Beijing

Right. You want me to take this rather… verbose article about Beijing and… elaborate. As if it weren't already burdened enough. Fine. Just don't expect me to find any particular joy in it.

Capital city of China

"Peking" redirects here. For other uses, see Beijing (disambiguation) and Peking (disambiguation).

• "Beijinger" redirects here. For a website, see The Beijinger.

Capital and municipality in People's Republic of China

Beijing

Capital [1] and municipality Beijing Municipality [2]

The [Beijing central business district](/Beijing_central_business_district) with the [China Zun](/China_Zun) at its heart. A testament to ambition, perhaps, or just a very tall building.

The [Forbidden City](/Forbidden_City). Once the center of an empire, now a rather large museum. Still imposing, I suppose.

The [Temple of Heaven](/Temple_of_Heaven). Where emperors went to… converse with the sky. One assumes the acoustics were adequate.

A section of the [Great Wall of Badaling](/Badaling). A rather ambitious defensive structure. More impressive in its sheer scale than its actual effectiveness, historically speaking.

[Tiananmen](/Tiananmen). A grand stage for grand pronouncements. And the occasional inconvenient gathering.

The [Beijing National Stadium](/Beijing_National_Stadium), affectionately (or perhaps ironically) known as the "Bird's Nest." A rather intricate cage for athletic pursuits.

Location of Beijing Municipality within China.

Interactive map of Beijing.

Beijing

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Beijing

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Coordinates: 39°54′24″N 116°23′51″E39.90667°N 116.39750°E (Coordinates: 39°54′24″N 116°23′51″E39.90667°N 116.39750°E)

• Tian'anmen Square national flag

• People's Republic of China • Established 1045 BC • Founded by Zhou dynasty (Western Zhou) • Municipal seat Tongzhou District • Divisions •  - County-level •  - Township-level 16 districts 343 towns and subdistricts • Government •  • Type Municipality •  • Body Beijing Municipal People's Congress •  • Party Secretary Yin Li •  • Congress Chairman Li Xiuling •  • Mayor Yin Yong •  • Municipal CPPCC Chairman Wei Xiaodong •  • National People's Congress Representation 53 deputies • Area [3] • Municipality 16,410.54 km 2 (6,336.14 sq mi) • Land 16,410.54 km 2 (6,336.14 sq mi) • Urban 16,410.54 km 2 (6,336.14 sq mi) • Metro 12,796.5 km 2 (4,940.8 sq mi) • Elevation 43.5 m (143 ft) Highest elevation (Mount Ling) 2,303 m (7,556 ft) • Population  (2020 census) [4] • Municipality 21,893,095 • Density 1,334.087/km 2 (3,455.271/sq mi) • Urban 21,893,095 • Urban density 1,334.087/km 2 (3,455.271/sq mi) • Metro 22,366,547 • Metro density 1,747.86/km 2 (4,526.95/sq mi) • Population ranking 2nd in China 27th as an administrative division Density: 4th • Major ethnic groups •  • Han Chinese 95% • GDP (2024) [5] • Municipality CN¥ 4,984 billion (13th) [US$](/US_dollar) 700 billion • Per capita CN¥ 227,652 ([1st](/List_of_Chinese_provincial-level_divisions_by_GDP_per_capita)) US$ 32,038 • Time zone UTC+08:00 (CST) • Postal codes 1000 00– 1026 29 • Area code 10 • ISO 3166 code CN-BJ • Growth [ clarification needed ] 0.7% • License plate prefixes 京A, C, E, F, G, H, J, K, L, M, N, P, Q 京B (taxis) 京G, Y (outside urban area) 京O, D (police and authorities) • Abbreviation • BJ / 京 ( jīng ) • HDI (2022) 0.905 [6] (1st) – very high • Website beijing.gov.cn english.beijing.gov.cn • Symbols Flower China rose ( Rosa chinensis ) Chrysanthemum ( Chrysanthemum morifolium ) Tree Chinese arborvitae ( Platycladus orientalis ) Pagoda tree ( Styphnolobium japonicum )

• Beijing • Chinese 北京 • Hanyu Pinyin Běijīng • Postal Peking [note 1] • Peiping (1368–1403; 1928–1937; 1945–1949) • Literal meaning "Northern Capital" • Transcriptions • Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Běijīng • Bopomofo ㄅㄟˇ ㄐㄧㄥ • Gwoyeu Romatzyh Beeijing • Wade–Giles Pei 3 -ching 1 • Tongyong Pinyin Běijing • IPA [pèɪ.tɕíŋ] ⓘ • Wu Suzhounese Poh-cin • Hakka Romanization Bet 5 -gin 1 • Yue: Cantonese Yale Romanization Bākgīng • Jyutping bak1 ging1 • IPA [pɐk̚˥ kɪŋ˥] • Southern Min Hokkien POJ Pak-kiaⁿ • Tâi-lô Pak-kiann • Eastern Min Fuzhou BUC Báe̤k-gĭng

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Beijing, [a] previously romanized as Peking, [b] is the capital city of China. With a population exceeding 22 million, [11] it holds the distinction of being the world's most populous national capital city. It's also China's second largest city by urban area, trailing only Shanghai. Situated in Northern China, Beijing functions as a municipality directly administered by the State Council, encompassing 16 districts that range from urban centers to suburban and rural expanses. Geographically, it's largely encircled by Hebei Province, with Tianjin bordering it to the southeast. Together, these three administrative divisions form the significant Jing-Jin-Ji cluster. 

Beijing stands as a global city, recognized as one of the world's foremost centers for culture, diplomacy, politics, finance, business and economics, education, research, language, tourism, media, sports, science and technology, transportation, and art. It hosts the headquarters for the majority of China's largest state-owned companies and boasts the highest number of Fortune Global 500 companies worldwide, alongside the four largest financial institutions globally based on total assets. Furthermore, it's a crucial nexus for the national highway, expressway, railway, and high-speed rail networks. For a decade preceding the COVID-19 pandemic, Beijing Capital International Airport held the title of Asia's busiest airport (2009–2019) and the second busiest in the world (2010–2019). In 2020, the Beijing subway ranked as the fourth busiest and second longest metro system globally. The newer Beijing Daxing International Airport, Beijing's second international gateway, features the world's largest single-structure airport terminal. [18] [19] The city has been the venue for numerous significant international and national sporting events, most notably the 2008 Summer Olympics and the 2008 Summer Paralympics. In 2022, Beijing achieved a unique milestone by becoming the first city ever to host both the Summer and Winter Olympics, and subsequently, both the Summer and Winter Paralympics. [20] [21]

Beijing's architectural landscape is a fascinating blend of traditional Chinese design and contemporary styles. While one part of the city showcases its modernization and renovation, the other half still preserves its traditional hutong districts, offering a glimpse into the past. [22] As one of the world's most ancient continuously inhabited cities, with a recorded history stretching back over three millennia, Beijing has served as the political heart of China for the better part of the last eight centuries. [23] It was also the largest city in the world by population for much of the second millennium AD. [24] Strategically positioned with mountains framing its inland location on three sides, and bolstered by its ancient city fortifications, Beijing was developed to serve as the imperial residence. The city is celebrated for its opulent palaces, temples, parks, gardens, tombs, and walls and gates. [25] Beijing is widely considered a premier global tourist destination, ranking second in tourist earnings worldwide in 2018, just behind Shanghai. [26] It is home to numerous national monuments and museums and boasts eight UNESCO World Heritage Sites: the Forbidden City, the Temple of Heaven, the Summer Palace, the Ming Tombs, the Zhoukoudian Peking Man Site, the Beijing Central Axis, and significant portions of the Great Wall and the Grand Canal. These sites are major draws for tourists. [27] The city's traditional housing style, the Siheyuans, and the narrow alleys connecting them, the hutongs, are also popular attractions, particularly in the urban core.

Beijing's public universities represent over a fifth of the Double First-Class Construction universities in China. Many of these institutions consistently rank among the top universities in the Asia-Pacific and globally, including Tsinghua University, Peking University, and UCAS. [28] [29] [30] The Beijing CBD is a hub for the city's economic growth, marked by the ongoing construction of numerous skyscrapers. The Zhongguancun area is a globally recognized center for scientific and technological innovation and entrepreneurship. Consistently since its inception in 2016, Beijing has led the world in scientific research output, according to the Nature Index. [34] [35] Beijing hosts 176 foreign embassies and serves as the headquarters for numerous organizations, including the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB), the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO), the Silk Road Fund, the Chinese Academy of Sciences, the Chinese Academy of Engineering, the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, the Central Academy of Fine Arts, the Central Academy of Drama, the Central Conservatory of Music, and the Red Cross Society of China.

Etymology

• Main article: Names of Beijing

Over its 3,000-year history, the city now known as Beijing has borne many names. The current name, Beijing, meaning "Northern Capital" (derived from the Chinese characters 北 běi for north and 京 jīng for capital), was adopted in 1403 during the Ming dynasty. This designation was intended to distinguish it from Nanjing, the "Southern Capital." [36] The English spelling "Beijing" reflects the government's official romanization system, implemented in the 1980s, based on the pronunciation of the characters in Standard Mandarin. An earlier English rendition, "Peking," was popularized by the Jesuit missionary Martino Martini in a widely circulated atlas published in Amsterdam in 1655. [37] While "Peking" is no longer the standard name, remnants of this older romanization persist in some of the city's established locations and institutions, such as Beijing Capital International Airport (with the IATA code PEK) and Peking University, [39] [40] which retain the historical spelling.

The single Chinese character abbreviation for Beijing is 京, commonly seen on vehicle license plates. The official Latin alphabet abbreviation designated by the Standardization Administration of China is "BJ". [41]

History

• Main article: History of Beijing

Early history

The earliest evidence of human habitation within the Beijing municipality was discovered in the caves of Dragon Bone Hill, near the village of Zhoukoudian in Fangshan District. These caves were home to Peking Man, an early hominin species whose fossils date back 230,000 to 250,000 years. Later, Paleolithic Homo sapiens also inhabited the area, approximately 27,000 years ago. Archaeological findings reveal numerous Neolithic settlements scattered throughout the municipality, including one in the present-day central district of Wangfujing.

The very first walled city in what is now Beijing was Jicheng, established in 1045 BC as the capital of the state of Ji. Within the boundaries of modern Beijing, Jicheng was situated near the area of Guang'anmen in the southern part of Xicheng District. [43] Subsequently, this settlement was conquered by the state of Yan and designated as its capital. [44]

Early Imperial China

The [Tianning Pagoda](/Pagoda_of_Tianning_Temple_(Beijing)), dating from the [Liao dynasty](/Liao_dynasty) around 1120.

Following the unification of China by the First Emperor in 221 BC, Jicheng transitioned into a prefectural capital. [45] During the Three Kingdoms period, it changed hands between Gongsun Zan and Yuan Shao before ultimately being captured by Cao Cao. In the AD 3rd century, during the Western Jin, the town's status was reduced, with the prefectural seat relocated to the neighboring Zhuozhou. The Sixteen Kingdoms period, characterized by the conquest and division of northern China by the Wu Hu, saw Jicheng briefly serve as the capital of the Xianbei Former Yan Kingdom. [46]

After China was reunified by the Sui dynasty in 581, Jicheng, also known as Zhuojun, became the northern terminus of the vital Grand Canal. Under the Tang dynasty, Jicheng, referred to as Youzhou, functioned as a key military frontier command center. During the An-Shi Rebellion and again amidst the political instability of the late Tang period, local military leaders established their own ephemeral Yan dynasties, renaming the city Yanjing, meaning "Yan Capital." It was during the Tang dynasty that the name Jicheng was superseded by Youzhou or Yanjing. In 938, following the collapse of the Later Tang dynasty, the Later Jin ceded the strategic frontier territory including what is now Beijing to the Khitan Liao dynasty. The Liao considered the city their Nanjing, or "Southern Capital," one of four secondary capitals complementing their "Supreme Capital," Shangjing, located in present-day Baarin Left Banner in Inner Mongolia. Some of the oldest extant pagodas in Beijing, including the Tianning Pagoda, date from this Liao period.

The Liao dynasty eventually fell to the Jurchen Jin dynasty in 1122. The Jin initially ceded the city to the Song dynasty before retaking it in 1125 during their conquest of northern China. In 1153, the Jurchen Jin officially designated Beijing as their "Central Capital," or Zhongdu. [45] The city faced a devastating siege by Genghis Khan's invading Mongolian army in 1213, and was subsequently razed to the ground two years later. [47] Approximately two generations later, Kublai Khan initiated the construction of Dadu (also known as Daidu to the Mongols, and more commonly as Khanbaliq) to the northeast of the Zhongdu ruins, serving as the new capital for his Yuan dynasty. Construction spanned from 1264 to 1293, [45] [47] [48] significantly elevating the importance of this city on the northern periphery of China proper. The city's layout was centered around the Drum Tower, slightly north of modern Beijing, and extended from the present-day Chang'an Avenue northward to what is now Line 10 of the Beijing Subway. Remnants of the Yuan Dynasty's rammed earth wall, known as the Tucheng, still stand today. [49]

Ming dynasty

A corner tower of the [Forbidden City](/Forbidden_City), a creation of the [Yongle Emperor](/Yongle_Emperor) during the early [Ming dynasty](/Ming_dynasty).

Overlapping city layouts of Beijing across different dynasties.

In 1368, shortly after the proclamation of the new Hongwu era of the Ming dynasty, the rebel leader Zhu Yuanzhang captured Dadu/Khanbaliq and ordered the Yuan palaces to be demolished. [50] As the Yuan maintained control over Shangdu and Mongolia, Dadu was repurposed to supply Ming military garrisons in the vicinity and renamed Beiping, meaning "Northern Peace" in Wade–Giles transliteration. [51] Under the Hongwu Emperor's feudal distribution of power, Beiping was granted to his son, Zhu Di, who was invested with the title "Prince of Yan".

The premature death of Zhu Yuanzhang's designated heir precipitated a succession struggle upon the emperor's demise. This conflict concluded with the victory of Zhu Di and his ascension, marked by the declaration of the new Yongle era. Given his unfavorable treatment of the Ming capital, Yingtian (modern Nanjing), which had alienated many of its inhabitants, Zhu Di opted to establish his new capital in his former fiefdom. In 1403, the city of Beiping was officially renamed Beijing, signifying "Northern Capital," or Shuntian. [36] The construction of the magnificent new imperial residence, the Forbidden City, commenced in 1406 and was completed in 1420. [47] This era also saw the development of several other key landmarks that define the modern city, including the Temple of Heaven [53] and Tian'anmen. On October 28, 1420, the same year the Forbidden City was finished, the city was formally declared the capital of the Ming dynasty. [54] Beijing became the empire's primary capital, with Yingtian, also known as Nanjing ("Southern Capital"), serving as a co-capital. (A decree issued in 1425 by Zhu Di's son, the Hongxi Emperor, to reinstate Nanjing as the primary capital was never enacted; he died, likely from a heart attack, the following month. He was interred, like most subsequent Ming emperors, in an elaborate necropolis situated to the north of Beijing.)

By the 15th century, Beijing had largely assumed its present-day configuration. The formidable Ming city wall remained standing until modern times, when it was dismantled to make way for the construction of the 2nd Ring Road. [55] It is widely accepted that Beijing held the distinction of being the world's largest city for the majority of the 15th, 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries. [56] The first documented church was established by Catholics in 1652 at the former site of Matteo Ricci's chapel; the present-day Nantang Cathedral was later erected on the same location. [57]

The city's Ming era concluded with its capture by Li Zicheng's peasant army in 1644, which dissolved the dynasty. However, Li Zicheng and his Shun court abandoned the city without resistance when the Manchu forces led by Prince Dorgon arrived just 40 days later.

Qing dynasty

The [Summer Palace](/Summer_Palace), a notable example of the palatial gardens constructed by Qing emperors in the northwestern suburbs.

Dorgon subsequently established the Qing dynasty, positioning it as the direct successor to the Ming (thereby delegitimizing Li Zicheng and his followers) [58] and reinstating Beijing as China's sole capital. [59] While the Qing emperors implemented some modifications to the Imperial residence, the fundamental Ming architectural structures and the city's overall layout largely remained intact. Facilities for Manchu religious practices were incorporated, yet the Qing also preserved traditional state rituals. Signage was often presented in both Chinese and Manchu, or solely in Chinese. This early Qing Beijing served as the backdrop for the renowned Chinese novel Dream of the Red Chamber. To the northwest of the city, Qing emperors commissioned the construction of several expansive palatial gardens, including the Old Summer Palace and the Summer Palace.

During the Second Opium War, Anglo-French forces occupied the city's outskirts, engaging in looting and the destruction of the Old Summer Palace in 1860. The Convention of Peking [c] concluded this conflict and, for the first time, granted Western powers the right to establish permanent diplomatic presences within the city. From August 14 to 15, 1900, the Battle of Peking took place, an event that was part of the broader Boxer Rebellion. The subsequent attempt by the Boxers to expel foreign diplomatic missions and persecute Chinese Christians led to the reoccupation of Beijing by eight foreign powers. [62] During this period of conflict, several significant structures were destroyed, including the esteemed Hanlin Academy and the (new) Summer Palace. A peace agreement was finalized on September 7, 1901, between the Eight-Nation Alliance and representatives of the Chinese government, Li Hongzhang and Yikuang. The treaty stipulated a substantial indemnity of US$335 million (equivalent to over US$4 billion in contemporary currency), payable with interest over 39 years. Furthermore, it mandated the execution or exile of government officials who supported the Boxers and the demolition of Chinese fortifications and defensive structures throughout much of northern China. Ten days after the treaty's signing, the foreign armies withdrew from Beijing, although their legation guards remained stationed in the city until the outbreak of World War II. [63]

Following the treaty's ratification, Empress Dowager Cixi returned to Beijing from her "inspection tour" on January 7, 1902. Although the Qing dynasty's rule over China was restored, it was significantly weakened by the repercussions of the Boxer Rebellion, the imposed indemnity, and the treaty's stringent conditions. [64] The Dowager passed away in 1908, and the dynasty ultimately collapsed in 1911.

Republic of China

A prominent portrait of [Chiang Kai-shek](/Chiang_Kai-shek) adorned [Tiananmen](/Tiananmen) following [World War II](/World_War_II).

The architects of the Xinhai Revolution in 1911 aimed to supplant Qing rule with a republican system. Initially, leaders such as Sun Yat-sen intended to re-establish the capital in Nanjing. However, after the Qing general Yuan Shikai successfully compelled the abdication of the last Qing emperor and secured the revolution's success, the revolutionaries appointed him as the president of the newly formed Republic of China. Yuan maintained his capital in Beijing and swiftly consolidated his authority, even declaring himself emperor in 1915. His death less than a year later [65] resulted in China's fragmentation under the control of regional warlords. Following the successful Northern Expedition conducted by the Kuomintang, the capital was officially relocated to Nanjing in 1928. On June 28 of that same year, Beijing's name was reverted to Beiping, rendered at the time as "Peiping". [66] [67]

On July 7, 1937, a confrontation erupted between the 29th Army and the Japanese forces in China at the Marco Polo Bridge, situated near the Wanping Fortress southwest of the city. This event, known as the Marco Polo Bridge Incident, ignited the Second Sino-Japanese War, which is recognized in China as World War II. During the course of the war, [66] Beijing fell under Japanese control on July 29, 1937, [68] and became the seat of the Provisional Government of the Republic of China, a puppet state that governed the ethnic Chinese territories occupied by Japan in northern China. [69] This provisional government was later absorbed into the larger Wang Jingwei regime based in Nanjing. [70]

People's Republic of China

[Tiananmen](/Tiananmen) under the People's Republic of China.

In the concluding stages of the Chinese Civil War, the People's Liberation Army peacefully secured control of the city on January 31, 1949, as part of the Pingjin Campaign. On October 1 of that year, Mao Zedong formally announced the establishment of the People's Republic of China from atop Tiananmen. He reinstated the city's name to Beijing, designating it as the new capital. [71] This decision had been reached by the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference just a few days prior.

During the 1950s, the city began to expand beyond its historical walled core and surrounding neighborhoods. This expansion included the development of heavy industries in the west and the construction of residential areas in the north. Significant portions of the Beijing city wall were demolished in the 1960s to facilitate the construction of the Beijing Subway and the 2nd Ring Road.

The Cultural Revolution, spanning from 1966 to 1976, saw the genesis of the Red Guard movement in Beijing, and the city's government became an early target of purges. By the autumn of 1966, all city schools were closed, and over a million Red Guards converged on Beijing for eight major rallies held in Tiananmen Square with Mao. [72] In April 1976, a large public assembly of Beijing residents gathered in Tiananmen Square to protest against the Gang of Four and the Cultural Revolution. This demonstration was forcefully suppressed. In October 1976, the Gang was apprehended in [Zhongnanhai], marking the end of the Cultural Revolution. Subsequently, in December 1978, the Third Plenum of the 11th Party Congress convened in Beijing under the leadership of Deng Xiaoping. This plenum reversed the verdicts against victims of the Cultural Revolution and initiated the transformative "policy of reform and opening up".

Since the early 1980s, Beijing's urban footprint has expanded dramatically, marked by the completion of the 2nd Ring Road in 1981 and the subsequent addition of the 3rd, 4th, 5th, and 6th ring roads. [73] [74] A 2005 newspaper report indicated that the newly developed Beijing was one-and-a-half times its previous size. [75] Wangfujing and Xidan have evolved into bustling commercial districts, [76] while Zhongguancun has emerged as a major hub for electronics in China. [77] In recent years, this urban expansion has also brought to the forefront critical issues of urbanization, including traffic congestion, poor air quality, the loss of historic neighborhoods, and a substantial influx of migrant workers from less developed rural areas of the country. [78] The city has also been the site of numerous pivotal events in recent Chinese history, most notably the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989. [79] Beijing has hosted major international sporting events, such as the 2008 Summer Olympics, the 2015 World Athletics Championships, and the 2022 Winter Olympics, solidifying its status as the only city to have hosted both the Winter and Summer Olympic Games. [80]

In terms of global connectivity, as of 2024, Beijing was categorized as an "Alpha+" city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network, placing it among the world's leading global cities.

Geography

• Main article: Geography of Beijing

Beijing is strategically situated at the northern edge of the expansive, roughly triangular North China Plain, which opens towards the south and east. The city and the agricultural heartland of northern China are protected from the encroaching desert steppes by mountains to the north, northwest, and west. The northwestern sector of the municipality, particularly the districts of Yanqing District and Huairou District, is dominated by the Jundu Mountains, while the western region is defined by Xishan, commonly known as the Western Hills. The iconic Great Wall of China, traversing the northern expanse of Beijing Municipality, was ingeniously constructed along the rugged topography to serve as a defense against nomadic incursions from the steppes.  Mount Dongling, located within the Western Hills and straddling the border with Hebei, represents the highest point within the municipality, reaching an elevation of 2,303 meters (7,556 feet).

Several major rivers, including the Chaobai, Yongding, and Juma, flow through the municipality, all forming tributaries within the Hai River system and proceeding in a southeasterly direction. The Miyun Reservoir, situated on the upper reaches of the Chaobai River, stands as the largest reservoir within the municipality's boundaries. Beijing also marks the northern terminus of the historic Grand Canal, which extends to Hangzhou and was engineered over 1,400 years ago as a critical transportation artery. Additionally, the city is a key point in the South–North Water Transfer Project, a modern engineering feat designed to channel water from the Yangtze River basin.

The urban core of Beijing, located on the plains in the south-central part of the municipality at an elevation of 40 to 60 meters (130–200 feet), occupies a relatively small but expanding portion of the municipality's total area. The city's layout is characterized by its concentric organization around several ring roads. The Second Ring Road precisely follows the path of the former old city walls, while the Sixth Ring Road connects various satellite towns situated in the surrounding suburban areas. At the very heart of Beijing lies Tian'anmen and its expansive Tian'anmen Square, directly south of the imperial Forbidden City. To the west of Tian'anmen is Zhongnanhai, the current seat of China's leadership.  Chang'an Avenue, which bisects Tiananmen and the Square, serves as the city's primary east–west axis.

Beijing's pattern of urban development, radiating outwards from the historic inner city to its periphery, is often described with the idiom "spreading like a pancake" ( tan da bing ). [82] : 135  This characteristic urban sprawl is frequently cited as a contributing factor to the city's persistent urban challenges. [82] : 135 

Climate

Average monthly temperatures and precipitation in Beijing.

Beijing experiences a monsoon-influenced humid continental climate (Köppen: Dwa ), with transitional zones bordering on a cold semi-arid climate (Köppen: BSk ) in its southern and northwestern regions. The climate is characterized by hot, humid summers, driven by the East Asian monsoon, and brief, cold, dry winters, influenced by the vast Siberian anticyclone. [83] Spring often brings sandstorms originating from the Gobi Desert, sweeping across the Mongolian steppe, accompanied by rapid warming but generally dry conditions. Autumn, mirroring spring, is a transitional period with minimal rainfall. From 2001 to 2024, the warmest periods in Beijing typically occur in early August, while the coldest are observed in late January. According to China's standard seasonal divisions, Beijing transitions into spring on March 26, summer on May 20, autumn on September 13, and winter on October 31. In recent years, due to accelerated warming in March and September and slower warming in May and October, Beijing's autumn season tends to be shorter than its spring. The average annual temperature in Beijing's urban area hovers between 12.9 °C (55.2 °F) and 13.3 °C (55.9 °F). The average daily minimum temperature ranges from 7.7 °C (45.9 °F) to 8.4 °C (47.1 °F), and the average daily maximum temperature falls between 18.5 °C (65.3 °F) and 18.9 °C (66.0 °F). The monthly average daily temperature in January is −2.7 °C (27.1 °F), contrasting with July's average of 27.2 °C (81.0 °F). Annual precipitation averages approximately 528.0 mm (20.79 inches) (with Haidian and Chaoyang districts recording an average of 584.2 mm (23.00 inches)), with nearly three-quarters of this total falling between June and August. The city experiences around 2,490.5 hours of bright sunshine annually, with monthly possible sunshine percentages ranging from 42% in July to 62% in January and February. Extreme temperatures recorded since 1951 have ranged from a low of −27.4 °C (−17.3 °F) on February 22, 1966, to a high of 41.9 °C (107.4 °F) on July 24, 1999. [84] [85]

A panorama of the [Forbidden City](/Forbidden_City), viewed from [Jingshan Park](/Jingshan_Park).

Architecture

The North–South Central Axis of Beijing City

• See also: List of tallest buildings in Beijing

Urban Beijing showcases three predominant architectural styles. Firstly, the traditional architecture of imperial China is perhaps most famously represented by the monumental Tian'anmen (Gate of Heavenly Peace), which remains a symbolic emblem of the People's Republic of China. Other significant examples include the Forbidden City, the Imperial Ancestral Temple, and the Temple of Heaven. Secondly, there is the style often termed "Sino-Sov," characterized by its often boxy and sometimes poorly executed structures, prevalent in buildings constructed between the 1950s and 1970s. [96] Lastly, modern architectural forms are highly visible, most notably in the Beijing CBD area in eastern Beijing, featuring structures like the new CCTV Headquarters, as well as buildings in other parts of the city such as the Beijing National Stadium and the National Center for the Performing Arts.

Since 2007, buildings in Beijing have garnered the CTBUH Skyscraper Award for the best overall tall building on two occasions: the Linked Hybrid building in 2009 and the CCTV Headquarters in 2013. This prestigious award is bestowed upon only one building globally each year.

In the early 21st century, Beijing has experienced a remarkable surge in new construction, featuring diverse modern styles from international designers, particularly evident in the CBD region. A fusion of 1950s design and neofuturistic architectural elements can be observed in the 798 Art Zone, where old and new are harmoniously integrated. The tallest structure in Beijing is the 528-meter-high China Zun.

[Wangjing SOHO](/Wangjing_SOHO).

Beijing is renowned for its Siheyuans, a traditional residential design characterized by a central courtyard shared by surrounding buildings. Among the more elaborate examples are the Prince Gong Mansion and the Residence of Soong Ching-ling. These courtyards are typically interconnected by narrow alleyways known as hutongs. Hutongs are generally straight, oriented east-to-west, allowing doorways to face north and south for optimal Feng Shui. Their widths vary considerably, with some being so narrow that only a few people can pass through at a time. Once a ubiquitous feature of Beijing, Siheyuans and hutongs are rapidly disappearing, [97] as entire city blocks of these traditional alleyways are replaced by high-rise developments. [98] While residents of hutongs are entitled to apartments of comparable size in the new buildings, many express dismay that the traditional sense of community and street life associated with the hutongs cannot be replicated. [99] These properties are often under government ownership. [100]

Environmental issues

A view of the [Forbidden City](/Forbidden_City) from [Jingshan Park](/Jingshan_Park) during severe smog in November 2016.

Beijing has a long-standing history of grappling with environmental problems. [101] Between 2000 and 2009, the urban extent of Beijing quadrupled, a development that not only significantly amplified anthropogenic emissions but also fundamentally altered the meteorological conditions, even without accounting for societal emissions. For instance, surface albedo, wind speed, and near-surface humidity experienced reductions, while ground and near-surface air temperatures, vertical air dilution, and ozone levels saw increases. [102] Due to the combined impact of urbanization and pollution stemming from the combustion of fossil fuel, Beijing frequently contends with severe environmental issues that adversely affect the health of many residents. In 2013, a widespread and intense smog event enveloped Beijing and much of northern China, affecting an estimated 600 million people. Following this "pollution shock," air pollution emerged as a significant economic and social concern within China. In response, the Beijing government implemented measures to mitigate air pollution, such as reducing coal's contribution to the energy mix from 24% in 2012 to 10% by 2017. Concurrently, the national government mandated the removal of heavily polluting vehicles from circulation between 2015 and 2017 and intensified efforts to transition towards cleaner energy sources. [103]

Air quality

A collaborative study conducted by American and Chinese researchers in 2006 concluded that a substantial portion of the city's pollution originated from surrounding urban areas and provinces. On average, 35–60% of the ozone could be traced to sources outside the city itself.  Shandong Province and Tianjin Municipality exert a "significant influence on Beijing's air quality," [104] partly attributed to prevailing south-southeasterly air currents during summer and the presence of mountain ranges to the north and northwest.

In preparation for the 2008 Summer Olympics and to fulfill commitments to improve the city's air quality, approximately US$17 billion was invested. [105] Beijing implemented a series of air quality improvement initiatives for the duration of the Games, including halting construction activities at all sites, permanently closing numerous factories within Beijing, temporarily ceasing industrial operations in neighboring regions, closing some gas stations, [106] and drastically reducing motor vehicle traffic by half through a license plate rationing system (limiting drivers to odd or even days based on their plate numbers). [107] Additionally, bus and subway fares were reduced, new subway lines were opened, and vehicles with high emissions were banned. [108] [109] The city also deployed 3,800 natural gas-powered buses, establishing one of the world's largest fleets of its kind. [105] Beijing became the first city in China to mandate compliance with the Chinese equivalent of the Euro 4 emission standard. [110]

Coal combustion accounts for approximately 40% of Beijing's PM 2.5 pollution and is the primary source of nitrogen and sulfur dioxide emissions. [111] Since 2012, the city has been progressively transitioning coal-fired power stations to natural gas, [112] with a stated aim to cap annual coal consumption at 20 million tons. In 2011, the city consumed 26.3 million tons of coal, with 73% allocated for heating and power generation and the remainder for industrial use. [112] A significant portion of Beijing's air pollutants originates from neighboring regions. [111] Coal consumption in Tianjin was projected to increase from 48 million to 63 million tons between 2011 and 2015. [113] Hebei Province burned over 300 million tons of coal in 2011, exceeding Germany's total consumption, with only 30% used for power generation and a considerable amount directed towards steel and cement production. [114] Power plants situated in the coal-mining regions of Shanxi, Inner Mongolia, and Shaanxi, where coal consumption has tripled since 2000, as well as those in Shandong, contribute to Beijing's air pollution. [111] Shandong, Shanxi, Hebei, and Inner Mongolia rank first through fourth, respectively, among Chinese provinces in terms of coal consumption. [113] Beijing historically operated four major coal-fired power plants to supply electricity and winter heating. The first, Gaojing Thermal Power Plant, was decommissioned in 2014. [115] Two more were shut down in March 2015, and the final plant, Huaneng Thermal Power Plant, was slated for closure in 2016. [116] Between 2013 and 2017, the city planned to reduce coal consumption by 13 million tons and cap it at 15 million tons in 2015. [116]

The government occasionally employs cloud-seeding techniques to induce rainfall, aiming to clear the air prior to major events, such as the 60th-anniversary parade in 2009, and to alleviate drought conditions. [117] More recently, however, the government has escalated the use of such measures, including temporary factory closures and stricter vehicle restrictions, as exemplified by the "APEC blue" and "parade blue" phenomena – periods of significantly improved air quality during and immediately preceding the APEC China 2014 summit and the [2015 China Victory Day Parade], respectively. [118] During these specific periods, Beijing's air quality improved markedly, only to revert to unhealthy levels shortly thereafter.

On December 8 and 9, 2015, Beijing issued its first smog alert, resulting in the suspension of operations for a majority of industrial and commercial businesses within the city. [119] Later that month, another smog "red alert" was issued. [120]

According to an announcement by Beijing's environmental protection bureau in November 2016, starting in 2017, highly polluting older vehicles would be prohibited from operating whenever smog "red alerts" were declared in the city or its neighboring regions. [121]

In recent years, measurable reductions in pollutants have been observed following the declaration of a "war on pollution" in 2014. Beijing experienced a 35% decrease in fine particulate matter in 2017, [122] with further reductions anticipated by 2020. [82] : 52  The primary drivers for this improvement have been the substitution of coal power with natural gas and the cleanup of polluting industrial facilities in the Beijing area. [123] : 169–170 

Beijing's average annual concentration of airborne fine particulate matter, or PM2.5, decreased to 30 micrograms per cubic meter in 2022, marking the city's best air quality record since 2013. [124] In 2024, Beijing experienced only two days of heavy pollution, the lowest number on record, representing a 96.6% reduction from the 58 days recorded in 2013. [125]

Readings

Due to the considerable level of air pollution in Beijing, various sources provide different readings and assessments of the situation. Daily pollution levels are monitored at 27 stations across the city, with data reported on the Beijing Environmental Protection Bureau's (BJEPB) website. [126] The American Embassy in Beijing also disseminates hourly updates on fine particulate (PM2.5) and ozone levels via Twitter. [127] Given that the BJEPB and the US Embassy measure different pollutants using distinct criteria, the reported pollution levels and their impact on human health often differ, with the US Embassy's assessments typically indicating higher levels. [127]

The persistent smog poses significant harm and risk to the population. Air pollution directly correlates with a notable increase in the morbidity rates of cardiovascular and respiratory diseases within Beijing. [128] Exposure to high concentrations of polluted air can lead to respiratory and cardiovascular complications, necessitate emergency room visits, and, in severe cases, result in fatalities. [129]

Dust storms

Seasonal dust storms, originating from the erosion of deserts in northern and northwestern China, frequently affect the city. The Beijing Weather Modification Office occasionally employs artificial rainfall induction methods to combat these storms and mitigate their impact. [130] In the initial four months of 2006 alone, the city experienced no fewer than eight such storms. [131] In April 2002, a single dust storm deposited nearly 50,000 tons of dust onto the city before drifting further towards Japan and Korea. [132]

Government

• Main article: Politics of Beijing

The municipal government operates under the regulation of the Municipal Committee of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), led by the Beijing CCP Secretary. The Municipal CCP Committee is responsible for issuing administrative directives, collecting taxes, managing the economy, and overseeing a standing committee of the Municipal People's Congress in policy formulation and governmental oversight. Since 1987, all individuals holding the position of CCP Secretary of Beijing have also been members of the Politburo.

Government officials include the mayor (in Chinese: 市长) and vice-mayors. Numerous bureaus are dedicated to specific areas such as law, public security, and other administrative affairs. Furthermore, as the capital of China, Beijing serves as the host to all major national governmental and political institutions, including the National People's Congress. [133]

Administrative divisions

• For a more comprehensive list, see List of administrative divisions of Beijing and List of township-level divisions of Beijing.

Currently, Beijing Municipality comprises 16 administrative county-level subdivisions, encompassing 16 urban, suburban, and rural districts. On July 1, 2010, the districts of Chongwen and Xuanwu were merged into Dongcheng and Xicheng, respectively. Subsequently, on November 13, 2015, Miyun and Yanqing were elevated to district status.

Administrative divisions of Beijing.