The Parliament of Canada, or Parlement du Canada as it’s known in the other official language, is the federal legislative body of Canada . It’s a rather grand affair, a three-part structure comprising the Monarch (currently Charles III , though represented by the Governor General , Mary Simon ), the Senate , and the House of Commons . Together, these elements form a bicameral legislature, a system inherited, rather predictably, from the United Kingdom .

History

The genesis of Canada’s Parliament can be traced back to the cession of New France to the United Kingdom following the 1763 Treaty of Paris . Initially, governance was dictated by the Royal Proclamation , later augmented by the Quebec Act , which established a governor-in-council appointed by the British monarch. The year 1791 marked a significant shift with the division of the Province of Quebec into Upper Canada and Lower Canada , each granted an elected legislative assembly , an appointed legislative council , and a governor, a structure that mirrored the British parliamentary model.

The War of 1812 saw American troops inflict damage on the buildings of the Legislative Assembly of Upper Canada in York (now Toronto ). A more substantial structural change occurred in 1841 when the British government consolidated the two Canadas into the Province of Canada . This unified entity featured a single legislature with an assembly, council, and governor general. While the 84 members of the lower chamber were equally split between the former provinces, Lower Canada, despite its larger population, was not given proportional representation. The governor retained considerable personal sway over Canadian affairs until 1848, when the principle of responsible government was finally implemented.

The physical location of Parliament was, for a time, rather unsettled. From 1841 to 1844, it convened in Kingston , on the site of the present-day Kingston General Hospital . From 1844 until the devastating [1849 fire that destroyed the building](/Burning_of_the Parliament_Buildings_in_Montreal) in Montreal , the legislature met there. After a period of shifting between Toronto and Quebec City , Parliament finally settled in Ottawa in 1856, a choice solidified when Queen Victoria designated it as Canada’s capital in 1857.

The modern Parliament of Canada took shape in 1867 with the passage of the British North America Act, 1867, by the Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland . This pivotal legislation united New Brunswick , Nova Scotia , and the Province of Canada (itself divided into Quebec and Ontario ) into a federation known as the Dominion of Canada . The chosen parliamentary model was, once again, a close imitation of the Westminster system. This decision was heavily influenced by the recent American Civil War , which had starkly illuminated the perceived weaknesses of the American federal system, characterized by strong states and a comparatively weaker federal government. The British North America Act strategically limited provincial powers, stipulating that any subject not explicitly assigned to the provinces would fall under the jurisdiction of the Canadian Parliament. Simultaneously, it granted provinces specific powers in designated areas.

Full legislative autonomy arrived with the Statute of Westminster, 1931 , enacted by the British Parliament. While this statute empowered the Parliament of Canada to repeal or amend British laws applicable to Canada, it did not extend to amending Canada’s constitution, including the British North America Acts. Consequently, any constitutional amendments still required an act of the British Parliament, albeit with Canada’s consent. In 1949, the Parliament of Canada gained limited authority to amend the constitution through a British Act, but this power was constrained; it could not alter provincial government powers, the official status of English and French, the rights of specific groups regarding education, or the maximum five-year term for the legislature.

While King George VI was the first Canadian monarch to personally grant Royal Assent to legislation within the Canadian legislature in 1939, it was Queen Elizabeth II who, in 1957, delivered the speech from the throne . This event also marked a historical first: the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation broadcast the speech nationwide, allowing television cameras into the parliamentary chambers for the first time.

The final step towards complete legislative independence occurred in 1982. The Parliament of Canada, along with its provincial counterparts, requested the Parliament of the United Kingdom to enact the Canada Act 1982 , which incorporated the Constitution Act, 1982 . This legislation effectively severed the British Parliament’s authority to legislate for Canada and transferred the power to amend the constitution to the combined legislative bodies of Canada: the House of Commons, the Senate, and the provincial legislative assemblies. Most amendments necessitate the consent of the Senate, the House of Commons, and two-thirds of the provinces representing a majority of the population. However, certain fundamental amendments, including those affecting the monarch, the governor general, provincial lieutenant governors, the official status of English and French, the Supreme Court of Canada , and the amending formulas themselves, require the unanimous consent of all provincial legislative assemblies.

Composition

The Parliament of Canada is a tripartite entity, consisting of the King of Canada , whose role is symbolically embodied by the Governor General ; the Senate , the upper chamber; and the House of Commons , the lower chamber. Each of these components possesses its own distinct officers and organizational framework, yet they operate in concert throughout the legislative process .

The 343 members of the lower house , the House of Commons, are known as Members of Parliament (MPs). Each MP is elected to represent a specific electoral district , commonly referred to as a riding. The 105 members of the upper house , the Senate, are designated as senators and are appointed, not elected. Their appointments are made by the governor general upon the recommendation of the prime minister . Collectively, both MPs and senators are termed parliamentarians.

While bills can originate in either the House of Commons or the Senate, any legislation pertaining to the raising or spending of public funds must be introduced in the House of Commons. By constitutional convention and adhering to the Westminster system of governance, the House of Commons holds a dominant position. The Senate, in practice, seldom challenges the will of the elected chamber. For a bill to become law, it requires royal assent , the formal approval of the Crown. The federal fiscal year in Canada runs from April 1st to March 31st.

The governor general, acting on the prime minister’s advice, has the authority to summon and convene the House of Commons. Furthermore, the governor general can prorogue or dissolve Parliament , actions that either conclude a parliamentary session or trigger a general election . The governor general also delivers the throne speech , which outlines the government’s agenda at the commencement of each new Parliament. On occasion, the monarch has personally delivered this speech.

The election for the 45th Canadian Parliament concluded on April 28, 2025, resulting in a Liberal minority government. This outcome indicates a complex balance of power, where the governing party must seek cooperation to advance its legislative agenda.

Monarch

Charles III is the King of Canada . His role within the legislature, officially termed the King-in-Parliament , is delineated by the Constitution Act, 1867 and a series of conventions . Neither the monarch nor his representative, the governor general, actively participates in the legislative process beyond signifying the King’s approval of a bill passed by both houses. This signifies the bill’s transformation into law, a process known as royal assent . Consequently, all federal legislation commences with the formal declaration: “Now, therefore, His Majesty, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate and House of Commons of Canada, enacts as follows…” This phrasing underscores that the Crown is, by principle, immune from parliamentary acts unless explicitly stated otherwise. While the governor general typically grants royal assent, the monarch retains the prerogative to do so personally, either at the request of the Cabinet or the governor general, who may defer assent to the sovereign as constitutionally permitted.

Historically, the monarch and their representatives have been formally excluded from the House of Commons. This tradition stems from the incident in 1642 when Charles I attempted to personally arrest five members of the English Commons. Consequently, any parliamentary ceremonies involving the sovereign or governor general are conducted in the Senate chamber. Both houses, however, are equipped with a mace , symbolizing the authority of the King-in-Parliament and the privileges bestowed by the monarch. Each mace is crowned at its apex. The original mace for the Senate was previously used by the Legislative Council of the Province of Canada after 1849. The House of Commons inherited its mace from the Legislative Assembly of the Province of Canada , first employed in 1845. Following the destructive burning of the Centre Block on February 3, 1916, the City of London , England, gifted a replacement mace, which remains in use today. The temporary mace, constructed of wood and used until the new one arrived from the United Kingdom in 1917, is still presented in the Senate annually on February 3rd. The Senate’s current mace, a 1.6-meter-long artifact of brass and gold, is essential for its sittings; the Senate cannot convene without its presence. It is typically placed on the table with the crown facing the throne, though during specific ceremonies, it may be carried by the mace bearer, positioned beside the governor general or monarch.

Members of both parliamentary chambers are required to pledge their allegiance to the sovereign and acknowledge his authority. This is formalized through the Oath of Allegiance , which all new parliamentarians must swear before assuming their duties. Moreover, the official opposition is formally designated as His Majesty’s Loyal Opposition , signifying their commitment to the apolitical Crown, even while opposing the current Cabinet’s policies.

Senate

The Senate , often referred to as the upper house , is comprised of 105 individuals appointed by the governor general, acting on the prime minister’s counsel. To qualify for appointment, individuals must meet specific constitutional criteria: be at least 30 years old, be a subject of the monarch, possess net worth of at least $4,000, and own land valued at no less than $4,000 within the province they are designated to represent. Historically, senators served for life until a 1965 constitutional amendment mandated a retirement age of 75. Senators can, however, choose to resign before reaching this age or be removed from office for failing to attend two consecutive parliamentary sessions.

The Senate’s composition is structured around the principle of regional representation, with specific quotas allocated to geographic divisions. There are 24 senators appointed from Ontario , 24 from Quebec , 24 from the Maritimes (with 10 each for Nova Scotia and New Brunswick , and four for Prince Edward Island ), and 24 from the Western provinces (six each for Manitoba , British Columbia , Saskatchewan , and Alberta ). Additionally, senators are appointed to represent regions not included in these divisions. Newfoundland and Labrador , despite being the most recent province to join Confederation (though an early English settlement), is represented by six senators. Since 1975, each of Canada’s three territories – the Northwest Territories , Yukon , and Nunavut (established in 1999) – is represented by one senator. The Constitution also allows for the appointment of an additional four or eight senators, with the monarch’s approval, provided that the four main divisions are equally represented. This extraordinary power has been invoked only once since 1867: in 1990, Prime Minister Brian Mulroney advised Queen Elizabeth II to appoint extra senators to ensure the passage of the bill establishing the Goods and Services Tax . This temporarily increased the Senate’s membership to 113, with the intention that it would revert to its normal size of 105 through attrition.

House of Commons

The House of Commons , the elected body of the Canadian Parliament, comprises 343 members, each elected by a plurality of votes in their respective federal electoral districts , or ridings. To be eligible to run for a seat in the House of Commons, an individual must be a Canadian citizen and at least 18 years of age. Members retain their office until Parliament is dissolved, at which point they may seek re-election. The boundaries of these ridings are subject to periodic review and adjustment following each decennial national census . However, the “senatorial clause” within the Constitution Act, 1867, guarantees that each province will have at least as many MPs as it has senators. Furthermore, a “grandfather clause” ensures that each province retains the number of MPs it had in either 1976 or 1985. The existence of these constitutional provisions has resulted in the House of Commons exceeding its constitutionally mandated minimum size of 282 seats.

Jurisdiction

The legislative authority of the Parliament of Canada is constitutionally defined and constrained. The constitution delineates powers between the federal and provincial legislatures . Generally, provincial legislatures are restricted to enacting laws concerning matters specifically reserved for them, such as education, provincial administration, municipal governance, charitable institutions, and “matters of a merely local or private nature.” Conversely, any subject not falling under the exclusive purview of the provincial legislatures is within the legislative scope of the federal Parliament. Consequently, Parliament holds the sole authority to legislate on matters including, but not limited to, postal services, census taking, the military , navigation and shipping, fisheries, currency and banking, weights and measures, bankruptcy, copyrights, patents, issues pertaining to First Nations , and naturalization . In certain instances, the division of jurisdiction between federal and provincial parliaments can be less clear-cut. For example, while the federal Parliament governs marriage and divorce generally, the solemnization of marriage falls under provincial regulation. Other areas where both federal and provincial parliaments possess legislative power include taxation, borrowing money, the punishment of criminal offenses, and the regulation of agriculture.

Parliament’s powers are also subject to the limitations imposed by the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms . However, most Charter provisions can be overridden through the use of the notwithstanding clause . It is noteworthy that this clause has never been invoked by the federal parliament, although it has been utilized by several provincial legislatures. Any laws deemed to violate the constitution are considered invalid and can be struck down as unconstitutional by the courts .

Officers

Each of the two chambers within Parliament is presided over by a speaker . The Speaker of the Senate is appointed by the governor general on the prime minister’s recommendation. In contrast, the Speaker of the House of Commons is an elected Member of Parliament, chosen by their colleagues. Generally, the powers vested in the Speaker of the House of Commons exceed those of their Senate counterpart. Following the British tradition, the upper chamber operates largely under self-regulation, whereas the lower chamber’s proceedings are managed by the Speaker, embodying a majoritarian model that grants significant authority to the presiding officer. However, in 1991, the powers of the Speaker of the Senate were expanded, bringing the balance of power more in line with the framework of the House of Commons.

The Usher of the Black Rod , currently Kevin S. MacLeod , serves as the most senior protocol officer in Parliament. This role entails acting as the personal messenger of the sovereign and governor general to the legislature. The Usher is also responsible for chamber security, protocol, and the logistical management of significant events on Parliament Hill, such as the Speech from the Throne , Royal Assent ceremonies, state funerals , and the investiture of a new governor general.

Other key officials within Parliament include the Auditor General of Canada , the Chief Electoral Officer , the Commissioner of Official Languages , the Privacy Commissioner of Canada , the Information Commissioner of Canada , the Conflict of Interest and Ethics Commissioner , the Public Sector Integrity Commissioner , and the Commissioner of Lobbying . These individuals are appointed by one or both houses and report to them through their respective Speakers. They are collectively referred to as Agents of Parliament. Additionally, the Parliamentary Librarian , a position established in 1871 under the Library of Parliament Act, plays a crucial role in directing the operations of the Library of Parliament .

Term

The Constitution Act, 1867, vests the authority to summon Parliament solely in the governor general. However, the prerogative to prorogue and dissolve the legislature ultimately rests with the monarch. Following dissolution, the writs for a general federal election are typically issued by the governor general from [Rideau Hall](/Rideau Hall). Upon the election’s conclusion, the governor general, acting on the prime minister’s advice, issues a royal proclamation to reconvene Parliament. On the designated date, newly elected MPs are sworn in, and then, alongside returning members, they are summoned to the Senate. There, they receive instructions to elect their speaker before adjourning to the House of Commons to elect their own speaker.

Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip attending the opening of Parliament on October 14, 1957.

The commencement of a new parliamentary session is marked by the opening of Parliament . This ceremony features the delivery of a Speech From the Throne by the monarch, the governor general, or a designated royal representative. The Usher of the Black Rod extends invitations to MPs for these events, ceremonially knocking on the doors of the lower house, which are then symbolically slammed shut. This tradition is a visual representation of the Commons’ right to deny entry to any individual, including the monarch, with the sole exception of royal messengers. Once the MPs have assembled behind the Bar of the Senate – with the exception of the prime minister, who is permitted to sit near the throne dais within the Senate chamber – the Speaker of the House of Commons formally presents themselves to the monarch or governor general, articulating the rights and privileges of the House of Commons. The Speaker of the Senate, on behalf of the Crown, responds in acknowledgement after the sovereign or viceroy has taken their seat on the throne. The speech itself is then read aloud, potentially outlining the Cabinet’s legislative agenda for the upcoming session and other matters deemed important.

A parliamentary session continues until a prorogation occurs. At this point, without further ceremony, both houses of the legislature cease all legislative activities. This suspension persists until the governor general issues a new proclamation calling for the commencement of a new session. The procedures for opening Parliament are then repeated, with the exception of the election of the House of Commons Speaker and their subsequent claim of the house’s privileges. After a variable number of sessions – ranging historically from one to seven – Parliament is dissolved, typically leading to a general election. Barring the governor general’s discretion, general elections are usually held every four years, on the third Monday in October, or the following Tuesday or Monday if recommended by the chief electoral officer . The governor general retains the authority to dissolve Parliament and call an election outside these fixed dates, conventionally upon the prime minister’s advice, often following a successful motion of no confidence . The timing of such dissolutions can be strategically influenced by political considerations.

Procedure

Both houses of Parliament determine motions through voice vote . The presiding officer poses the question, and after hearing the members’ shouts of “yea” or “nay,” declares the outcome. This decision is final unless a recorded vote is requested by members – a requirement of at least two in the Senate and five in the House of Commons. Members participating in a recorded vote stand in their places to be counted. The Speaker of the Senate is entitled to vote on a motion or bill, though this is done infrequently to maintain impartiality; if a tie occurs, the motion is defeated. In the House of Commons, however, the Speaker is prohibited from voting except to break a tie, and in such instances, they customarily vote in a manner that upholds the status quo . The constitution mandates specific quorums for each house: fifteen senators in the upper chamber and twenty members in the lower chamber, with the Speaker included in these counts.

Voting can therefore manifest in three potential ways: firstly, by leaving a matter open for future consideration and allowing for further debate within the house; secondly, when further discussion is not feasible, acknowledging that the matter might be revisited and decided by a majority in the house; or thirdly, by preserving a bill in its existing form rather than allowing amendments. For instance, during the vote on the 2005 budget , which was treated as a vote of confidence , the Speaker of the House of Commons cast the tie-breaking vote during the second reading , supporting the budget and enabling its passage. Had the vote on the third reading again resulted in a tie, the Speaker would have been expected to vote against the bill, leading to the government’s fall.

Simultaneous interpretation is provided for both of Canada’s official languages, English and French , throughout all sessions of both houses.

Legislative functions

Draft legislation, known as bills , may be introduced by any member of either the House of Commons or the Senate. However, the vast majority of bills originate in the House of Commons, with most being put forward by ministers of the Crown . These are classified as government bills, distinguishing them from private members’ bills or private senators’ bills, which are initiated by MPs and senators, respectively, who are not members of the Cabinet. Draft legislation can also be categorized as public bills, if they apply to the general populace, or private bills , if they concern a specific individual or a limited group of people. Each bill progresses through a series of stages in each chamber, commencing with the first reading . It is not until the bill’s second reading that its general principles are subjected to debate. While rejection is a possibility at this stage, it is not a common occurrence for government bills.

Following the second reading, the bill is referred by the originating house to one of several committees. The Standing Orders of Parliament prescribe the general responsibilities of these committees, which include reviewing bills in relation to relevant government departments, examining program and policy plans, assessing projected expenditures, and evaluating the effectiveness of departmental implementation. Most commonly, bills are sent to a standing committee , a body composed of members or senators specializing in a particular subject area (such as foreign affairs ). These committees have the authority to hear testimony from ministers and experts, debate the bill, and propose amendments. Alternatively, a bill may be committed to the Committee of the Whole , which, as its name implies, consists of all members of the chamber in question. In some cases, a bill might be referred to an ad hoc committee established specifically for the purpose of reviewing that particular piece of legislation. Each chamber has its own procedural framework for managing these committees. The Senate establishes special committees that function similarly to most other committees, while the House of Commons utilizes legislative committees, the chairs of which are appointed by the Speaker of the House of Commons, typically one of his deputies. Regardless of the committee type, any amendments recommended by the committee are considered by the entire house during the report stage. Furthermore, additional amendments, not proposed by the committee, may also be introduced at this stage.

After the report stage, or immediately following the committee stage if no amendments were made, the bill proceeds to its final phase – the third reading . In the House of Commons, no further amendments are permitted at this stage. However, amendments can still be proposed in the Senate. If the bill successfully passes the third reading, it is then transmitted to the other house of Parliament, where it undergoes the same procedural stages. Amendments proposed by the second chamber require the approval of the originating house to be incorporated into the final bill. If one house passes amendments that the other house subsequently rejects, and a resolution of their disagreements cannot be reached, the bill is defeated.

King George VI , accompanied by Queen Elizabeth , grants Royal Assent to bills in the Senate chamber in 1939.

Once a bill has been passed in identical form by both houses, it is presented for Royal Assent . Theoretically, the governor general has three options: grant Royal Assent, thereby enacting the bill into law; withhold Royal Assent, effectively vetoing the bill; or reserve the bill for the monarch’s pleasure , allowing the sovereign to personally grant or withhold assent. If the governor general grants Royal Assent, the monarch retains the power, within a two-year period, to disallow the bill, thereby nullifying the law. It is worth noting that, in the federal sphere, no bill has ever been denied royal approval.

Consistent with the British model, only the House of Commons has the authority to introduce bills related to the imposition of taxes or the appropriation of Crown funds. The constitutional amendment procedure does provide a mechanism for the House of Commons to overcome an otherwise required Senate resolution in most circumstances. Otherwise, the theoretical legislative power of both houses over bills is considered equal, with the assent of each chamber being necessary for passage. In practice, however, the House of Commons exerts a dominant influence, and the Senate rarely exercises its powers in a manner that contradicts the will of the democratically elected house.

Relationship with the executive

The federal government is constituted by the monarch (represented by the governor general)-in-council . This council comprises ministers of the Crown, appointed by the governor general to oversee the exercise of executive powers . Adhering to the principles of responsible government , these ministers are almost invariably chosen from among the members of Parliament, predominantly from the House of Commons. This chamber is the sole body to which ministers are held accountable, most notably during Question Period , where ministers are compelled to respond to inquiries from opposition members. Consequently, the individual who can command the confidence of the lower chamber – typically the leader of the party holding the most seats – is usually appointed prime minister. Should this individual not hold a seat in the House of Commons, it is conventional for them to seek election to one at the earliest opportunity. Often, a junior MP holding a safe seat will resign to facilitate the prime minister’s candidacy in a by-election . In situations where no single party secures a majority, it is customary for the governor general to invite the formation of a minority government or a coalition government , depending on which arrangement commands the confidence of the House of Commons.

The House of Commons can initiate proceedings to remove the government from power by either rejecting a motion of confidence – typically introduced by a minister to affirm the Cabinet’s support within the Commons – or by passing a motion of no confidence, introduced by the opposition to express its lack of trust in the Cabinet. Key legislative initiatives forming part of the government’s agenda are usually treated as matters of confidence, and the budget is always considered a confidence matter. If a government loses the confidence of the House of Commons, the prime minister is obligated to either resign (allowing the governor general to appoint the Leader of the Opposition to the position) or request the dissolution of Parliament and the calling of a general election. A notable precedent was set in 1968 when the government led by Lester B. Pearson , despite unexpectedly losing a confidence vote, was permitted to remain in power through the mutual agreement of the leaders of the other parties.

In practice, the scrutiny exercised by the House of Commons over the government is often considered less rigorous compared to similar chambers in other Westminster system countries. The plurality voting system commonly used in parliamentary elections tends to grant the governing party a substantial majority. Furthermore, the party system affords leaders significant control over their caucus, to the extent that MPs can face expulsion from their parties for voting against party directives. This dynamic frequently diminishes the need for inter-party compromise. Canada also has fewer MPs relative to its population, a higher rate of MP turnover following elections, and a leadership selection process that resembles the American model, making leaders accountable to party membership rather than solely to their caucus, as is the case in the United Kingdom. Political commentator John Robson of the National Post observed that Canada’s parliament had evolved into a body akin to the American Electoral College , “its sole and ceremonial role to confirm the executive in power.”

During the late 20th and early 21st centuries, analysts such as Jeffrey Simpson , Donald Savoie , and John Gomery have argued that both Parliament and the Cabinet have been increasingly overshadowed by the power of the prime minister. Consequently, defeats of majority governments on confidence issues have become exceedingly rare. Conversely, minority governments are inherently more precarious and are more susceptible to falling due to a loss of confidence. The most recent prime ministers to face confidence votes were Stephen Harper in 2011, Paul Martin in 2005, and Joe Clark in 1979, all of whom led minority governments at the time. The passage of the Reform Act and subsequent amendments to the Parliament of Canada Act in 2015 were implemented as a response to this trend, aiming to enhance the power and independence of individual MPs.

Privileges

Parliament possesses a range of distinct privileges, collectively known as parliamentary privilege . Each house is the custodian and administrator of its own set of rights. While Parliament itself defines the scope of these privileges, the constitution stipulates that they cannot exceed those enjoyed and exercised by the British House of Commons and its members at the time of the Act’s passage.

The most significant privilege afforded to both houses of Parliament is freedom of speech during debates. Nothing stated within the chambers can be scrutinized by any court or external institution. Specifically, a member of either house cannot be held liable for slander based on statements made during parliamentary proceedings; the only constraint on debate is adherence to the standing orders of each respective house. Furthermore, MPs and senators are exempt from arrest in civil (though not criminal) cases, and are excused from jury service and mandatory attendance in court as witnesses. However, they can face disciplinary action from their colleagues for violating the rules, including instances of contempt of Parliament – defined as disobedience of its authority, such as providing false testimony before a parliamentary committee – and breaches of its own privileges.

On April 15, 2008, the Canadian Heraldic Authority formally recognized Parliament’s right to employ a heraldic badge . This emblem is composed of symbols representing the three constituent elements of Parliament: the escutcheon of the Royal Arms of Canada with the crossed maces of the House of Commons and the Senate positioned behind it.

The budgetary allocation for the Parliament of Canada for the 2010 fiscal year amounted to $583,567,000.

Notable Elections and Sessions

The election for the 45th Canadian Parliament took place on April 28, 2025. This election resulted in a Liberal minority government, signaling a period where the governing party must navigate the complexities of parliamentary consensus and cooperation with other parties to enact its legislative agenda. The composition of this Parliament, with its minority status, underscores the dynamic nature of Canadian federal politics and the ongoing negotiation of power and influence among different political factions.

See also

• Canada portal
• Politics portal
• Canadian Parliament Buildings
• Hansard
• Joint address (Canada)
• List of Canadian federal parliaments
• List of legislatures by country
• Politics of Canada
• Procedural officers and senior officials of the Parliament of Canada
• Records of members of the Parliament of Canada

Notes

• ^ On September 1, 1919, Edward, Prince of Wales (later King Edward VIII ), delivered the Speech from the Throne at the opening of the third session of the 13th Canadian Parliament .
• ^ Although rare, instances have occurred where an incorrect version of a bill has been transmitted between houses (i.e., not the version that passed third reading). This can lead to procedural complications, especially if not rectified promptly, allowing the other house to advance the erroneous bill through multiple stages. For two recent examples (2014 and 2001), see Jordan Press (August 28, 2014). “House of Commons to Correct Errors in Crime Bill it Sent to Senate”. Ottawa Citizen . National News. Retrieved June 7, 2019.