Cinema Of The United States

"American Film" redirects here. For the magazine, see American Film (magazine).

Cinema of the United States

(Hollywood)

The Hollywood Sign in the Hollywood Hills, an iconic symbol of the American film industry.

Number of screens 40,393 (2017) [1] • Per capita 14 per 100,000 (2017) [1]

Main distributors

Produced feature films (2016) [2]

Fictional 646 (98.5%)
Animated 10 (1.5%)

Number of admissions (2017) [4]

Total 1,239,742,550 • Per capita 3.9 (2010) [3]

Gross box office (2017) [4]

Total $11.1 billion

The film industry of the United States, predominantly centered in Hollywood, has exerted a profound and transformative influence on the global cinematic landscape since the dawn of the 20th century. The distinctive filmmaking style known as Classical Hollywood cinema, which began to coalesce in the 1910s, continues to resonate and shape the narrative and aesthetic conventions of many American films even today. While credit for the genesis of modern cinema is often bestowed upon French pioneers Auguste and Louis Lumière, the American film industry rapidly ascended to a position of unparalleled global dominance. As of 2017, the United States was releasing upwards of 600 English-language films annually, ranking it as the fourth-largest producer of films globally, trailing only the prolific industries of India, Japan, and China. It’s important to note that while the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand also contribute significantly to English-language filmmaking, their productions are not intrinsically part of the Hollywood system. The sheer reach of Hollywood's output has led to its frequent characterization as a transnational cinema [7], with many films adapted or released in multiple language versions, including Spanish and French, to cater to diverse international audiences.

In the contemporary era, Hollywood frequently engages in outsourcing production activities to countries such as the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, leveraging diverse talent pools and cost efficiencies. The industry is largely dominated by five major film studios—Universal Pictures, Paramount Pictures, Warner Bros., Walt Disney Studios, and Sony Pictures—which are integral components of vast media conglomerates. These entities wield significant power over American box office revenue and are responsible for producing some of the most commercially successful film and television programs on a worldwide scale.

The foundational moments of the American film industry can be traced back to 1894, with the world's first commercial motion-picture exhibition held in New York City, utilizing Thomas Edison's groundbreaking kinetoscope and kinetograph technology [10][11]. The subsequent decades witnessed a dramatic expansion in the production of silent films, marked by the emergence of new studios and a significant migration of production to California, where longer cinematic narratives began to take shape. The United States distinguished itself further by producing the world's first sync-sound musical film, The Jazz Singer, in 1927 [12], and subsequently played a leading role in the rapid development of sound-film technology throughout the following decades.

Since the early 20th century, the American film industry has been primarily concentrated in and around the thirty-mile zone, with its epicenter in the Hollywood neighborhood of Los Angeles County, California. The visionary director D. W. Griffith was instrumental in establishing a coherent film grammar, laying the groundwork for cinematic storytelling. Later, Orson Welles's seminal 1941 film, Citizen Kane, would repeatedly be cited in critical polls as the greatest film of all time [13]. Hollywood's enduring legacy as the oldest hub of the film industry is undeniable, having been the birthplace of numerous studios, production companies, and, crucially, a vast array of cinematic genres [14].

History

Origins and Fort Lee

Main article: History of cinema in the United States
See also: Silent film

Justus D. Barnes in The Great Train Robbery (1903), a film often considered the first Western.

The earliest recorded instance of motion capture, a precursor to modern filmmaking techniques, involved Eadweard Muybridge’s meticulous series of photographs capturing a running horse. These groundbreaking images were taken in Palo Alto, California using a carefully arranged row of still cameras. Muybridge's accomplishment ignited a fervor among inventors worldwide, spurring them to develop similar devices. In the United States, Thomas Edison emerged as a prominent figure, pioneering the development of the kinetoscope and kinetograph [15][16].

Harold Lloyd in the iconic clock scene from Safety Last! (1923).

The nascent history of cinema in the United States can be traced back to the East Coast, where Fort Lee, New Jersey, once stood as the undisputed motion-picture capital of America. The American film industry took root at the close of the 19th century with the construction of Thomas Edison's "Black Maria", the very first motion-picture studio located in West Orange, New Jersey. The strategic proximity of Fort Lee to New York City, coupled with land prices significantly lower than those across the river, proved advantageous. This burgeoning industry benefited immensely from the phenomenal growth of filmmaking at the turn of the 20th century [17][18][19][20].

The industry began to attract both substantial capital investment and a wealth of innovative talent. In 1907, when the Kalem Company established its base in Fort Lee for filming purposes, other filmmakers swiftly followed suit. By 1909, a precursor to Universal Studios, the Champion Film Company, erected the first studio in the area [21]. This initial development spurred a cascade of other companies to build new facilities or lease existing ones in Fort Lee. Throughout the 1910s and 1920s, a multitude of film companies, including Independent Moving Pictures, Peerless Pictures Studios, Solax Studios, Eclair, Goldwyn Pictures Corporation, Star Film (associated with Georges Méliès), World Film Company, Biograph Studios, Fox Film Corporation, Société Pathé Frères, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Studios Inc., Victor Film Company, and Selznick International Pictures, all established production operations in Fort Lee. Many actors who would become iconic, such as Mary Pickford, launched their careers at Biograph Studios [22][23][24].

In nearby New York, the Kaufman Astoria Studios in Queens, constructed during the silent film era, served as a production hub for luminaries like the Marx Brothers and W.C. Fields. The Edison Studios were situated in the Bronx, and the Chelsea, Manhattan neighborhood also saw frequent use for filming.

Beyond New York, other Eastern cities, notably Chicago and Cleveland, also emerged as significant early centers for film production [25][26].

On the West Coast, California was rapidly solidifying its position as a vital film production hub. In Colorado, Denver was home to the Art-O-Graf Film Company. Meanwhile, Walt Disney's early Laugh-O-Gram Studio was based in Kansas City, Missouri.

From 1908 onward, Jacksonville, Florida's motion picture industry experienced a boom, with over 30 silent film companies establishing studios in the city. These included Kalem Studios, Metro Pictures (which would later become MGM), Edison Studios, Majestic Films [27], King-Bee Films Corporation, Vim Comedy Company, Norman Studios, Gaumont Film Company, and the Lubin Manufacturing Company.

Picture City, Florida was envisioned in the 1920s as a planned center for movie picture production. However, the devastating 1928 Okeechobee hurricane led to the collapse of this ambitious project, and Picture City, Florida reverted to its original name of Hobe Sound. An attempt to establish a film production center in Detroit also proved unsuccessful [28].

The intense patent wars that plagued the early 20th-century film industry inadvertently facilitated the spread of film companies to various parts of the United States, extending beyond New York. Many filmmakers found themselves operating with equipment for which they lacked the necessary patent rights. Consequently, filming in New York became a perilous undertaking, given its proximity to Edison's company headquarters and the presence of his agents tasked with seizing infringing cameras [29].

Los Angeles presented a compelling alternative. Its mild winters, diverse filming locations, and, most critically, its proximity to the Mexican border—a potential escape route from Edison's enforcement agents—made it an attractive destination. By 1912, the majority of major film companies had established production facilities in Southern California, either within or in close proximity to Los Angeles, drawn by the region's favorable year-round weather conditions [30].

Rise of Hollywood

"History of Hollywood" redirects here. For the history of the Los Angeles neighborhood, see Hollywood, Los Angeles § History.

The 1908 production by the Selig Polyscope Company of The Count of Monte Cristo, directed by Francis Boggs and starring Hobart Bosworth, is often cited as the first film shot in Los Angeles, in 1907. A plaque was later unveiled by the city in 1957 at Dearden's flagship store, marking the site where a Chinese laundry once stood and where the film was supposedly shot. However, Bosworth's widow contested this, suggesting the date and location were inaccurate and that the film was actually shot in nearby Venice, Los Angeles, which was an independent city at the time [31][32]. In Sultan's Power, also directed by Boggs for Selig Polyscope Company and starring Bosworth, is considered the first film shot entirely within Los Angeles, with filming taking place at 7th and Olive Streets in 1909 [33][32].

In early 1910, director D. W. Griffith was dispatched by the Biograph Company to the West Coast with his troupe of actors, which included luminaries such as Blanche Sweet, Lillian Gish, Mary Pickford, and Lionel Barrymore. They commenced filming on a vacant lot near Georgia Street in downtown Los Angeles. Driven by a desire to explore new territories, the company ventured several miles north to Hollywood, a small, welcoming village that embraced the presence of the filmmaking crew. Griffith then directed the first movie ever shot in Hollywood, In Old California—a Biograph melodrama set in 19th-century California during the period of Mexican rule. Griffith remained in Hollywood for several months, producing a number of films before returning to New York. Also in 1910, Selig Polyscope Company of Chicago established the first film studio in the Los Angeles area in Edendale, Los Angeles [31]. The first studio specifically in Hollywood opened its doors in 1912 [34]:447. Word of Griffith's success in Hollywood reached other filmmakers, prompting many to head west in 1913 to circumvent the fees imposed by Thomas Edison, who held patents on key aspects of the filmmaking process [35]. Nestor Studios of Bayonne, New Jersey, erected the first studio in the Hollywood neighborhood in 1911, though this claim has been subject to debate [dubious – discuss]. Nestor Studios, owned by David and William Horsley, eventually merged with Universal Studios. William Horsley's other company, Hollywood Film Laboratory, stands today as the oldest existing company in Hollywood, now known as the Hollywood Digital Laboratory. California's more accommodating and cost-effective climate ultimately led to the gradual shift of virtually all filmmaking to the West Coast by the 1930s. At that time, Thomas Edison controlled nearly all patents relevant to motion picture production. Consequently, independent producers on the East Coast often faced legal action or seizure of equipment by Edison and his agents. In contrast, filmmakers operating on the West Coast could largely work independently of Edison's control [29].

The Hollywood Walk of Fame on Hollywood Boulevard.

In Los Angeles, the studios and Hollywood itself flourished. Prior to World War I, films were produced in various American cities, but filmmakers increasingly gravitated towards southern California as the industry matured. The region's warm, consistent climate, offering reliable sunlight, was a significant draw, enabling outdoor filming year-round [36]. The devastation of war in Europe contributed to the decline of the then-dominant European film industry, paving the way for the ascendancy of the United States, where infrastructure remained largely intact [37]. Furthermore, Los Angeles's comparatively stronger early public health response to the 1918 flu pandemic, relative to other American cities, resulted in fewer cases and a swifter recovery. This resilience bolstered Hollywood's growing dominance over New York City [37]. During the pandemic, public health officials enforced temporary closures of movie theaters in certain jurisdictions, major studios suspended production for weeks at a time, and some actors fell ill. These disruptions led to significant financial losses and severe challenges for smaller studios, though the industry as a whole experienced a robust recovery during the Roaring Twenties [39].

The early 20th century, a period of nascent cinematic exploration, saw many Jewish immigrants finding opportunities within the U.S. film industry. They carved out niches in the novel business of exhibiting short films in storefront theaters known as nickelodeons, named for their five-cent admission price. Within a few years, figures like Samuel Goldwyn, William Fox, Carl Laemmle, Adolph Zukor, Louis B. Mayer, and the Warner Brothers (Harry, Albert, Samuel, and Jack) transitioned into production, eventually heading up a new breed of enterprise: the movie studio. Notably, the industry also featured pioneering female directors and studio heads, such as Lois Weber and the French-born Alice Guy-Blaché. These early pioneers not only shaped the industry but also laid the groundwork for its international character, despite persistent accusations of Amerocentric provincialism.

A wave of European filmmakers arrived after World War I, including directors like Ernst Lubitsch, Alfred Hitchcock, Fritz Lang, and Jean Renoir, alongside actors such as Rudolph Valentino, Marlene Dietrich, Ronald Colman, and Charles Boyer. They joined a burgeoning cohort of homegrown talent—many drawn from the New York City stage following the advent of sound films—to forge one of the 20th century's most remarkable growth industries. At the zenith of motion pictures' popularity in the mid-1940s, studios were producing approximately 400 movies annually, captivating an audience of 90 million Americans each week [40].

Buster Keaton in costume, sporting his signature pork pie hat, circa 1939.

The integration of sound into Hollywood filmmaking became widespread in the late 1920s [41]. Following the immense success of The Jazz Singer, the first film to feature synchronized dialogue, released as a Vitaphone "talkie" in 1927, Hollywood film companies quickly adopted Vitaphone sound technology, which Warner Bros. owned until 1928, for their subsequent productions. By May 1928, Electrical Research Products Incorporated (ERPI), a subsidiary of Western Electric, had secured a monopoly over film sound distribution [40].

A significant consequence of the transition to "talkies" was the sudden unemployment of many actors whose careers had been built on silent films. These performers often possessed unsuitable voices or struggled with memorizing lines. Concurrently, in 1922, American politician Will H. Hays transitioned from public service to lead the Motion Picture Producers and Distributors of America (MPPDA), an industry organization that would later evolve into the Motion Picture Association of America upon Hays's retirement in 1945.

During the early era of talkies, American studios encountered resistance in foreign-language markets and even among speakers of different English dialects. The synchronization technology was still too rudimentary for effective dubbing. One innovative solution was the creation of parallel foreign-language versions of Hollywood films. Around 1930, American companies which? established a studio in Joinville-le-Pont, France. Here, identical sets and wardrobe were utilized, and even mass scenes were re-shot by different, time-sharing crews for various language versions.

Furthermore, unemployed foreign actors, playwrights, and photogenic contest winners were recruited to Hollywood. They participated in the production of these parallel foreign-language versions of English-language films. These productions were typically lower-budget, filmed at night, and directed by second-tier American directors who lacked proficiency in the foreign languages. The Spanish-language crews, for instance, included notable figures such as Luis Buñuel, Enrique Jardiel Poncela, Xavier Cugat, and Edgar Neville. Despite these efforts, the productions often failed to achieve significant success in their intended markets due to several factors:

The discernible impact of lower budgets.
The inexperience of many stage actors in cinema.
The frequent reliance on second-rate original films, as studios assumed their top productions would achieve success independently.
The jarring mix of foreign accents (such as Castilian, Mexican, and Chilean in the Spanish case), which proved alienating to audiences.
The persistent lack of sound-equipped theaters in some key markets.

The Brown Derby, an iconic restaurant that became synonymous with the Golden Age of Hollywood.

Classical Hollywood Cinema and the Golden Age of Hollywood

Main article: Classical Hollywood cinema

Stars of the Classical Hollywood cinema era (c. 1913–1962). Top row, l-r: Greta Garbo, Humphrey Bogart, Lauren Bacall, Clark Gable, Katharine Hepburn, Fred Astaire, Ginger Rogers, Marlon Brando, the Marx Brothers, Joan Crawford. Second row, l-r: John Wayne, James Stewart, Buster Keaton, Claudette Colbert, Gene Kelly, Burt Lancaster, Judy Garland, Gregory Peck, Elizabeth Taylor, Kirk Douglas. Third row, l-r: Bette Davis, Audrey Hepburn, Jean Harlow, Alfred Hitchcock, John Ford, Howard Hawks, Grace Kelly, Laurence Olivier, Marlene Dietrich, James Cagney. Fourth row, l-r: Ava Gardner, Cary Grant, Ingrid Bergman, Henry Fonda, Marilyn Monroe, James Dean, Orson Welles, Mae West, William Holden, Sophia Loren. Bottom row, l-r: Vivien Leigh, Joan Fontaine and Gary Cooper, Spencer Tracy, Barbara Stanwyck, Lillian Gish, Tyrone Power, Shirley Temple, Janet Leigh with Charlton Heston, Rita Hayworth, Mary Pickford.

Classical Hollywood cinema, often referred to as the Golden Age of Hollywood, is characterized by a distinct technical and narrative style that defined American cinema from approximately 1913 to 1962. During this prolific period, Hollywood studios churned out thousands of films. The Classical style began to emerge around 1913, gained momentum with the U.S. entry into World War I in 1917, and was definitively solidified by the release of The Jazz Singer in 1927. This landmark film signaled the end of the silent film era and dramatically boosted box-office profits by introducing synchronized sound to feature films.

Most Hollywood productions adhered to established formulas, encompassing genres such as Westerns, slapstick comedy, musicals, animated cartoons, and biographical films. Creative teams often remained consistent within individual studios, fostering a recognizable style. For instance, Cedric Gibbons and Herbert Stothart were perennial collaborators on MGM films, Alfred Newman spent two decades at 20th Century Fox, Cecil B. DeMille's films were predominantly made at Paramount, and director Henry King primarily worked for 20th Century Fox.

A defining characteristic of this era was the ability to identify a film's studio by its cast. MGM, for example, famously boasted of having "more stars than there are in heaven." Each studio cultivated its unique style and signature touches, a trait that is far less common in contemporary cinema.

To illustrate, To Have and Have Not (1944) is notable not only for marking the first on-screen pairing of Humphrey Bogart (1899–1957) and Lauren Bacall (1924–2014) but also for its screenplay, which was penned by two future Nobel Prize in Literature winners: Ernest Hemingway (1899–1961), the author of the novel on which the script was nominally based, and William Faulkner (1897–1962), who contributed to the screen adaptation.

After the resounding success of The Jazz Singer in 1927, Warner Bros. experienced a surge in popularity and financial success, enabling them to acquire their own chain of movie theaters by purchasing Stanley Theaters and First National Productions in 1928. In contrast, Loews Theatres had owned MGM since its formation in 1924, while the Fox Film Corporation owned the Fox Theatres. RKO, formed in 1928 through the merger of Keith-Orpheum Theaters and the Radio Corporation of America [43], also responded to the Western Electric/ERPI monopoly on film sound by developing its own system, known as Photophone, for incorporating sound into films [40].

Paramount, having acquired Balaban and Katz in 1926, matched the success of Warner Bros. and RKO by purchasing numerous theaters in the late 1920s, eventually holding a monopoly on theaters in Detroit, Michigan [44]. By the 1930s, the majority of first-run metropolitan theaters across the United States were owned by the "Big Five" studios: MGM, Paramount Pictures, RKO, Warner Bros., and 20th Century Fox [45].

Rise and Decline of the Studio System

Paramount Pictures studios in 1922.

The major motion picture companies operated under the studio system. This system involved the major studios employing thousands of individuals on a permanent salary—including actors, producers, directors, writers, stunt performers, craftspeople, and technicians. They owned or leased extensive Movie ranches in rural Southern California for the location shooting of westerns and other large-scale genre films. Furthermore, the major studios owned hundreds of theaters nationwide in 1920, providing constant outlets for their films and a perpetual demand for new material.

Spencer Tracy, the first actor to win the Academy Award for Best Actor in two consecutive years for his roles in Captains Courageous (1937) and Boys Town (1938), and received seven other nominations.

In 1930, Will Hays, president of the MPPDA, introduced the Hays (Production) Code, a set of censorship guidelines that officially went into effect after government threats of censorship escalated by 1930 [46]. However, the code remained largely unenforced until 1934. This changed after the Catholic watchdog organization The Legion of Decency—appalled by the provocative content and lurid advertising of films produced during the era later classified as Pre-Code Hollywood—threatened a widespread boycott of motion pictures unless the code was rigorously implemented. Films that failed to obtain a seal of approval from the Production Code Administration faced a $25,000 fine (equivalent to$ 470,568 in 2024) and were barred from theatrical release, as the MPPDA exerted control over every theater in the country through its ownership by the Big Five studios.

Throughout the 1930s and the majority of the Golden Age, MGM reigned supreme on the film screen, boasting the most prominent stars in Hollywood and being credited with the very creation of the Hollywood star system [48]. Among MGM's celebrated stars were "King of Hollywood" Clark Gable, Lionel Barrymore, Jean Harlow, Norma Shearer, Greta Garbo, Joan Crawford, Jeanette MacDonald, Gene Raymond, Spencer Tracy, Judy Garland, and Gene Kelly [48].

Another monumental achievement of American cinema during this era came from Walt Disney's animation company. In 1937, Disney released Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, which became the most successful film of its time [49]. This record was swiftly surpassed in 1939 when Selznick International released Gone with the Wind, which remains, when adjusted for inflation, the most successful film in history [50].

Many film historians have noted the remarkable quality and artistic merit of the numerous cinematic works produced during this period of highly structured filmmaking. One contributing factor was the sheer volume of films being produced; not every film needed to be a blockbuster. Studios could afford to take risks on medium-budget features with strong scripts and relatively unknown actors. Citizen Kane, directed by Orson Welles (1915–1985) and frequently hailed as the greatest film of all time, exemplifies this category. In other instances, strong-willed directors like Howard Hawks (1896–1977), Alfred Hitchcock (1899–1980), and Frank Capra (1897–1991) fiercely battled the studios to realize their distinct artistic visions.

The zenith of the studio system arguably occurred in 1939, a year that saw the release of enduring classics such as The Wizard of Oz , Gone with the Wind , Stagecoach , Mr. Smith Goes to Washington , Wuthering Heights , [Only Angels Have Wings] , [Ninotchka] , and Midnight . Other films from the Golden Age now considered classics include: Casablanca , [It's a Wonderful Life] , [It Happened One Night] , the original King Kong , Mutiny on the Bounty , [Top Hat] , [City Lights] , Red River , [The Lady from Shanghai] , [Rear Window] , [On the Waterfront] , [Rebel Without a Cause] , [Some Like It Hot] , and The Manchurian Candidate .

Percentage of the U.S. population attending the cinema weekly between 1930 and 2000.

Walt Disney introduces each of the seven dwarfs in a scene from the original 1937 Snow White movie trailer.

The studio system and the Golden Age of Hollywood ultimately succumbed to two significant forces that emerged in the late 1940s:

A federal antitrust action that mandated the separation of film production from film exhibition; and
The disruptive advent of television.

In 1938, Walt Disney's Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs was released amidst a period of lackluster offerings from the major studios. The animated film rapidly became the highest-grossing release to date, embarrassingly for the studios, as it was an independently produced work that did not feature any studio-employed stars [51]. This success amplified the widespread frustration with the practice of block-booking, whereby studios would sell an entire year's schedule of films to theaters in one package, using this "lock-in" [Vendor lock-in] strategy to compensate for releases of inferior quality.

Assistant Attorney General Thurman Arnold, a prominent "trust buster" within the Roosevelt administration, seized this opportunity to initiate proceedings against the eight largest Hollywood studios in July 1938 for alleged violations of the Sherman Antitrust Act [52][53]. The resulting federal lawsuit led to a compromise in October 1940, where five of the eight studios (the "Big Five": Warner Bros., MGM, Fox, RKO, and Paramount) signed a consent decree. This agreement stipulated that within three years, they would:

Eliminate the block-booking of short film subjects, through an arrangement known as "one shot" or "full force" block-booking.
Cease the block-booking of more than five feature films to their theaters.
Discontinue blind buying (purchasing films without prior viewing) and implement trade showings, where all 31 theater districts in the U.S. would screen films every two weeks before their theatrical release.
Establish an administration board in each theater district to enforce these new regulations [52].

Humphrey Bogart with Ingrid Bergman in Casablanca (1942).

The "Little Three" (Universal Studios, United Artists, and Columbia Pictures), who did not own theaters, refused to participate in the consent decree [52][53]. A number of independent film producers, also dissatisfied with the compromise, formed a union called the Society of Independent Motion Picture Producers and filed a lawsuit against Paramount, challenging the monopoly they still held over Detroit Theaters. By 1942, Paramount was also solidifying its dominance through popular stars such as Bob Hope, Paulette Goddard, Veronica Lake, Betty Hutton, crooner Bing Crosby, Alan Ladd, and the long-standing studio actor Gary Cooper. The Big Five studios failed to fully comply with the terms of the Consent Decree during World War II without significant repercussions. However, after the war concluded, they, along with the Little Three studios, found themselves as defendants in the Hollywood antitrust case [54].

The United States Supreme Court ultimately ruled in United States v. Paramount Pictures, Inc. that the major studios' ownership of theaters and film distribution constituted a violation of the Sherman Antitrust Act. As a direct consequence of this ruling, the studios began releasing actors and technical staff from their long-term contracts. This fundamentally altered the paradigm of filmmaking by the major Hollywood studios, as each could now assemble entirely different casts and creative teams for their productions.

The decision led to the gradual erosion of the distinct characteristics that once made films from Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, Paramount Pictures, Universal Studios, Columbia Pictures, RKO Pictures, and 20th Century Fox immediately identifiable. Certain individuals, such as Cecil B. DeMille, either remained contract artists until the end of their careers or continued to work with the same creative teams on their films, ensuring that a DeMille film retained a consistent visual and stylistic identity whether made in 1932 or 1956.

New Hollywood and Post-Classical Cinema

Main article: New Hollywood

Director and producer Steven Spielberg, co-founder of DreamWorks Studios and Amblin Entertainment, Inc.

Post-classical cinema represents the evolving methods of storytelling that emerged during the New Hollywood era. It is argued that new approaches to drama and characterization deliberately played upon audience expectations established during the classical period. This involved techniques such as scrambled chronology, storylines featuring "twist endings", and a blurring of the lines between the antagonist and protagonist. The seeds of post-classical storytelling can be observed in film noir, in Rebel Without a Cause (1955), and in Hitchcock's narrative-shattering Psycho .

The New Hollywood era marked the emergence of a new generation of film school-trained directors who had absorbed the innovative techniques developed in Europe during the 1960s, particularly influenced by the French New Wave. The 1967 film Bonnie and Clyde is often cited as a turning point, signaling the resurgence of American cinema as a new wave of films subsequently achieved considerable box office success [55]. Filmmakers such as Francis Ford Coppola, Steven Spielberg, George Lucas, Brian De Palma, Stanley Kubrick, Martin Scorsese, Roman Polanski, and William Friedkin began producing works that paid homage to film history while simultaneously developing and innovating upon existing genres and techniques. Inaugurated by the 1969 release of Andy Warhol's Blue Movie, a phenomenon of adult erotic films being openly discussed by celebrities (such as Johnny Carson and Bob Hope) [56], and taken seriously by critics (like Roger Ebert) [57][58], this period, referred to by Ralph Blumenthal of The New York Times as "porno chic", and later known as the Golden Age of Porn, began to take hold in modern American culture for the first time [56][59][60]. According to award-winning author Toni Bentley, Radley Metzger's 1976 film The Opening of Misty Beethoven, inspired by George Bernard Shaw's play Pygmalion (and its derivative film My Fair Lady ), is considered the "crown jewel" of this 'Golden Age' due to its mainstream narrative and production values [61][62][63].

At the peak of his fame in the early 1970s, Charles Bronson was the world's highest-grossing box office attraction, commanding $1 million per film [64]. During the 1970s, films by New Hollywood filmmakers often achieved both critical acclaim and commercial success. While early New Hollywood films like Bonnie and Clyde and Easy Rider were relatively low-budget affairs featuring amoral protagonists and increased depictions of sexuality and violence, the immense success enjoyed by Friedkin with The Exorcist , Spielberg with Jaws , Coppola with The Godfather and Apocalypse Now , Scorsese with Taxi Driver , Kubrick with 2001: A Space Odyssey , Polanski with Chinatown , and Lucas with American Graffiti and Star Wars , respectively, helped usher in the era of the modern "blockbuster". This trend subsequently led studios to focus increasingly on producing massive hits.

Rise of the Modern Blockbuster and Independent Films

Tom Hanks, a two-time Academy Award winner for Best Actor for his performances in Philadelphia and Forrest Gump, has also starred in numerous beloved films such as Saving Private Ryan, [Cast Away], and [Toy Story].

This section needs information on film as an artistic medium beyond technology or entertainment, cinematic styles like neo-noir and American Eccentric Cinema, Pixar, and the entire 1980s. Please expand this section to include this information. Further details may exist on the talk page. (August 2023)

In the U.S., the PG-13 rating was introduced in 1984 to categorize films that fell between PG and R ratings. This was largely a response to the controversies surrounding the violent content in the PG-rated films Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom and Gremlins (both 1984) [66].

Filmmakers in the 1990s benefited from technological, political, and economic innovations previously unavailable. Dick Tracy (1990) became the first 35 mm feature film to feature a digital soundtrack. Batman Returns (1992) was the first film to utilize Dolby Digital six-channel stereo sound, which has since become an industry standard. Computer-generated imagery (CGI) saw significant advancements, particularly with the ability to transfer film images into computers for digital manipulation. The potential of CGI became strikingly apparent in director James Cameron's Terminator 2: Judgment Day (1991), with its depiction of the shape-shifting character T-1000. CGI technology progressed to a point where Jurassic Park (1993) could create astonishingly realistic digital creatures. Jackpot (2001) holds the distinction of being the first film shot entirely digitally [67]. In the film Titanic , Cameron sought to push the boundaries of special effects, enlisting Digital Domain and Pacific Data Images to further develop the digital technologies he had pioneered in The Abyss and Terminator 2: Judgment Day. Many previous films depicting the RMS Titanic had used slow-motion water effects that lacked convincing realism [68]. Cameron encouraged his crew to film their 45-foot-long (14 m) miniature of the ship as if they were "making a commercial for the White Star Line."

American Theatrical Market (1995–2024) All values in billions

Year	Tickets	Box office
1995	1.22	$5.31
1996	1.31	$5.79
1997	1.39	$6.36
1998	1.44	$6.77
1999	1.44	$7.34
2000	1.40	$7.54
2001	1.48	$8.36
2002	1.58	$9.16
2003	1.52	$9.20
2004	1.50	$9.29
2005	1.37	$8.80
2006	1.40	$9.16
2007	1.42	$9.77
2008	1.36	$9.75
2009	1.42	$10.64
2010	1.33	$10.48
2011	1.28	$10.17
2012	1.40	$11.16
2013	1.34	$10.89
2014	1.26	$10.27
2015	1.32	$11.16
2016	1.30	$11.26
2017	1.25	$10.99
2018	1.31	$11.94
2019	1.22	$11.21
2020	0.22	$2.02
2021	0.44	$4.51
2022	0.71	$7.44
2023	0.83	$8.93
2024	0.79	$8.50

As compiled by The Numbers [69]

Even The Blair Witch Project (1999), a low-budget independent horror film by Eduardo Sanchez and Daniel Myrick, achieved immense financial success. Produced on a shoestring budget of just $35,000, without any major stars or elaborate special effects, the film grossed$ 248 million, largely due to innovative marketing techniques and online promotion. While not on the scale of George Lucas's $1 billion prequel to the *[Star Wars Trilogy](/Star_Wars_original_trilogy)*, *The Blair Witch Project* earned the distinction of being the most profitable film of all time in terms of percentage return on investment. Despite this outlier success, control of [The Big Five](/Big_Five_(movie_studios)) studios over film production continued to grow throughout the 1990s. The Big Six companies all experienced a period of expansion during this decade. Each developed distinct strategies to manage rising production costs, particularly the escalating salaries demanded by movie stars, often driven by powerful agents. Top stars like [Sylvester Stallone](/Sylvester_Stallone), [Russell Crowe](/Russell_Crowe), [Tom Cruise](/Tom_Cruise), [Nicole Kidman](/Nicole_Kidman), [Sandra Bullock](/Sandra_Bullock), [Arnold Schwarzenegger](/Arnold_Schwarzenegger), [Mel Gibson](/Mel_Gibson), [Kevin Bacon](/Kevin_Bacon), and [Julia Roberts](/Julia_Roberts) commanded salaries between$ 15–$20 million per film, and in some cases, also secured a share of the film's profits [67].

Screenwriters, conversely, typically earned less than top actors or directors, usually under $1 million per film. However, the single most significant factor driving up costs was special effects. By 1999, the average cost of a [blockbuster film](/Blockbuster_(entertainment)) had reached$ 60 million, with marketing and promotion adding an additional $80 million [67].

Contemporary Cinema

This section requires expansion to include other film genres beyond superhero and blockbuster, discussions of studios beyond the A-list, commentary on "superhero fatigue," and details on the 2023 Hollywood labor disputes. Further details may exist on the talk page. (May 2023)

Since the turn of the 21st century, the theatrical market has been increasingly dominated by the superhero film genre. As of 2022 [update], these productions offer the highest compensation for actors, as paychecks in other genres have diminished even for top stars [70]. However, in 2023 and 2024, Hollywood experts began to identify 'superhero fatigue' as an emerging trend [71]. Actors such as Paul Dano and directors like Matthew Vaughn have echoed these sentiments [72][73].

In 2021, despite the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic in the United States, major blockbuster films such as Black Widow , F9 , Death on the Nile, and West Side Story were released in theaters after postponements from their original 2020 release dates [74].

Various studios responded to the crisis with controversial decisions to forgo the theatrical window and offer their films day-and-date releases. NBCUniversal released Trolls World Tour directly to video-on-demand rental on April 10 [75], while simultaneously offering limited domestic theatrical screenings via drive-in cinemas [76]. CEO Jeff Shell claimed the film generated nearly $100 million in revenue within its first three weeks [77][78]. This decision was met with opposition from AMC Theatres, which announced it would cease screening Universal Pictures films immediately, though the two companies eventually reached an agreement on a two-week theatrical window [79][80][81][82][83]. By December 2020, Warner Bros. Pictures announced its plan to simultaneously release its entire 2021 film slate, including Dune and The Matrix Resurrections, in both theaters and its streaming service HBO Max for a one-month period to maximize viewership [84]. However, by 2023, industry strikes by the Writers Guild of America (WGA) and the Screen Actors Guild (SAG-AFTRA) highlighted escalating disputes over streaming residuals, the use of artificial intelligence in writing and acting, and fair compensation, reflecting the broader challenges confronting Hollywood's evolving economic model. This decision by Warner Bros. was vehemently criticized by numerous industry figures, many of whom reportedly felt blindsided and deceived by the studio [85].

The period from 2019 onwards has witnessed the rise of American streaming platforms, such as Netflix, Disney+, Paramount+, and Apple TV+, which have emerged as significant competitors to traditional cinema. Industry commentators have observed a growing tendency to treat films as "content" by corporations, a trend that correlates with the increased popularity of streaming platforms [86][87]. This involves a blurring of the lines between films, television, and other media as audiences consume them in diverse ways. Individual films are increasingly defined by their brand identity and commercial potential rather than their inherent medium, narrative, or artistic merit [86][89]. Critic Matt Zoller Seitz described the 2019 release of Avengers: Endgame as "represent[ing] the decisive defeat of 'cinema' by 'content'" due to its immense success as a "piece of entertainment" defined by the Marvel brand, culminating a series of blockbuster films that exhibit traits of serialized television [86].

Tom Cruise, in a pre-recorded segment, skydived from the Stade de France to the Hollywood Sign, where he landed and affixed the five Olympic rings, marking the handover of the Games to Los Angeles in 2028 during the 2024 Summer Olympics closing ceremony. Cruise himself has been cited as a paragon of modern cinema, with Top Gun: Maverick being lauded as one of the first blockbuster films to achieve significant monetary success despite facing low expectations and competition from other franchise films and streaming platforms.

Films such as Space Jam: A New Legacy and Red Notice have been cited as examples of this trend. The former has been described by many critics as "a lengthy infomercial for HBO Max," featuring scenes and characters referencing various Warner Bros. properties like Casablanca , The Matrix , and Austin Powers [90][91][92][93]. The latter, a $200 million heist film from Netflix, has been described by critics as "a movie that feels more processed by a machine [...] instead of anything approaching artistic intent or even an honest desire to entertain" [94][95][96]. Some critics argue that Space Jam exemplifies the industry's increasingly cynical approach of treating films as mere intellectual property (IP) to be exploited, a strategy that critic Scott Mendelson termed "IP for the sake of IP" [91][97][98][92].

Martin Scorsese has voiced concerns that cinema as an art form is "being systematically devalued, sidelined, demeaned, and reduced" to mere "content" and has called the overemphasis on box-office returns for blockbusters "repulsive" [99][100]. Quentin Tarantino has opined that the current era of cinema is one of the worst in Hollywood history [101][102]. During a masterclass at the 2023 Sarajevo Film Festival, Charlie Kaufman criticized mainstream blockbusters, stating that "[a]t this point, the only thing that makes money is garbage" and urged industry professionals to "make movies outside of the studio system as much as possible" [103][104]. In an interview with Deadline, James Gray (director) noted, "When you make movies that only make a ton of money and only one kind of movie, you begin to get a large segment of the population out of the habit of going to the movies," which leads to decreased viewership. He clarified that he has "no problem with a comic book movie" but suggests that studios "be willing to lose money for a couple of years on art film divisions, and in the end they will be happier" as a solution to the lack of "investment in the broad-based engagement with the product" [105].

Hollywood and Politics

Main article: Good Neighbor policy

The 81st Academy Awards ceremony held at the Dolby Theatre in Hollywood, Los Angeles in 2009.

In the 1930s and 1940s, both the Democrats and the Republicans recognized the political opportunities within Hollywood. President Franklin Roosevelt was an early adopter, effectively leveraging the charisma of Hollywood stars in national campaigns [106]. Melvyn Douglas and his wife Helen embarked on a tour of Washington, D.C., in 1939, where they met with key figures of the New Deal administration [107].

Political Endorsements

See also: Hollywood blacklist and List of Joe Biden 2020 presidential campaign celebrity endorsements

Endorsement letters from prominent actors were solicited and signed, and appearances on radio programs and printed advertisements were utilized to amplify political messages. Movie stars were strategically employed to draw large audiences to engage with the political perspectives of the parties. By the 1960s, John F. Kennedy represented a fresh, youthful presence in Washington, and his close friendship with Frank Sinatra epitomized this new era of glamour. The old guard of Hollywood moguls had faded, and younger, emerging executives and producers began championing more liberal ideas [108][109].

The allure of celebrities and the perceived affluence of the glittering Hollywood lifestyle attracted politicians. As Ron Brownstein observed in his book The Power and the Glitter, television emerged as a profoundly influential new medium in politics during the 1970s and 1980s, and Hollywood played a significant role in this landscape. Actors such as Jane Fonda delivered speeches articulating their political beliefs, notably in opposition to the Vietnam War [110]. Despite the predominantly left-leaning political leanings of most celebrities and producers, who tended to support the Democratic Party [111][112], this era also produced notable Republican actors and producers, including Clint Eastwood and Jerry Bruckheimer. Support groups like the Friends of Abe were established to champion conservative causes within Hollywood, an industry often perceived as biased against conservatives [113]. Former actor Ronald Reagan successfully transitioned into politics, becoming governor of California and subsequently the 40th president of the United States. This trend continued with Arnold Schwarzenegger serving as California's governor in 2003.

Political Donations

The Academy Museum of Motion Pictures.

Today, donations from Hollywood contribute significantly to funding federal politics. For instance, on February 20, 2007, then-presidential candidate Barack Obama hosted a Hollywood gala at the Beverly Hilton, with a ticket price of $2,300 per plate, organized by DreamWorks founders David Geffen, Jeffrey Katzenberg, and Steven Spielberg [115].

Criticisms

Covert Advertising

Native advertising is designed to persuade through subtle means, distinguishing it from overt propaganda. A prevalent modern example in the United States is Copaganda, where television shows often present unrealistically flattering portrayals of law enforcement. This practice serves, in part, to facilitate the borrowing of equipment and obtain assistance in blocking off streets for easier filming on location [116]. Other accusations of reputation laundering have been leveled against the entertainment industry, including efforts to enhance the image of the Mafia [117].

Product placement has also been a point of criticism, particularly concerning the tobacco industry's promotion of smoking on screen [118]. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention estimates that 18% of teen smokers would not have started smoking if films depicting smoking were automatically given an 'R' rating, a measure that could potentially save one million lives [119].

Censorship

See also: Overseas censorship of Chinese issues and List of TV and films critical of Chinese Communist Party

Hollywood producers sometimes acquiesce to the censorship requirements of the Chinese government in an effort to gain access to the country's lucrative and restricted cinema market [120], which, as of 2016, was the second-largest box office globally. This can involve prioritizing sympathetic portrayals of Chinese characters in films, such as altering the villains in Red Dawn from Chinese to North Koreans [120]. Due to the numerous topics forbidden in China, such as the Dalai Lama and Winnie-the-Pooh being referenced in the South Park episode "Band in China", South Park was completely banned in China following the episode's broadcast [121]. The 2018 film Christopher Robin , a new Winnie-the-Pooh movie, was denied a release in China [121].

While Tibet was once a prominent cause célèbre in Hollywood, featured in films like Kundun and Seven Years in Tibet, this has diminished in the 21st century [122]. In 2016, Marvel Entertainment faced criticism for casting Tilda Swinton as "The Ancient One" in the film adaptation Doctor Strange , a decision seen by some as whitewashing by casting a white actress in a traditionally Tibetan role [123]. Actor and prominent Tibet supporter Richard Gere stated he was no longer welcome in mainstream Hollywood films after criticizing the Chinese government and calling for a boycott of the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing [122][124].

Historic Examples

Hollywood also engaged in self-censorship, avoiding negative depictions of Nazis for most of the 1930s to maintain access to the German market [125]. Around that time, economic censorship led to the self-censoring of content to appease influential groups. The Hays Code, an industry-led initiative from 1930 to 1967, enforced strict self-censorship to appease religious objections and preempt government intervention [125].

Researchers in political economy of communication have long focused on the international presence, power, profitability, and popularity of Hollywood films. Scholarly works by Toby Miller and Richard Maxwell [126], Janet Wasko and Mary Erickson [127], Kerry Segrave [128], John Trump Bour [129], and Tanner Mirrlees [130] delve into the international political economy underpinning Hollywood's global influence.

According to Tanner Mirrlees, Hollywood employs four primary capitalist strategies to attract and integrate non-U.S. film producers, exhibitors, and audiences into its sphere of influence: ownership, cross-border productions utilizing subordinate service providers, content licensing agreements with exhibitors, and the creation of blockbusters designed for global appeal [131].

In 1912, American film companies were largely focused on competing within the domestic market, struggling to meet the immense demand generated by the nickelodeon boom. Members of the Motion Picture Patents Company, including Edison Studios, also sought to limit competition from imported films from France, Italy, and other countries. Consequently, exporting films became a lucrative endeavor for these companies. Vitagraph Studios was the first American company to establish its own distribution offices in Europe, opening a branch in London in 1906 and a second in Paris shortly thereafter [132].

Other American companies also ventured into foreign markets, and American film distribution abroad continued to expand until the mid-1920s. Initially, the majority of companies sold their films indirectly. Lacking experience in overseas trade, they often sold the foreign rights to their films to foreign distribution firms or export agents. London gradually emerged as a central hub for the international circulation of U.S. films [132].

The Dolby Theatre, Hollywood's renowned venue for the prestigious Academy Awards ceremony.

Many British companies profited by acting as agents in this business, inadvertently weakening British production by ceding a substantial portion of the UK market to American films. By 1911, approximately 60 to 70 percent of films imported into Great Britain were American productions. The United States also demonstrated strong performance in Germany, Australia, and New Zealand [132].

More recently, in the late 20th and early 21st centuries, with the intensification of globalization and the U.S. government's active promotion of free trade agendas, particularly concerning cultural products, Hollywood has become a dominant global cultural source. The success of Hollywood's export markets is reflected in the proliferation of American multinational media corporations worldwide and their capacity to produce big-budget films appealing to diverse popular tastes across numerous cultures [133].

Hollywood has deepened its engagement with Chinese markets, albeit under the influence of China's censorship regulations. Films produced in China face strict censorship, with themes such as "ghosts, violence, murder, horror, and demons" being heavily scrutinized and often cut. Hollywood has been compelled to produce "approved" films that conform to official Chinese standards, often sacrificing aesthetic quality for box office profits. Even Chinese audiences have expressed dissatisfaction with the delays in the release of major American movies dubbed into their native language [134].

Role of Women

Main article: Women in film
This section requires updating to reflect recent events or newly available information. (August 2023)

Meryl Streep is recognized as one of the most influential women in Hollywood, and Katharine Hepburn holds the record for the most Academy Awards for Best Actress, with four wins.

Women remain statistically underrepresented in creative positions within Hollywood, the center of the U.S. film industry. This disparity is often referred to as the "celluloid ceiling", a variation of the employment discrimination term "glass ceiling". In 2013, the "top-paid actors ... made 2½ times as much money as the top-paid actresses." Furthermore, older male actors earned more than their female counterparts of the same age, with "female movie stars mak[ing] the most money on average per film at age 34, while male stars earn the most at 51."

The 2013 Celluloid Ceiling Report, compiled by the Center for the Study of Women in Television and Film at San Diego State University, analyzed data from "2,813 individuals employed by the 250 top domestic grossing films of 2012." The report revealed that:

"18% of all directors, executive producers, producers, writers, cinematographers, and editors. This reflected no change from 2011 and only a 1% increase from 1998." [137]
"9% of all directors." [137]
"15% of writers." [137]
"25% of all producers." [137]
"20% of all editors." [137]
"2% of all cinematographers." [137]
"38% of films employed 0 or 1 woman in the roles considered, 23% employed 2 women, 28% employed 3 to 5 women, and 10% employed 6 to 9 women." [137]

A New York Times article indicated that only 15% of the top films released in 2013 featured women in lead acting roles [138]. The study's author noted that "The percentage of female speaking roles has not increased much since the 1940s when they hovered around 25 percent to 28 percent." Moreover, "Since 1998, women's representation in behind-the-scenes roles other than directing has gone up just 1 percent." Women "directed the same percent of the 250 top-grossing films in 2012 (9 percent) as they did in 1998." [135]

Race and Ethnicity

Main articles: African-American representation in Hollywood, Representation of African Americans in media, Portrayal of East Asians in Hollywood, Portrayal of Native Americans in film, Portrayal of Arabs in film, White savior narrative in film, Whitewashing in film, Chicano films, Racism in early American film, and Racism in horror films

On May 10, 2021, NBC announced its decision not to televise the 79th Golden Globe Awards in 2022, in solidarity with a boycott of the Hollywood Foreign Press Association (HFPA) by multiple media companies. This action was taken due to the HFPA's inadequate efforts to address the lack of diversity among its membership, particularly concerning people of color. NBC stated it would consider televising the ceremony in 2023 if the HFPA successfully implemented reforms [139]. The HFPA was subsequently disbanded two years later as a consequence of this and other controversies [140][141].

American cinema has frequently perpetuated negative stereotypes towards foreign nationals and ethnic minorities [142]. For example, Russians and Russian Americans are commonly depicted as brutal mobsters, ruthless agents, and villains [143][144][145]. According to Russian American professor Nina L. Khrushcheva, "You can't even turn the TV on and go to the movies without reference to Russians as horrible" [146]. Italians and Italian Americans are often associated with organized crime and the American Mafia [147][148][149]. Hispanic and Latino Americans are largely portrayed in stereotypical roles such as the sexually charged Latino macho or the Latina vixen, as gang members, (illegal) immigrants, or entertainers [150]. However, representation in Hollywood has seen improvements in recent years, gaining momentum in the 1990s. Contemporary films no longer primarily emphasize themes of oppression, exploitation, or resistance. According to Charles Ramírez Berg, third-wave films "do not accentuate Chicano oppression or resistance; ethnicity in these films exists as one fact of several that shape characters' lives and stamps their personalities" [151]. Filmmakers like Edward James Olmos and Robert Rodriguez have been instrumental in representing the Hispanic and Latino American experience in unprecedented ways on screen. Actors such as Hilary Swank, Jordana Brewster, Jessica Alba, Camilla Belle, Al Madrigal, Alexis Bledel, Sofía Vergara, Ana de Armas, and Rachel Zegler have achieved significant success. In the last decade, minority filmmakers such as Chris Weitz, Alfonso Gomez-Rejon, and Patricia Riggen have been entrusted with developing and directing narratives. Films that portray Hispanic and Latino Americans include La Bamba (1987), Selena (1997), The Mask of Zorro (1998), Goal II: Living the Dream (2007), Overboard (2018), Father of the Bride (2022), and Josefina López's Real Women Have Curves, originally a play that premiered in 1990 and was later adapted into a film in 2002 [151].

This section requires expansion with more details about African-Americans in American cinema. You can help by adding to it. (February 2025)

African-American representation in Hollywood improved significantly towards the end of the 20th century following the decline of the studio system, and this positive trend continues into the 21st century with ongoing increases in minority representation [152][153][154][155]. In old Hollywood, it was not uncommon for white actors to perform in blackface [156].

According to Korean American actor Daniel Dae Kim, Asian and Asian American men have often been portrayed as "inscrutable villains and asexualized kind of eunuchs" [149]. The Media Action Network for Asian Americans accused the director and studio of Aloha of whitewashing the film's cast. Director Cameron Crowe issued an apology regarding the casting of Emma Stone in a role originally intended for a character of one-quarter Chinese and one-quarter Hawaiian descent [157][158][159]. Throughout the 20th century, acting roles for Asians in film were limited, and many available characters were narrow stereotypes. In the 21st century, young Asian American comedians and filmmakers have found a platform on YouTube, enabling them to cultivate strong and loyal fan bases among their peers [160]. More recently, the film Crazy Rich Asians received acclaim in the United States for featuring a predominantly Asian cast [161], although it faced criticism elsewhere for casting biracial and non-Chinese actors in ethnically Chinese roles. The film Always Be My Maybe was praised for cleverly integrating social commentary into familiar rom-com tropes [162].

Prior to the September 11 attacks, Arabs and Arab Americans were frequently depicted as terrorists [149]. The decision to cast Naomi Scott, the daughter of an English father and a Gujarati Ugandan-Indian mother, as the lead character of Jasmine in the live-action adaptation of Aladdin also drew criticism and accusations of racism, as some commentators expected the role to be filled by an actress of Arab or Middle Eastern descent [163]. In January 2018, reports emerged that white extras were being given brown makeup during filming to "blend in," sparking outrage and condemnation from fans and critics who branded the practice "an insult to the whole industry" and accused the producers of failing to recruit individuals of Middle Eastern or North African heritage. Disney responded to the controversy by stating, "Diversity of our cast and background performers was a requirement and only in a handful of instances when it was a matter of specialty skills, safety and control (special effects rigs, stunt performers and handling of animals) were crew made up to blend in" [164][165].

Working Conditions

See also: List of Hollywood strikes

The New Beverly Cinema, known for showcasing a diverse range of films from various genres and eras, retains its vintage charm with 35mm film projections and an old-school moviegoing experience.

Hollywood's workflow is characterized by its unique nature: much of its workforce does not report to the same factory daily, nor follow a consistent routine. Filming often occurs at remote locations worldwide, with schedules dictated by the scenes being shot rather than by optimal productivity. For example, an urban film shot entirely on location at night would necessitate most crews working a graveyard shift, while a situational comedy series primarily filmed on a stage with only one or two days of location shooting per week would adhere to a more traditional work schedule. Westerns are frequently filmed in desert locations far from crew members' homes, in areas with limited hotel accommodations, requiring long commutes before and after shooting days, thereby maximizing available daylight hours and often leading to 16- to 17-hour workdays from departure to return [166][167].

Amidst a broader decline in the power of organized labor in America throughout the 20th and early 21st centuries, all major studios have maintained contracts with unions through the Alliance of Motion Picture and Television Producers (AMPTP), a trade alliance representing film studios and television networks. Due to the casual nature of employment in Hollywood, it is only through sectoral bargaining that individual workers can assert their rights to minimum wage guarantees and access to pension and health plans that carry over from one production to the next. This system also provides studios with access to a trained workforce capable of stepping onto a set on day one with the necessary knowledge and experience to operate highly technical equipment [168].

The majority of workers in Hollywood are represented by several unions and guilds. The 150,000-member-strong International Alliance of Theatrical Stage Employees (IATSE) represents most of the crafts, including grips, electricians, camera operators, editors, sound engineers, and hair and makeup artists. The Screen Actors Guild (SAG) is the next largest group, representing approximately 130,000 actors and performers. The Directors Guild of America (DGA) represents directors and production managers, the Writers Guild of America (WGA) represents writers, and the International Brotherhood of Teamsters (IBT) represents drivers [169][170].

While the relationship between labor and management has generally been amicable over the years, with collaborative efforts including the development of safe protocols to continue working during COVID-19 and joint lobbying for tax incentives, contract negotiations have reportedly become contentious due to industry shifts and in response to rising income inequality. In 1945, a six-month set decorator strike led to a violent confrontation between strikers, scabs, strikebreakers, and studio security forces [171][172][173][174].

In recent years, Hollywood has faced significant challenges, including strikes by writers and actors, which have resulted in substantial production cutbacks and layoffs across the industry. These strikes have led to union contracts that offer increased compensation and protections against artificial intelligence. However, they have also caused a slowdown in production and a rise in unemployment among film and television workers.

Cinema Of The United States