyond the primary texts, the collection also contains a wealth of secondary material directly related to Ossianic poetry and the enduring, often contentious, Ossian controversy itself. To ensure wider access and scholarly engagement, more than 200 items from this significant collection have been thoughtfully digitized. 47

Below are some other notable online editions and recent scholarly works that continue to illuminate the complex legacy of Ossian:

• 1760: Fragments of Ancient Poetry collected in the Highlands of Scotland, Edinburgh second edition.
• 1803: The Poems of Ossian in two volumes, an illustrated edition - Vol.I , Vol.II (London: Lackington, Allen and co.)
• 1887: Poems of Ossian: Literally translated from the Gaelic, in the original measure of verse by Peter McNaughton (Edinburgh: William Blackwood and Sons).
• 1888: Poems of Ossian translated by James Macpherson, a pocket reprint of the 1773 edition omitting the four last poems (London: Walter Scott)
• 1996: The Poems of Ossian and Related Works, ed. Howard Gaskill, with an Introduction by Fiona Stafford (Edinburgh University Press). This edition is particularly valuable for its scholarly context.
• 2004: Ossian and Ossianism, Dafydd Moore, a comprehensive 4-volume edition of Ossianic works and a collection of varied responses (London: Routledge). This expansive collection includes facsimiles of the original Ossian works, alongside contemporary and later critical responses, contextual letters and reviews, and various subsequent adaptations, offering a panoramic view of its influence.
• 2011: Blind Ossian’s Fingal : fragments and controversy, a reprint of the first edition and an abridgement of the follow-up with new material by Allan and Linda Burnett (Edinburgh: Luath Press Ltd).
• 2021: Ossian: Warrior Poet, an edited and illustrated edition of the Poems with a new introduction and index by Scottish artist Eileen Budd (Windermere: Wide Open Sea Press).

See also

• Ossian’s Hall of Mirrors
• Folk process
• Romanticism
• Ossianic Society (Ireland)
• Vestiarium Scoticum
• Manuscripts of Dvůr Králové and of Zelená Hora
• Lord Dunsany

Notes

1. ^ a b c d Kidd, Colin ; Coleman, James (2012). “Mythical Scotland”. In T. M. Devine, Jenny Wormald (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Modern Scottish History. Oxford University Press. pp. 67–70. ISBN 978-0-19-956369-2.
2. ^
   • Rainbolt, Dawn (8 March 2017). “Finn McCool & the Giant’s Causeway”. Wilderness Ireland. Retrieved 7 February 2020.
3. ^ a b
   • “Ossian”. Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 19 January 2021.
4. ^ In The Cambridge History of English Literature, vol. 10 “The Age of Johnson”: “The Literary Influence of the Middle Ages” p. 228.
5. ^
   • “Fragments of Ancient Poetry, Collected in the Highlands of Scotland”, Literary Encyclopedia , 2004, retrieved 27 December 2006
6. ^
   • Behind the Name: View Name: Fingal
7. ^ a b Okun 1967, p. 328.
8. ^ “A Dissertation concerning the Aera of Ossian”, published as prefatory matter in later editions of the poems.
9. ^ Howard Gaskill, The reception of Ossian in Europe (2004)
10. ^ Quoted in
    • Carpenter, Frederick (1930–1931). “The Vogue of Ossian in America”. American Literature. 2: 405–17. doi :10.2307/2920160. JSTOR 2920160.
11. ^
    • Wilson, Douglas L., ed. (1989). Thomas Jefferson’s Literary Commonplace Book. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. p. 172. ISBN 0691047200. Retrieved 8 April 2015.
12. ^ Thoreau, Henry David. Thoreau: Collected Essays and Poems. The Library of America. p. 141.
    • ISBN 1-883011-95-7
13. ^ Magnusson 2006, p. 340
14. ^ Introduction of Robert Fagles’ translations of The Iliad and The Odyssey
15. ^ One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain :
    • Ripley, George; Dana, Charles A., eds. (1879). “Ossian”. The American Cyclopædia .
16. ^ Black, Ronald I.M. (ed.). An Lasair: an anthology of 18th-century Scottish Gaelic verse. Edinburgh, 2001. pp. 292-299, 495-499.
17. ^ J. Buchan, Crowded with Genius (London: Harper Collins, 2003),
    • ISBN 0-06-055888-1, p. 163.
18. ^ O’Conor, C. Dissertations on the ancient history of Ireland (1753) (Copy at Ex-Classics)
19. ^
    • MacKinnon, Donald (1905), “The Glenmasan Manuscript”, The Celtic Review, 1 (6): 3–17, doi :10.2307/30069764, JSTOR 30069764
20. ^
    • Lord Auchinleck’s Fingal, Florida Bibliophile Society, archived from the original on 26 July 2011, retrieved 9 April 2010
21. ^ “Waddell, Peter Hately”. Dictionary of National Biography. London: Smith, Elder & Co. 1885–19.
22. ^
    • Thomson, Derick (1952), The Gaelic Sources of Macpherson’s ‘Ossian’
23. ^
    • Baker, Timothy C. (2014), Baker, Timothy C. (ed.), “Authentic Inauthenticity: The Found Manuscript”, Contemporary Scottish Gothic: Mourning, Authenticity, and Tradition, London: Palgrave Macmillan UK, pp. 54–88, doi :10.1057/9781137457202_3, ISBN 978-1-137-45720-2, retrieved 13 March 2025
24. ^ a b c d Okun 1967, p. 330.
25. ^ Berresford Ellis 1987, p. 159
26. ^ Arnold M. Thor, myth to marvel ; Continuum Publishing, 2011, pp92-97.
27. ^ Okun 1967, pp. 330, 339.
28. ^
    • Oszkár, Elek (1933), “Ossian-kultusz Magyarországon”, Egyetemes Philologiai Közlöny (LVII): 66–76
29. ^ Carmina Gadelica, Alexander Carmichael, printed by T. & A. Constable, Edinburgh, 1900.
30. ^ Tales from Highland Perthshire, collected by Lady Evelyn Stewart Murray, translated and edited by Sylvia Robertson and Tony Dilworth, Scottish Gaelic Texts Society, Volume 20, 2009.
31. ^ Okun 1967, pp. 331–334.
32. ^ Okun 1967, pp. 334–335.
33. ^ Okun 1967, pp. 336–338.
34. ^ Schmidt 2003, p. 976.
35. ^ Okun 1967, pp. 339–341.
36. ^ Okun 1967, pp. 338–345.
37. ^ Okun 1967, pp. 335–346.
38. ^ Okun 1967, pp. 346–347.
39. ^ Rubin 1976, p. 383.
40. ^ Okun 1967, pp. 347–348.
41. ^ Rubin 1976, pp. 384–386 and throughout on the variety of titles by which the work has been known
42. ^
    • “Ossian évoque les fantômes au son de la harpe sur les bords du fleuve Lora” [Ossian evokes ghosts to the sound of the harp on the banks of the Lora river]. musees-nationaux-napoleoniens.org (in French). 7 March 2004. Archived from the original on 5 July 2007.
43. ^ Honour 1968, pp. 184–190, 187 quoted.
44. ^ Okun 1967, pp. 349–351.
45. ^
    • “L’Apothéose des Héros français morts pour la patrie pendant la guerre de la Liberté” [The Apotheosis of French Heroes who died for their country during the War of Freedom]. musees-nationaux-napoleoniens.org (in French). 7 March 2004. Archived from the original on 5 September 2008. Retrieved 4 February 2023.
46. ^ Salon 1880, no. 3921, p. 386
47. ^
    • “Ossian Collection: Selected books from the Ossian Collection of 327 volumes, originally assembled by J. Norman Methven of Perth. Different editions and translations of James MacPherson’s epic poem ‘Ossian’, some with a map of the ‘Kingdom of Connor’. Also secondary material relating to Ossianic poetry and the Ossian controversy”. Edinburgh: National Library of Scotland. Retrieved 23 March 2014.