Renaissance In Scotland

The Renaissance in Scotland was a cultural , intellectual and artistic movement in Scotland, from the late fifteenth century to the beginning of the seventeenth century. It is associated with the pan-European Renaissance that is usually regarded as beginning in Italy in the late fourteenth century and reaching northern Europe as a Northern Renaissance in the fifteenth century. It involved an attempt to revive the principles of the classical era , including humanism , a spirit of scholarly enquiry, scepticism, and concepts of balance and proportion. Since the twentieth century, the uniqueness and unity of the Renaissance has been challenged by historians, but significant changes in Scotland can be seen to have taken place in education, intellectual life, literature, art, architecture, music, science and politics.

The court was central to the patronage and dissemination of Renaissance works and ideas. It was also central to the staging of lavish display that portrayed the political and religious role of the monarchy. The Renaissance led to the adoption of ideas of imperial monarchy, encouraging the Scottish crown to join the new monarchies by asserting imperial jurisdiction and distinction. The growing emphasis on education in the Middle Ages became part of a humanist and then Protestant programme to extend and reform learning. It resulted in the expansion of the school system and the foundation of six university colleges by the end of the sixteenth century. Relatively large numbers of Scottish scholars studied on the continent or in England and some, such as Hector Boece , John Mair , Andrew Melville and George Buchanan , returned to Scotland to play a major part in developing Scottish intellectual life. Vernacular works in Scots began to emerge in the fifteenth century, while Latin remained a major literary language. With the patronage of James V and James VI , writers included William Stewart , John Bellenden , David Lyndsay , William Fowler and Alexander Montgomerie .

In the sixteenth century, Scottish kings – particularly James V – built palaces in Renaissance style, beginning at Linlithgow . The trend soon spread to members of the aristocracy. Painting was strongly influenced by Flemish painting , with works commissioned from the continent and Flemings serving as court artists. While church art suffered iconoclasm and a loss of patronage as a result of the Reformation , house decoration and portraiture became significant for the wealthy, with George Jamesone emerging as the first major named artist in the early seventeenth century. Music also incorporated wider European influences although the Reformation caused a move from complex polyphonic church music to the simpler singing of metrical psalms. Combined with the Union of Crowns in 1603, the Reformation also removed the church and the court as sources of patronage, changing the direction of artistic creation and limiting its scope. In the early seventeenth century the major elements of the Renaissance began to give way to Mannerism and the Baroque .

Definitions and debates

• Main article: Renaissance § Historiography

Renaissance is a concept formulated by cultural historian Jacob Burckhardt in the mid-nineteenth century to describe the intellectual and artistic movement that began in Italy in the fourteenth century and saw an attempt to revive the principles of the Greek and Roman classical worlds. It encompassed a rational and sceptical attitude, a return to ideas of original sources and proportion and balance in art. The major ideas of the Renaissance are generally considered to have reached Northern Europe much later, in the late fifteenth century. Scotland has been seen as part of a wider Northern Renaissance that is generally considered to have stretched into the early seventeenth century, when it was replaced by the grander styles of the Baroque . However, the association of Baroque styles with Catholicism in predominantly Protestant Scotland tended to result in this trend being overlooked and the period from about 1620 to the end of the seventeenth century is sometimes characterised as a late Renaissance. [1]

In the twentieth century, historians disputed the validity of the concept of a Renaissance as unique, as a reaction against the “dark age” of the Medieval, as a clear break with the past [1] and as a unified movement. [2] Instead, they emphasised the many intellectual trends and movements that went before it, such as the twelfth-century Renaissance on which it built. It was also once common for historians to suggest that Scotland had little or no participation in the Renaissance. More recently, the significant changes in intellectual and cultural life in the period have been seen as forming a watershed in Scottish cultural history. This has been perceived as opening the path for the Reformation, and later for the modernisation of thought and social life in the Enlightenment and Industrial Revolution , to which Scotland would make a significant contribution. [1]

Court and kingship

• Main article: Government in Medieval Scotland

Linlithgow Palace , rebuilt for James V to suggest an open-air Renaissance courtyard

The court, as a nexus of power and influence, served as the primary engine for the patronage and dissemination of Renaissance works and ideas. It was also the grand stage upon which the monarchy enacted lavish displays, meticulously crafted to project its political and religious authority. This theatricality was often intertwined with the evolving ideals of chivalry , a code that was transitioning from its martial roots to a more ornamental and honorific manifestation. The echoes of the classical era were evident, with figures like Hector of Troy , Alexander the Great , and Julius Caesar frequently reimagined as proto-knights. Tournaments provided a focal point for such displays; the most notable included those of the Wild Knight in 1507 and the Black Lady in 1508, both held under the auspices of James IV . James V also embraced these pursuits with notable enthusiasm, proudly showcasing the insignia of international knightly orders on the Gateway at Linlithgow Palace , a testament to his own esteemed membership.

During her brief personal reign, Mary, Queen of Scots introduced the elaborate courtly activities she had experienced during her formative years at the French court. She orchestrated balls, masques, and celebrations designed to signify the resurgence of monarchical power and to foster national unity. The pinnacle of these elaborate undertakings was the baptism of the future James VI at Stirling Castle in 1566, a spectacle meticulously organized by her French attendant, Bastian Pagez . This event masterfully blended complex imagery, drawing upon classical themes such as the goddess Astraea and the concept of a revived golden age, with the romanticized ideals of the Round Table . The ceremony was further enhanced by a banquet, hunts, feasting, poetry readings, and theatrical performances, culminating in a staged siege and a display of fireworks. [3] The court experienced a resurgence as a vibrant center of culture and learning under James VI . He cultivated the persona of a philosopher king, drawing inspiration from biblical and classical models such as David , Solomon , and Constantine , as exemplified in his “joyous entry” into Edinburgh in 1579 . The most magnificent event of his reign was the baptism of his son and heir, Prince Henry , in 1595. For this occasion, the Chapel Royal at Stirling Castle was meticulously reconstructed to mirror the architectural proportions of the Temple of Solomon . The festivities spanned three days, featuring a staged tournament and a masque that presented a ship of state navigated by classical deities and muses . This elaborate production, masterminded by William Fowler , was strategically designed to enhance the king’s image and bolster his claim to the English and Irish thrones. [4]

Groat of James V, showing him wearing an imperial closed crown

The intellectual currents of the era also profoundly influenced perceptions of governance, ushering in what is termed “new” or Renaissance monarchy, which underscored the elevated status and significance of the monarch. The Roman Law principle asserting that “a king is emperor in his own kingdom” began to manifest in Scotland from the mid-fifteenth century. In 1469, Parliament enacted legislation declaring that James III possessed “full jurisdiction and empire within his realm.” From the 1480s onwards, the king’s effigy on his silver groats depicted him wearing a closed, arched, imperial crown , a departure from the open circlet traditionally worn by medieval monarchs. This imagery, likely the first of its kind outside Italy, soon permeated heraldry, royal seals, manuscripts, sculptures, and even architectural elements like crown steeples atop churches with royal affiliations, such as St. Giles Cathedral in Edinburgh. [5] James V was the first Scottish monarch to adopt such a crown, with his existing diadem modified to include arches in 1532. These arches were retained when the crown was reconstructed in 1540, forming the basis of the current Crown of Scotland . The concept of imperial monarchy emphasized the inherent dignity of the crown and its role as a unifying national force, responsible for defending national borders and interests, asserting royal supremacy over the law, and maintaining a distinct national church within the broader Catholic communion. [5] The characteristics of New Monarchy were further reflected in the crown’s reliance on “new men ” rather than solely on the established great magnates, the utilization of the clergy as a form of civil service, and the development of standing armed forces and a navy . [6] The aggrandizement of the monarchy culminated in James VI ’s sophisticated articulation of imperial rule as a manifestation of the divine right of kings. [4] However, James’s regal image in Scotland may have faced a subtle challenge from that of his wife, Anna of Denmark , who maintained a distinct parallel court. In the early 1590s, she and her courtiers adopted Danish fashions, presenting a separate visual identity. [7]

Education

• Main article: History of education in Scotland

Schools

• Main article: History of schools in Scotland

William Elphinstone , bishop of Aberdeen, founder of the University of Aberdeen and likely the architect of the Education Act 1496

In the early medieval period, formal education was largely confined to monastic institutions. However, from the twelfth century onwards, new educational avenues began to emerge, including song and grammar schools . These institutions were typically associated with cathedrals or collegiate churches and were most prevalent in the burgeoning burghs . By the close of the Middle Ages, grammar schools had become established in all major burghs and even in some smaller towns. [8] Beyond these, “petty schools” offered elementary education, more commonly found in rural areas. [9] While these schools were almost exclusively for boys, by the late fifteenth century, Edinburgh also boasted schools for girls, sometimes referred to as “sewing schools,” likely operated by laywomen or nuns. [8][9] Furthermore, private tuition became increasingly common within the households of the nobility and prosperous burghers. [8] The escalating emphasis on education during the late Middle Ages culminated in the passage of the Education Act 1496 . This legislation mandated that the sons of barons and substantial freeholders attend grammar schools, endorsing the humanist ideal of mastering “perfyct Latyne.” This initiative demonstrably increased literacy rates, though its impact was largely concentrated among a male and affluent elite, [8] with an estimated 60 percent of the nobility achieving literacy by the end of the fifteenth century. [10]

The humanist commitment to broadening educational access found a parallel in the objectives of the Protestant reformers, who prioritized the creation of a “godly people” over the earlier aim of cultivating educated citizens. In 1560, the First Book of Discipline outlined a comprehensive plan for a school in every parish, a vision that ultimately proved financially unfeasible. [11] Within the burghs, existing schools were largely preserved. Song schools and several newly established institutions transitioned into reformed grammar schools or became standard parish schools. These schools were sustained through a combination of kirk funds, contributions from local heritors or burgh councils, and fees paid by parents. [12] The kirk sessions played a supervisory role, assessing the quality of instruction and ensuring doctrinal orthodoxy.

A significant number of unregulated “adventure schools” also operated, sometimes filling a local educational void and at other times drawing students away from established institutions. Outside the formal burgh school system, masters often combined their teaching duties with other roles, such as minor clerical positions within the kirk. [12] The curriculum, at its most comprehensive, included catechism , Latin , French , Classical literature , and physical activities. [13] It wasn’t until the late seventeenth century that a largely complete network of parish schools was established in the Lowlands . In the Highlands , however, many areas still lacked basic educational provision by the time the Education Act was passed in 1696, establishing the administrative framework for the system that would endure until 1873. [14]

Universities

• Main article: Ancient universities of Scotland

The Renaissance of the 12th century fostered the emergence of significant intellectual figures from Scotland. Perhaps the most influential was John Duns Scotus ( c. 1265–1308), whose work profoundly shaped late medieval religious thought. [15] Following the outbreak of the Wars of Independence in 1296, English universities became largely inaccessible to Scots, increasing the importance of continental universities. [16] Records indicate that just over a thousand Scots attended continental universities between the 12th and 1410 centuries. [16] Some Scottish scholars attained positions as teachers in these continental institutions, including Walter Wardlaw (died 1387) and Laurence de Lindores (1372?–1437). [16] This landscape was dramatically altered by the establishment of the University of St Andrews in 1413, the University of Glasgow in 1450, and the University of Aberdeen in 1495. [8] Initially conceived for clerical training, these institutions gradually opened their doors to lay students, who began to challenge the clerical monopoly on administrative positions within the government and legal professions. [16] During this period, Scottish universities did not offer instruction in Greek and maintained a largely unquestioning adherence to the philosophical tenets of Aristotle , focusing predominantly on metaphysics . [17] Those seeking advanced degrees still needed to pursue their studies abroad, with Scottish scholars continuing their education on the Continent and at English universities, which reopened to them in the late fifteenth century. [16]

Hector Boece (1465–1536), a pivotal figure in European humanism, returned to Scotland to serve as the first principal of the University of Aberdeen

As early as 1495, Scottish scholars were engaging with Desiderius Erasmus (1466–1536), a leading figure in the Northern humanist movement , who hailed from the Netherlands. They also established connections with the French humanist and scholar Jacques Lefèvre d’Étaples ( c. 1455 –1536). Erasmus served as tutor to James VI’s illegitimate son and Archbishop of St. Andrews, Alexander Stewart (c. 1493–1513). [18] These international scholarly exchanges played a crucial role in integrating Scotland into the broader European intellectual sphere and were instrumental in introducing the novel ideas of humanism into Scottish intellectual life. [10] By 1497, the humanist and historian Hector Boece , a native of Dundee who had studied in Paris, returned to Scotland to assume the position of the first principal at the newly founded University of Aberdeen. [16] The continued academic migration to other universities fostered a distinct school of Scottish nominalists at Paris in the early sixteenth century. Among the most prominent was John Mair , often categorized as a scholastic , whose Latin work History of Greater Britain (1521) expressed sympathy for the humanist social agenda. [19] Another significant scholar was Archibald Whitelaw, who taught at St. Andrews and Cologne before becoming a tutor to the young James III and serving as royal secretary from 1462 to 1493. Robert Reid , Abbot of Kinloss and later Bishop of Orkney , was instrumental in bringing the Italian humanist Giovanni Ferrario to Kinloss Abbey in the 1520s and 1530s. There, Ferrario established an impressive library and authored works on Scottish history and biography. Reid also played a key role in organizing public lectures in Edinburgh during the 1540s, covering subjects such as law, Greek, Latin, and philosophy, under the patronage of Mary of Guise . These lectures eventually evolved into the “Tounis College,” which would formally become the University of Edinburgh in 1582. [20]

Following the Reformation, Scotland’s universities underwent significant reforms spearheaded by Andrew Melville . Upon his return from Geneva, Melville assumed the principalship of the University of Glasgow in 1574. Deeply influenced by the anti-Aristotelian philosopher Petrus Ramus , Melville advocated for a simplified approach to logic and elevated the status of languages and sciences to parity with philosophy, encouraging critical inquiry into established ideas across all disciplines. [17] He introduced specialized teaching staff, thereby replacing the traditional “regenting” system where a single tutor guided students through the entire arts curriculum. [21] Metaphysics was largely set aside, and Greek became a compulsory subject in the first year, followed by instruction in Aramaic , Syriac , and Hebrew , igniting a new enthusiasm for ancient and biblical languages. While Glasgow University may have been in decline prior to Melville’s arrival, student enrollment subsequently surged. Melville also contributed to the reconstruction of Marischal College , Aberdeen , and in 1580, he was appointed Principal of St Mary’s College, St Andrews with the aim of replicating his transformative work at Glasgow. These initiatives resulted in a revitalization of all Scottish universities, which were then offering an educational standard on par with the best institutions across Europe. [17]

Among the prominent intellectual figures of the Reformation was George Buchanan . He held teaching positions in universities in France and Portugal, translated Greek texts into Latin, and served as a tutor to the young Mary, Queen of Scots, for whom he composed Latin courtly poetry and masques. Following her deposition in 1567, his influential works De Jure Regni apud Scotos (1579) and Rerum Scoticarum Historia (1582) provided significant arguments for the right of resistance against tyrannical rulers. [4] Buchanan was also one of the tutors to the young James VI . While he succeeded in nurturing a highly educated Protestant prince, who would later author works on governance, poetry, and witchcraft, Buchanan ultimately failed to persuade the king of his views on limited monarchy. James engaged in debates with both Buchanan and Melville regarding the respective authority of the crown and the kirk. [22]

Literature

• Main article: Scottish literature

Front page of William Dunbar ’s The Goldyn Targe (a 1508 print)

In the late fifteenth century, Scots prose began to flourish as a distinct literary genre, increasingly demonstrating classical and humanist influences. [23] While earlier fragments of original Scots prose exist, such as the Auchinleck Chronicle, [24] the first complete surviving work is John Ireland ’s The Meroure of Wyssdome (1490). [25] Prose translations of French books of chivalry also survive from the 1450s, including The Book of the Law of Armys and the Order of Knychthode and the treatise Secreta Secetorum , an Arabic work attributed to Aristotle as advice to Alexander the Great . [26]

The establishment of a printing press under a royal patent from James IV in 1507 facilitated the wider dissemination of Scottish literature. [27] A landmark achievement during James IV’s reign was Gavin Douglas ’s translation of Virgil ’s Aeneid , titled the Eneados . This was the first complete translation of a major classical text into an Anglic language, completed in 1513, though its reception was overshadowed by the tragic events at Flodden . [26] Much of the Middle Scots literature was produced by the makars , poets closely associated with the royal court. This group included James I , who authored The Kingis Quair . Many of the makars possessed university educations and thus maintained connections with the Kirk . However, William Dunbar ’s Lament for the Makaris (c.1505) offers evidence of a broader tradition of secular writing, existing outside the spheres of the Court and Kirk, which is now largely lost. [28] Prior to the advent of printing in Scotland, poets such as Dunbar and Douglas, alongside Robert Henryson and Walter Kennedy , are considered to have led a golden age of Scottish poetry. While they continued medieval themes, they increasingly absorbed influences from new continental trends and the linguistic and formal innovations of the Renaissance. [26]

As a patron of the arts, James V supported poets like William Stewart and John Bellenden . Stewart produced a verse rendition of the Latin History of Scotland, compiled in 1527 by Boece, [29] while Bellenden created a prose translation of Livy’s History of Rome in 1533. [20] Sir David Lindsay of the Mount , serving as Lord Lyon , head of the Lyon Court , and a diplomat, was a prolific poet. He presented an interlude at Linlithgow Palace, believed to be a version of his play The Thrie Estaitis , in 1540. This work, the first complete surviving Scottish play, offered a scathing satire of corruption within the church and state, [29] skillfully incorporating elements of medieval morality plays within a humanist framework. [20]

During the 1580s and 1590s, James VI actively promoted the literary output of his native country. His treatise, Some Rules and Cautions to be Observed and Eschewed in Scottish Prosody , published in 1584 when he was eighteen, served as both a poetic manual and a detailed description of the poetic tradition in his mother tongue, Scots , to which he applied Renaissance principles. [30] He became the patron and a member of a loosely affiliated circle of Scottish Jacobean court poets and musicians known as the Castalian Band , which included William Fowler and Alexander Montgomerie . [31] By the late 1590s, his enthusiastic championing of the Scottish literary tradition began to wane somewhat, influenced by the prospect of inheriting the English throne. [32] Consequently, some courtier poets who followed the king to London after 1603, such as William Alexander , began to anglicise their written language. [33] James’s distinctive role as an active literary participant and patron within the Scottish court positioned him as a defining figure for English Renaissance poetry and drama, which reached its zenith during his reign. [34] However, his patronage of the high style within his own Scottish tradition gradually became marginalized. [35]

Architecture

• Main article: Architecture of Scotland

The influence of the Renaissance on Scottish architecture is discernible in two distinct phases. The initial phase, in the early fifteenth century, saw the selective incorporation of Romanesque forms into church architecture. This was followed, towards the end of the century, by a more pronounced engagement with Renaissance palace building, directly influenced by continental styles. [36] The resurgence of low-massive church construction featuring round arches and pillars, in contrast to the dominant Gothic Perpendicular style prevalent in late medieval England, may have stemmed from close ties with Rome and the Netherlands. This shift could represent a deliberate move away from English architectural trends in favor of continental models. This architectural approach is evident in the nave of Dunkeld Cathedral , commenced in 1406, the facade of St Mary’s, Haddington dating from the 1460s, and the chapel of Bishop Elphinstone’s Kings College, Aberdeen (1500–9). [36] Approximately forty collegiate churches were established in Scotland during the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries. Many of these, including Trinity College, Edinburgh , exhibited a fusion of Gothic and Renaissance stylistic elements. [37]

The sculptural decoration adorning James V’s palace at Stirling Castle

The extensive construction and renovation of royal palaces likely began under James III , gained momentum under James IV, and reached its zenith during the reign of James V. These projects are widely regarded as direct reflections of Renaissance architectural influences. Although Linlithgow was initially constructed under James I by master of work John de Waltoun, it was referred to as a palace from 1429, marking the apparent first use of this term in Scotland. Further extensions under James III transformed it into a fashionable quadrangular structure with corner towers, reminiscent of an Italian seignorial palace, or palatium ad moden castri (a castle-style palace), harmoniously blending classical symmetry with neo-chivalric imagery. The presence of Italian masons working for James IV, during whose reign Linlithgow was completed, and the reconstruction of other palaces with Italianate proportions , provide evidence of this continental influence. [38]

James V encountered the French interpretation of Renaissance architecture during his visit for his marriage to Madeleine of Valois in 1536. His subsequent marriage to Mary of Guise may have fostered more enduring connections and stylistic transmissions. [39] The architectural developments during his reign largely eschewed the insular style of Tudor architecture that characterized England under Henry VIII , instead embracing forms that were distinctly European. This shift was first evident in the significant renovations at Linlithgow. [40] These were followed by substantial rebuilding projects at Holyrood , Falkland , Stirling , and Edinburgh , [41] works that have been described as “some of the finest examples of Renaissance architecture in Britain.” [42] Rather than rigidly adhering to continental models, Scottish architecture typically integrated these new stylistic elements into established local patterns, [41] adapting them to Scottish idioms and materials, particularly stone and harl . [43] Architectural endeavors under James VI continued to exhibit Renaissance influences. The Chapel Royal at Stirling featured a classical entrance constructed in 1594, and the North Wing of Linlithgow, built in 1618, incorporated classical pediments. Similar stylistic trends are observable in the private residences of aristocrats, such as Mar’s Wark in Stirling (circa 1570) and [Crichton Castle], which was rebuilt for the Earl of Bothwell in the 1580s. [44]

Cawdor church, built in 1619 on a Greek cross plan

The introduction of new military architecture, specifically the trace italienne style, was facilitated by the presence of Italian architects and military engineers during the conflict of the [Rough Wooing] and the regency of Mary of Guise. Notable among these figures were [Migliorino Ubaldini], who worked at Edinburgh Castle, Camillo Marini, who designed forts along the borders, and Lorenzo Pomarelli, who served Mary of Guise. [45] The distinctive style of grand private houses in Scotland, later termed [Scots baronial], is believed to have originated in the 1560s. This style retained many features of the high-walled medieval castles rendered largely obsolete by gunpowder weaponry. It may have been influenced by French masons brought to Scotland to work on royal palaces. The style drew upon the established tradition of tower houses and peel towers , [46] hundreds of which had been constructed by local lords since the fourteenth century, particularly in the border regions. These structures prioritized a fortified refuge designed to withstand raids rather than prolonged sieges, abandoning the extensive defensible curtain walls of earlier castles. [47][48] Typically, these houses were three stories high, surmounted by a [parapet] projecting on [corbels], with circular [bartizans] at each corner. [49] New residences incorporated many of these external characteristics but featured a larger ground plan, often adopting a “Z-plan ” configuration—a rectangular block with integrated towers, as seen at [Colliston Castle] (1583) and [Claypotts Castle] (1569–88).

Particularly influential was the work of [William Wallace], the king’s master mason from 1617 until his death in 1631. He was involved in the reconstruction of the collapsed North Range of Linlithgow from 1618, worked on [Winton House] for George Seton, 3rd Earl of Winton, and initiated the construction of [Heriot’s Hospital], Edinburgh. Wallace developed a distinctive architectural style that integrated elements of Scottish fortification and Flemish influences within a Renaissance framework, drawing inspiration from plans like that of [Château d’Ancy-le-Franc]. This style is evident in noble residences built at [Caerlaverlock] (1620), [Moray House], Edinburgh (1628), and [Drumlanrig Castle] (1675–89). It remained highly influential until the Scots baronial style yielded to the more grandiose English forms associated with [Inigo Jones] in the latter half of the seventeenth century. [46]

From approximately 1560 onwards, the Reformation brought about a radical transformation in church architecture in Scotland. Calvinist theology rejected ornamentation in places of worship, deeming elaborate structures divided by ritual unnecessary. This led to the widespread destruction of medieval church furnishings, ornaments, and decorations. [50] Consequently, there arose a need to adapt existing structures and construct new churches suitable for reformed services, which placed a greater emphasis on preaching and the pulpit. Many of the earliest post-Reformation buildings were simple gabled rectangles, a design that persisted into the seventeenth century, as seen in structures at [Dunnottar Castle] (1580s), [Greenock] (1591), and [Durness] (1619). The church of [Greyfriars, Edinburgh], constructed between 1602 and 1620, employed this layout with predominantly Gothic features, while the church at [Dirleton] (1612) exhibited a more refined classical style. A notable variation of the rectangular church that emerged in post-Reformation Scotland was the T-shaped plan. This design was often adopted when adapting existing churches, as it maximized the number of parishioners who could be positioned within earshot of the pulpit. Examples of this plan can be found at [Kemback] in Fife (1582) and [Prestonpans] after 1595. The “T” plan continued to be utilized into the seventeenth century, with examples at [Weem] (1600), [Anstruther Easter], Fife (1634–44), and [New Cumnock] (1657). In the seventeenth century, a Greek cross plan was employed for churches such as [Cawdor] (1619) and [Fenwick], East Ayrshire (1643). In many of these instances, one arm of the cross was enclosed to serve as a laird’s aisle, effectively rendering them T-plan churches. [51]

Art

• Main article: Scottish art

Our understanding of native Scottish artists during the Middle Ages remains limited. Similar to England, it is plausible that the monarchy possessed model portraits of royalty used for replication, but surviving examples of native royal portraits from the late Middle Ages are generally considered crude when compared to continental standards. [52] The works of imported artists, particularly from the Netherlands—widely regarded as the epicenter of painting in the Northern Renaissance—are far more impressive. [52] These international connections yielded significant artistic outputs, including a distinguished portrait of [William Elphinstone]; [53] the evocative images of St Catherine and St John brought to [Dunkeld]; [Hugo van Der Goes]’s altarpiece for the [Trinity College Church in Edinburgh], commissioned by James III; and the works attributed to the Flemish artist known as the [Master of James IV of Scotland]. [52] Additionally, a considerable number of elaborate devotional books from the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries, typically produced in the Low Countries and France for Scottish patrons, have survived. These include the prayer book commissioned by [Robert Blackadder], [Bishop of Glasgow], between 1484 and 1492 [53] and the Flemish illustrated [book of hours], known as the [Hours of James IV of Scotland]. This latter work, presented by James IV to [Margaret Tudor], is described as “perhaps the finest medieval manuscript to have been commissioned for Scottish use.” [54]

The seventeenth-century painted ceiling at [Aberdour Castle], Fife

Surviving examples of stone and wood carvings, wall paintings, and [Scottish Royal tapestries] offer insights into the richness of sixteenth-century royal art. At Stirling Castle, stone carvings on the royal palace, dating from the reign of James V, are derived from German patterns. [55] These, along with the surviving carved oak portrait [roundels] known as the Stirling Heads, originating from the King’s Presence Chamber, feature contemporary, biblical, and classical figures. [56] Some decorative wood carvings were executed by French craftsmen, such as [Andrew Mansioun], who established residence in Scotland. [57] The ecclesiastical art of Scotland suffered greatly due to Reformation [iconoclasm], resulting in the near-total loss of medieval stained glass, religious sculpture, and paintings. This concurrent loss of patronage presented a crisis for native craftsmen and artists, prompting a shift towards secular patrons. One consequence of this was the flourishing of [Scottish Renaissance painted ceilings] and walls. A substantial number of private residences belonging to burgesses, lairds, and lords were adorned with intricate and colorful patterns and scenes. Over a hundred examples are known to have existed, with surviving paintings including the ceiling at [Prestongrange], created in 1581 for Mark Kerr, Commendator of Newbattle, and the long gallery at [Pinkie House], painted for [Alexander Seaton], Earl of Dunfermline, in 1621. These works were produced by unnamed Scottish artists who utilized continental [pattern books], often incorporating humanist moral and philosophical symbolism, alongside elements drawn from heraldry, piety, classical myths, and allegory. [58]

In 1502, Henry VII dispatched his Flemish portrait painter, Maynard Wewyck , to the court of James IV and Margaret Tudor. [59] Later in the sixteenth century, anonymous artists created portraits of prominent individuals, including the [Earl of Bothwell] and his first wife [Jean Gordon] (1566), and [George, 7th Lord Seton] (c. 1575). [60] The tradition of royal portraiture in Scotland was likely disrupted by periods of minority rule and regencies between 1513 and 1579. [61] James VI employed two Flemish artists, [Arnold Bronckorst] (floruit in Scotland, 1580–1583) and [Adrian Vanson] (fl. 1581–1602), who have provided a visual record of the king and significant figures at the court. Anna of Denmark brought with her a jeweller, [Jacob Kroger] (d. 1594), from [Lüneburg], a renowned center for goldsmithing. [62] The emergence of [George Jamesone] of Aberdeen (1589/90–1644) marked the appearance of the first significant native artist. Jamesone went on to become one of the most successful portrait painters during the reign of [Charles I] and trained the Baroque artist [John Michael Wright] (1617–94). [58]

Music

• Main article: Music in early modern Scotland

• See also: Early music of the British Isles

The interior of the [Chapel Royal, Stirling Castle], a significant center for liturgical music

The captivity of James I in England from 1406 to 1423, during which he gained renown as a poet and composer, likely inspired him to introduce English and continental musical styles and musicians to the Scottish court upon his release. [63] In the late fifteenth century, a cohort of Scottish musicians received their training in the Netherlands, which was then the leading center for musical production in Western Europe, before returning to their homeland. Among them were John Broune, Thomas Inglis, and John Fety. Fety subsequently became master of the song school in Aberdeen and then Edinburgh, introducing the innovative five-fingered organ playing technique. [64] In 1501, James IV re-established the Chapel Royal within Stirling Castle, augmenting its choir and transforming it into the focal point of Scottish liturgical music. Burgundian and English influences were likely further reinforced by the marriage of Henry VII’s daughter, Margaret Tudor, to James IV in 1503. [65] The most distinguished Scottish composer of the first half of the sixteenth century was [Robert Carver] (c. 1488–1558), a canon of [Scone Abbey]. Five of his masses and two votive antiphons have survived in his choirbook. One of the masses is notable as the sole surviving example in Britain of the continental practice of using a [cantus firmus]. The antiphon “Oh Bone Jesu” was scored for 19 voices, possibly to commemorate the 19th year of James V’s reign. His complex polyphonic compositions could only have been rendered by a large and highly skilled choir, such as the one maintained at the Chapel Royal. James V was also a patron to figures such as [David Peebles] (c. 1510–79?), whose most renowned work, “Si quis diligit me” (text from John 14:23), is a four-voice [motet]. These composers were likely among many accomplished musicians of their era, though much of their work survives only in fragmented form. [66]

During this period, Scotland mirrored the trend among Renaissance courts for instrumental accompaniment and performance. Historical records indicate the presence of lutenists at court from the reign of James III, and also within the households of prominent lords and clergymen. Musical instruments are also depicted in the art of the era; a ceiling at [Crathes Castle] illustrates muses with a lute, [bass viol], fiddle, harp, [cittern], flute, and [clavicord], akin to the [mixed consort] found in England during the same period. [67] Music also became an essential accomplishment for the Renaissance courtier and royalty alike. [68] James IV entertained his bride, Margaret Tudor, during their wedding celebrations by playing “the clarychords and lute,” and Margaret herself had received lute instruction in her youth. James V, in addition to being a significant patron of sacred music, was a skilled lute player and introduced French [chansons] and [consorts of viols] to his court, though regrettably, almost none of this secular chamber music has survived. [69]

The playing of instruments, including the [lute], became a fundamental accomplishment expected of a Renaissance courtier.

The Reformation profoundly impacted church music. The song schools associated with abbeys, cathedrals, and collegiate churches were dissolved, choirs were disbanded, music books and manuscripts were destroyed, and organs were removed from churches. [58] The [Lutheranism] that influenced the early Scottish Reformation sought to integrate Catholic musical traditions into worship, drawing upon Latin hymns and vernacular songs. The most significant output of this tradition in Scotland was The Gude and Godlie Ballatis, a collection of spiritual satires based on popular ballads, composed by the brothers [James], [John], and [Robert Wedderburn]. Although never officially adopted by the kirk, these ballads remained popular and were reprinted from the 1540s to the 1620s. Later, the Calvinism that came to dominate the Scottish Reformation adopted a far more adversarial stance towards Catholic musical tradition and popular music, emphasizing biblical content, which primarily meant the [Psalms]. The [Scottish psalter] of 1564 was commissioned by the [Assembly of the Church]. It drew upon the work of the French musician [Clément Marot], Calvin’s contributions to the Strasbourg [psalter] of 1529, and the efforts of English writers, particularly the 1561 edition of the psalter produced by [William Whittingham] for the [English congregation in Geneva]. The initial aim was to provide unique tunes for each psalm; however, of the 150 psalms, only 105 received proper tunes. By the seventeenth century, common tunes, applicable to psalms of the same meter, became more prevalent. The necessity for simplicity to accommodate entire congregations singing these psalms—a departure from the trained choirs who had performed the complex harmonies of polyphonic hymns—[70] mandated a move towards simpler arrangements, with most church compositions confined to homophonic settings. [71] While evidence suggests that [polyphony] persisted and was incorporated into psalter editions from 1625, it typically involved the congregation singing the melody while trained singers performed the contra-tenor, treble, and bass parts. [70]

The return of James V’s daughter, Mary, from France in 1561 to commence her personal reign, and her adherence to Catholicism, provided a temporary revival for the choir of the Scottish Chapel Royal. However, the destruction of Scottish church organs meant that instrumental accompaniment for the mass had to be provided by ensembles featuring trumpets, drums, fifes, bagpipes, and tabors. [72] Like her father, Mary played the lute and [virginals], and unlike him, she was also a gifted singer. [72] She introduced French musical influences to her court, employing lutenists and [viol] players in her household, including the English [Hudson brothers]. [73]

James VI was a significant patron of the arts in general. He enacted legislation to reform and promote music education, [74] attempting to revive burgh song schools from 1579. [58] He commissioned the reconstruction of the Chapel Royal at Stirling in 1594 to accommodate the [state occasions of the baptism] of his son Henry. [75] He continued the tradition of employing lutenists for his personal entertainment, as did other members of his family. [76] His relocation to England in 1603 to assume the [throne of England] as James I represented the removal of a primary source of patronage in Scotland. The Scottish Chapel Royal, subsequently falling into disrepair, was thereafter used only for occasional state visits, leaving the court in Westminster as the sole major center for royal musical patronage. [75]

Decline and influence

Francis Hutcheson (1694–1746), a key figure in the Scottish Enlightenment , was a product of the Scottish university system and humanist tradition that originated in the Renaissance.

The Renaissance in Scotland is generally considered to have reached its zenith in the first half of the sixteenth century, spanning the reigns of James IV and the deposition of [Mary, Queen of Scots]. The forfeiture of the church as a source of patronage in the 1560s and the court’s relocation in 1603 significantly altered and constrained the further evolution of Renaissance ideas. Concurrently, civic humanism began to yield to a focus on private devotion and withdrawal from the world, influenced by [Stoicism]. In the realms of art and architecture, Renaissance principles of proportion gradually gave way to the stylistic complexities of [Mannerism] and the more exaggerated forms of the [Baroque] from around 1620 onwards. [77]

The enduring legacy of the Renaissance is evident in the transformation of the Scottish ruling elite, who evolved from a primarily warrior class to one embracing more refined moral and intellectual values. [78] The humanist emphasis on the importance of learning laid the groundwork for the esteemed Scottish school and university systems. [79] Specifically, the [1496 Education Act] is recognized as establishing a precedent for a public education system, a concept subsequently adopted by the reformers in 1560 and which informed later legislative efforts and expansion. [80] The establishment of the Scottish universities, particularly with the humanist reforms championed by Melville, enabled Scotland to participate actively in the “educational revolution” of the early modern period and proved vital to the subsequent development of the [Enlightenment in Scotland]. [81] These circumstances, according to David McCrone, have rendered education “vital to the sense of Scottishness.” [82]

The Renaissance left an indelible mark across various intellectual domains, including poetry, historical writing, and architecture, with its influence extending well into the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. [83] A growing number of Scottish scholars emerged, possessing an increasing confidence in their own literary traditions. [84] The remarkable flourishing of the [Scottish Enlightenment] can be partly attributed to Scotland’s pre-existing history of accomplishments in philosophy, poetry, music, mathematics, and architecture, coupled with its close engagement with intellectual currents across Europe. [85] From this era onward, Scotland would make substantial contributions in the fields of medicine, law, philosophy, geology, and history. [81] Among the enduring intellectual legacies, the concept of limited royal sovereignty over the populace remained a significant element in Scottish intellectual discourse, resurfacing to inform the major debates of the eighteenth century. [86]