Hispanic And Latino Americans

"Hispanic and Latino Americans" redirects here. For the ethnic categories, see Hispanic and Latino (ethnic categories).

"Latinas" and "Latinos" redirect here. For other uses, see Latina and Latino.

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Ethnic group Hispanic and Latino Americans Estadounidenses hispanos y latinos (Spanish)

Proportion of Hispanic and Latino Americans in each county of the fifty states, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico as of the 2020 United States census

Total population 65,329,087 (2020) 19.5% of the total US and Puerto Rico population (2020) 62,080,044 (2020) [1] 18.7% of the total US population (2020) [1]

Regions with significant populations

California
Texas
Northeast megalopolis (New York/New Jersey metropolitan area, Washington, D.C. metro area, others)
Florida
Southwestern United States
Midwestern industrial cities (Chicago metropolitan area, Kansas City, Milwaukee, others)

Languages

Religion

Catholic 43%
Unaffiliated 30%
Evangelical Protestant 15%
Non-evangelical Protestant 6%
Other 4%

[2]

Related ethnic groups

Part of a series on Hispanic and Latino Americans

National origin groups

History Americans by ancestry

Political movements

Organizations

Culture

Languages

Ethnic groups

Lists

v • t • e

Hispanic and Latino Americans are Americans who have a Hispanic or Latin American background, culture, or family origin. [3][4][5][6] This demographic group includes all Americans who identify as Hispanic or Latino, regardless of race. [7][8][9][10][11][12] As of July 1, 2024, the Hispanic and Latino population was estimated at 68,086,153, representing approximately 20% of the total U.S. population, making them the second-largest group in the country after the non-Hispanic White population. [13]

"Origin" can be viewed as the ancestry, nationality group, lineage, or country of birth of the person, parents, or ancestors before their arrival into the United States of America. People who identify as Hispanic or Latino may be of any race, because, similarly to what occurred during the colonization and post-independence of the United States, Latin American countries have had populations made up of multiracial and monoracial descendants of settlers from the metropole of a European colonial empire (in the case of Latin American countries, Spanish and Portuguese settlers), unlike the Thirteen Colonies that would form the United States, which received settlers from the United Kingdom). In addition, there are also monoracial and multiracial descendants of Indigenous peoples of the Americas (Native Americans), descendants of African slaves brought to Latin America in the colonial era, and post-independence immigrants from Europe, the Middle East, and East Asia. [14][15][16][17]

As one of only two specifically designated categories of ethnicity in the United States, Hispanics and Latinos form a pan-ethnicity incorporating a diversity of inter-related cultural and linguistic heritages, in which the use of the Spanish language is the most important common element. The largest national origin groups of Hispanic and Latino Americans, in order of population size, are: Mexican, Puerto Rican, Cuban, Salvadoran, Dominican, Colombian, Guatemalan, Honduran, Ecuadorian, Peruvian, Venezuelan, and Nicaraguan. Although commonly embraced by Latino communities, Brazilians are officially not considered Hispanic or Latino. [18][19] The predominant origin of regional Hispanic and Latino populations varies widely in different locations across the country. [15][20][21][22][23] In 2012, Hispanic Americans were the second fastest-growing ethnic group by percentage growth in the United States after Asian Americans. [24]

Hispanic Americans of Indigenous American descent and European (typically Spanish) descent are the second oldest racial group (after the Native Americans) to inhabit much of what is today the United States. [25][26][27][28] Spain colonized large areas of what is today the American Southwest and West Coast, as well as Florida. Its holdings included all of present-day California, Nevada, Utah, Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, and Florida, as well as parts of Wyoming, Colorado, Kansas, and Oklahoma, all of which constituted part of the Viceroyalty of New Spain, based in Mexico City. Later, this vast territory (except Florida, which Spain ceded to the United States in 1821) became part of Mexico after its independence from Spain in 1821 and until the end of the Mexican–American War in 1848.

Terminology

• Further information: Hispanic and Latino (ethnic categories)

The Spanish Harlem Orchestra in Manhattan. New York City is home to nearly 3 million Latino Americans, the largest Hispanic population of any city outside Latin America and Spain.

The terms Hispanic and Latino refer to an ethnicity. "Hispanic" first came into popular use to refer to individuals with origins in Spanish-speaking countries after the Office of Management and Budget created the classification in 1977, as proposed by a subcommittee composed of three government employees—a Cuban, a Mexican, and a Puerto Rican American. [29] The United States Census Bureau defines being Hispanic as being a member of an ethnicity, rather than being a member of a particular race, and thus, people who are members of this group may also be members of any race. [15][30][31] In a 2015 national survey of self-identified Hispanics, 56% said that being Hispanic is part of both their racial and ethnic background, while smaller numbers considered it part of their ethnic background only (19%) or racial background only (11%). [30] Hispanics may be of any linguistic background; in a 2015 survey, 71% of American Hispanics agreed that it "is not necessary for a person to speak Spanish to be considered Hispanic/Latino." [32] Hispanic and Latino people may share some commonalities in their language, culture, history, and heritage.

The National Hispanic Cultural Center in Albuquerque, New Mexico; Hispanics make up half of New Mexico's population. [33]

The Smithsonian Institution defends that the term "Latino" should also include peoples with Portuguese roots, such as Brazilians, and not only those of Spanish-language origin. [34][35] The difference between the terms "Hispanic" and "Latino" is ambiguous to some people. [36] The U.S. Census Bureau equates the two terms and defines them as referring exclusively to Hispanic people [37][38] and those from Spain or the Spanish-speaking countries of the Americas. After the Mexican–American War concluded in 1848, the term "Hispanic" or "Spanish American" was primarily used to describe the Hispanos of New Mexico within the American Southwest. The 1970 United States census controversially broadened the definition to "a person of Mexican, Puerto Rican, Cuban, Dominican, South or Central American, or other Spanish culture or origin, regardless of race." This is now the common formal and colloquial definition of the term within the United States, outside of New Mexico. [39][40] This definition is consistent with the 21st-century usage by the U.S. Census Bureau and OMB, as the two agencies use both terms "Hispanic" and "Latino" interchangeably. The Pew Research Center mentions that some researchers defend that the term "Hispanic" is strictly limited to Spain, Puerto Rico, and all countries where Spanish is the only official language, whereas "Latino" could include all countries in Latin America (even Brazil, regardless of the fact that Portuguese is its only official language), but not Spain and Portugal. [3]

Mariachi Plaza in Los Angeles; Hispanics form the largest ethnic group in California, at 15.7 million people, or 40.4% of the total population.

The terms Latino and Latina are words from Italy and are ultimately from ancient Rome. In English, the term "Latino" is a condensed form of "latinoamericano," the Spanish term for a Latin American, or someone who comes from Latin America. The term "Latino" has developed a number of definitions. This definition, as a "male Latin American inhabitant of the United States," [41] is the oldest definition used in the United States; it was first used in 1946. [41] Under this definition, a Mexican American or Puerto Rican, for example, is both a Hispanic and a Latino. [42][43][44][45][46][47] In the United States, both Brazilian Americans and Italian Americans are officially not considered "Latino," [48] as they are for the most part descended from immigrants from non-Hispanic countries, unless they happen to have had recent history in a Latin American country.

Preference of use between the terms among Hispanics in the United States often depends on where users of the respective terms reside. Those in the Eastern United States tend to prefer the term "Hispanic," whereas those in the West tend to prefer "Latino." [14]

The US ethnic designation "Latino" is abstracted from the longer form latinoamericano. [49] The element Latino- is actually an indeclinable, compositional form in -o (i.e., an elemento compositivo) that is employed to coin compounded formations (similar to franc- in francocanadiense 'French-Canadian,' or ibero- in iberorrománico, [50] etc.).

The Latino Cultural Center in Dallas; Hispanics are the largest ethnic group in Texas, making up 11.4 million people, or 39.3% of the population.

The term Latinx (and similar neologism Xicanx) have gained some usage. [51][52] The adoption of the "X" would be "[r]eflecting new consciousness inspired by more recent work by LGBTQI and feminist movements, some Spanish-speaking activists are increasingly using a yet more inclusive 'x' to replace the 'a' and 'o,' in a complete break with the gender binary." Among the advocates of the term "LatinX," one of the most frequently cited complaints of gender bias in the Spanish language is that a group of mixed or unknown gender would be referred to as Latinos, whereas Latinas refers to a group of women only (but this is changed immediately to Latinos if even a single man joins this female group). [53] A 2020 Pew Research Center survey found that about 3% of Hispanics use the term (mostly women), and only around 23% have even heard of the term. Of those, 65% said it should not be used to describe their ethnic group. [55] Another gender-neutral term, like "Latinx," is "Latine." Though "Latinx" is quite challenging to say in Spanish, "Latine" is easy. Spanish speakers are increasingly adopting this term, which originated in Spanish-speaking countries. [56]

Some have pointed out that the term "Hispanic" refers to a pan-ethnic identity, one that spans a range of races, national origins, and linguistic backgrounds. "Terms like Hispanic and Latino do not fully capture how we see ourselves," says Geraldo Cadava, an associate professor of history and Hispanic studies at Northwestern University. [57]

According to a 2020 American Community Survey data, more than two-thirds of Brazilians in the U.S. described themselves as Hispanic or Latino. [11] In 2017, a small minority of Portuguese Americans (2%) and Filipino Americans (1%) self-identified as Hispanic. [citation needed]

History

• Main article: History of Hispanic and Latino Americans in the United States

• See also: Hispanic Heritage Sites

• This section needs expansion with: more about the 19th and 20th centuries. (January 2010)

16th and 17th centuries

Founded by the Spanish in 1565, St. Augustine, Florida is the oldest continuously inhabited European-established settlement in the contiguous United States.

Explorers were pioneers in the territory of the present-day United States. The first confirmed European landing in the continental United States was by Juan Ponce de León, who landed in 1513 at a lush shore he christened La Florida. In the next three decades, the small numbers of Spanish individuals became the first Europeans to reach the Appalachian Mountains, the Mississippi River, the Grand Canyon, and the Great Plains. Ships sailed along the Atlantic Coast, penetrating to present-day Bangor, Maine, and up the Pacific Coast as far as Oregon. From 1528 to 1536, Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca and three fellows (including an African named Estevanico), from a Spanish expedition that foundered, journeyed from Florida to the Gulf of California. In 1540, Hernando de Soto undertook an extensive exploration of the present United States.

Also in 1540, Francisco Vásquez de Coronado led 2,000 mostly Mexican natives across today's Arizona–Mexico border and traveled as far as central Kansas, close to the exact geographic center of what is now the continental United States. Other Spanish explorers of US territory include, among others: Alonso Alvarez de Pineda, Lucas Vázquez de Ayllón, Pánfilo de Narváez, Sebastián Vizcaíno, Gaspar de Portolà, Pedro Menéndez de Avilés, Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca, Tristán de Luna y Arellano, and Juan de Oñate, and non-Spanish explorers working for the Spanish Crown, such as Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo.

San Miguel Chapel, built in 1610 in Santa Fe, New Mexico, is the oldest church structure in the United States.

In 1565, the Spanish created the first permanent European settlement in the continental United States, at St. Augustine, Florida. Spanish missionaries and colonists founded settlements, including in present-day Santa Fe, New Mexico, El Paso, San Antonio, Tucson, Albuquerque, San Diego, Los Angeles, and San Francisco. [58]

Settlements in the American Continent were part of a broader network of trade routes that connected Europe, Africa, and the Americas. The mostly Tlaxcalan settlers established trade connections with other indigenous peoples, exchanging goods such as furs, hides, agricultural products, and manufactured goods. [citation needed] These trade networks contributed to the economic development of colonies and facilitated cultural exchange between different groups. [citation needed]

18th and 19th centuries

Mission San Carlos Borromeo de Carmelo, established in 1770, was the headquarters of the Californian mission system from 1797 until 1833.

As late as 1783, at the end of the American Revolutionary War (a conflict in which Spain aided and fought alongside the rebels), Spain held claim to roughly half the territory of today's continental United States. From 1819 to 1848, the United States increased its area by roughly a third at Spanish and Mexican expense, acquiring the present-day U.S states of California, Texas, Nevada, Utah, most of Colorado, New Mexico, and Arizona, and parts of Oklahoma, Kansas, and Wyoming through the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo after the Mexican-American War, [59] as well as Florida through the Adams-Onís treaty, [60] and the U.S territory of Puerto Rico through the Spanish-American War in 1898. [61] Many Latinos residing in those regions during that period gained U.S. citizenship. Nonetheless, many long-established Latino residents faced significant difficulties post-citizenship. With the arrival of Anglo-Americans in these newly incorporated areas, Latino inhabitants struggled to maintain their land holdings, political influence, and cultural traditions. [62][63]

The 1836 Battle of the Alamo, part of the Texas Revolution, was fought between forces of Mexico and the Republic of Texas.

The discovery of gold in California in 1848 attracted people from diverse backgrounds, including Hispanic and Latino miners, merchants, and settlers. The Gold Rush led to a population boom and rapid economic growth in California, transforming the social and political landscape of the region.

Many Hispanic natives lived in the areas that the United States acquired, and a new wave of Mexican, Central American, Caribbean, and South American immigrants moved to the United States for new opportunities. This was the beginning of a demographic that would rise dramatically over the years. [64]

20th and 21st centuries

Between 1928 and 1939, between 300,000 and 2 million Mexicans and Mexican-Americans were deported from the United States, 40–60% of whom were American citizens. In 1954, Operation Wetback deported another 250,000.

During the 20th and 21st centuries, Hispanic immigration to the United States increased markedly following changes to the immigration law in 1965. [65] During the World Wars, Hispanic Americans and immigrants helped stabilize the American economy from falling due to the industrial boom in the Midwest in states such as Michigan, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Wisconsin, and Minnesota. While a percentage of Americans fled their jobs for the war, Hispanics took their jobs in the industrial world. This can explain why there is such a high concentration of Hispanic Americans in metro areas such as the Chicago-Elgin-Naperville, Detroit-Warren-Dearborn, and Cleveland-Elyria areas. [64]

Hispanic and Latino Americans were actively involved in the broader civil rights movement of the 20th century, advocating for equal rights, social justice, and an end to discrimination and segregation. Organizations such as the League of United Latin American Citizens (LULAC) and the United Farm Workers (UFW) fought for the rights of Hispanic and Latino workers and communities.

Hispanic contributions in the historical past and present of the United States are addressed in more detail below (See Notables and their contributions). To recognize the current and historic contributions of Hispanic Americans, on September 17, 1968, President Lyndon B. Johnson designated a week in mid-September as National Hispanic Heritage Week, with Congress's authorization. In 1988, President Ronald Reagan extended the observance to a month, designated National Hispanic Heritage Month. [66][67] Hispanic Americans became the largest minority group in 2004. [68]

Civil rights activist Cesar Chavez, flanked by Brown Berets, at a 1971 rally during the Chicano movement

Hispanic and Latino Americans increasingly sought political representation and empowerment during the 20th century. The election of individuals such as Edward Roybal, Henry B. González, and Dennis Chávez to Congress marked significant milestones in Hispanic political representation. Additionally, the appointment of individuals like Lauro Cavazos and Bill Richardson to cabinet positions highlighted the growing influence of Hispanic and Latino leaders in government.

Hispanic and Latino Americans became the largest minority group in the United States, contributing significantly to the country's population growth. Efforts to preserve and promote Hispanic and Latino culture and heritage continued in the 21st century, including initiatives to support bilingual education, celebrate cultural traditions and festivals, and recognize the contributions of Hispanic and Latino individuals and communities to American society.

Demographics

• Main article: Demographics of Hispanic and Latino Americans

Hispanic Americans population pyramid in 2020

As of 2020, Hispanics accounted for 19–20% of the US population, or 62–65 million people. [69] The US Census Bureau later estimated that Hispanics were under-counted by 5.0%, or 3.3 million persons, in the US census, which explains the 3 million range in the number above. In contrast, Whites were over-counted by about 3 million. [70] The Hispanic growth rate over the April 1, 2000, to July 1, 2007, period was 28.7%—about four times the rate of the nation's total population growth (at 7.2%). [71] The growth rate from July 1, 2005, to July 1, 2006, alone was 3.4% [72] —about three and a half times the rate of the nation's total population growth (at 1.0%). [71] Based on the 2010 census, Hispanics are now the largest minority group in 191 out of 366 metropolitan areas in the United States. [73] The projected Hispanic population of the United States for July 1, 2050, is 132.8 million people, or 30.2% of the nation's total projected population on that date. [74]

Geographic distribution

• Hispanic and Latino American population distribution over time

• 1980

• 1990

• 2000

• 2010

• 2020

Proportion of Hispanic Americans in each county of the fifty states, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico as of the 2020 United States census

US Metropolitan Statistical Areas with over 1 million Hispanics (2014) [75]

Rank	Metropolitan area	Hispanic population	Percent Hispanic
1	Los Angeles-Long Beach-Anaheim, CA	5,979,000	45.1%
2	New York-Newark-Jersey City, NY-NJ-PA	4,780,000	23.9%
3	Miami-Fort Lauderdale-West Palm Beach, FL	2,554,000	43.3%
4	Houston-The Woodlands-Sugar Land, TX	2,335,000	36.4%
5	Chicago-Naperville-Elgin, IL-IN-WI	2,251,000	23.4%
6	Riverside-San Bernardino-Ontario, CA	2,197,000	49.4%
7	Dallas-Fort Worth-Arlington, TX	1,943,000	28.4%
8	Phoenix-Mesa-Scottsdale, AZ	1,347,000	30.1%
9	San Antonio-New Braunfels, TX	1,259,000	55.7%
10	San Diego-Carlsbad, CA	1,084,000	33.3%
11	San Francisco-Oakland-Hayward, CA	1,008,000	21.9%

States and territories with the highest proportion of Hispanics (2021) [76]

Rank	State/territory	Hispanic population	Percent Hispanic
1	Puerto Rico	3,249,043	99%
2	New Mexico	1,059,236	50%
3	Texas	11,857,387	40%
4	California	15,754,608	40%
5	Arizona	2,351,124	32%
6	Nevada	940,759	29%
7	Florida	5,830,915	26%
8	Colorado	1,293,214	22%
9	New Jersey	1,991,635	21%
10	New York	3,864,337	19%
11	Illinois	2,277,330	18%
12	United States Virgin Islands	18,514	17.4%

Of the nation's total Hispanic population, 49% (21.5 million) live in California or Texas. [77] In 2022, New York City and Washington, D.C. began receiving significant numbers of Latino migrants from the state of Texas, mostly originating from Venezuela, Ecuador, Colombia, and Honduras. [78]

Over half of the Hispanic population is concentrated in the Southwest region, mostly composed of Mexican Americans. California and Texas have some of the largest populations of Mexicans and Central American Hispanics in the United States. The Northeast region is dominated by Dominican Americans and Puerto Ricans, having the highest concentrations of both in the country. In the Mid-Atlantic region, centered on the DC Metro Area, Salvadoran Americans are the largest of Hispanic groups. Florida is dominated by Cuban Americans and Puerto Ricans. In both the Great Lakes states and the South Atlantic states, Mexicans and Puerto Ricans dominate. Mexicans dominate in the rest of the country, including the West, South Central, and Great Plains states.

National origin

International-style Latin dancing at the 2006 MIT ballroom dance competition. A judge stands in the foreground.

Population by national origin (2022) (self-identified ethnicity, full or partial, not by birthplace) [79]

Hispanic ancestry	Population	% of Latinos	% of USA
Mexican	37,145,956	60.15%	11.22%
Puerto Rican	5,902,402	9.56%	1.78%
Cuban	2,405,080	3.89%	0.73%
Salvadoran	2,389,469	3.87%	0.72%
Dominican	2,267,142	3.67%	0.68%
Guatemalan	1,669,094	2.70%	0.50%
Colombian	1,357,798	2.20%	0.41%
Honduran	1,068,265	1.73%	0.32%
Ecuadorian	803,854	1.30%	0.24%
Peruvian	712,740	1.15%	0.22%
Venezuelan	627,961	1.02%	0.19%
Nicaraguan	441,378	0.71%	0.13%
Argentinian	304,672	0.49%	0.09%
Panamanian	224,385	0.36%	0.07%
Chilean	182,671	0.30%	0.06%
Costa Rican	173,375	0.28%	0.05%
Bolivian	128,584	0.21%	0.04%
Uruguayan	71,984	0.12%	0.02%
Paraguayan	27,522	0.04%	0.01%
Other Central American	36,629	0.06%	0.01%
Other South American	30,622	0.05%	0.01%
Spanish [80]	1,756,181	2.84%	0.53%
All other	123,102	0.2%	0.04%
Total	61,755,866	100.00%	18.65%

As of 2022, approximately 60.1% of the nation's Hispanic population were of Mexican origin (see table). Another 9.6% were of Puerto Rican origin, and with about 3.9% each of Cuban and Salvadoran, and about 3.7% Dominican origins. [79] The remainder were of other Central American or South American origin, or of origin directly from Spain. In 2017, two-thirds of all Hispanic Americans were born in the United States. [81]

There are few immigrants directly from Spain, since Spaniards have historically emigrated to Hispanic America rather than to English-speaking countries. Because of this, most Hispanics who identify themselves as Spaniard or Spanish also identify with Hispanic American national origin. In the 2017 Census estimate, approximately 1.76 million Americans reported some form of "Spanish" as their ancestry, whether directly from Spain or not. [79]

In northern New Mexico and southern Colorado, there is a large portion of Hispanics who trace their ancestry to settlers from New Spain (Mexico), and sometimes Spain itself, in the late 16th through the 17th centuries. People from this background often self-identify as "Hispanos," "Spanish," or "Hispanic." Many of these settlers also intermarried with local Native Americans, creating a mestizo population. [82] Likewise, southern Louisiana is home to communities of people of Canary Islands descent, known as Isleños, in addition to other people of Spanish ancestry. Californios, Nuevomexicanos, and Tejanos are Americans of Spanish and/or Mexican descent, with subgroups that sometimes call themselves Chicanos. Nuevomexicanos and Tejanos are distinct Southwest Hispanic cultures with their own cuisines, dialects, and musical traditions.

Nuyoricans are Americans of Puerto Rican descent from the New York City area. There are close to two million Nuyoricans in the United States. Prominent Nuyoricans include Congresswoman Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez, US Supreme Court Justice Sonia Sotomayor, and singer Jennifer Lopez.

Race and ethnicity

Clockwise from top left: Eva Longoria, Rosario Dawson, Daniella Alonso, Michael Peña

Hispanics come from multi-racial and multi-ethnic countries with diversity of origins; therefore, a Hispanic can be from any race or mix of races. The most common ancestries are: Native American, European, and African. Many also have colonial-era New Christian Sephardic Jewish ancestry. [83] As a result of their racial diversity, Hispanics form an ethnicity sharing a language (Spanish) and cultural heritage, rather than a race.

Hispanic origin is independent of race and is termed "ethnicity" by the United States Census Bureau.

On the 2020 United States census, 20.3% of Hispanics selected "White" as their race. This marked a large drop compared to the 2010 United States census, in which 53.0% of Hispanics identified as "White." [84] These Hispanics make up 12,579,626 people, or 3.8% of the population.

Over 42% of Hispanic Americans identify as "some other race". [85] Of all Americans who checked the box "Some Other Race," 97 percent were Hispanic. [86] These Hispanics make up 26,225,882 people, or 42.2% of the Hispanic population.

Over half of the "two or more races" respondents were Hispanics. [87] These Hispanics make up 20,299,960 people, or 32.7% of the Hispanic population.

The largest numbers of Black Hispanics are from the Spanish Caribbean islands and Central America, including the Cuban, Haitian, Honduran, Panamanian, Dominican, and Puerto Rican communities.

In Puerto Rico, people have some Native Indigenous American ancestry as well as European and Canary Islander ancestry. There is also a population of predominantly African descent, as well as populations of Native American descent, and those with intermixed ancestries. Cubans are mostly of Iberian and Canary Islander ancestry, with some heritage from Native Indigenous Caribbean. There are also populations of Black Sub-Saharan ancestry and multi-racial people. [88][89][90] The race and culture of each Hispanic country and their United States diaspora differs by history and geography.

Welch and Sigelman found, as of the year 2000, lower interaction between Latinos of different nationalities (such as between Cubans and Mexicans) than between Latinos and non-Latinos. [91] This is a reminder that while they are often treated as such, Latinos in the United States are not a monolith, and often view their own ethnic or national identity as vastly different from that of other Latinos. [91]

Racial Demographics of Hispanic Americans Between 1970 and 2020 [92][93][94][95][96]

Race/Ethnic Group	1970	1980	1990	2000	2010	2020
Total Population	9,072,602	14,608,673	22,354,059	35,305,818	50,477,594	62,080,044
White alone	8,466,126 (93.3%)	8,115,256 (55.6%)	11,557,774 (51.7%)	16,907,852 (47.9%)	26,735,713 (53.0%)	12,579,626 (20.3%)
Black alone	454,934 (5.0%)	390,852 (2.7%)	769,767 (3.4%)	710,353 (2.0%)	1,243,471 (2.5%)	1,163,862 (1.9%)
Native American or Alaska Native alone	26,859 (0.3%)	94,745 (0.6%)	165,461 (0.7%)	407,073 (1.2%)	685,150 (1.4%)	1,475,436 (2.4%)
Asian or Pacific Islander alone	x	166,010 (1.1%)	305,303 (1.4%)	165,155 (0.5%)	267,565 (0.5%)	335,278 (0.5%)
Some other race alone	124,683 (1.4%) [a]	5,841,810 (40.0%)	9,555,754 (42.7%)	14,891,303 (42.2%)	18,503,103 (36.7%)	26,225,882 (42.2%)
Two or more races	x [b]	x [b]	x [b]	2,224,082 (6.3%)	3,042,592 (6.0%)	20,299,960 (32.7%)

Genetics

An autosomal DNA study published in 2019, focusing specifically on Native American ancestry in different ethnic/racial groups within the US, found that self-identified Hispanic Americans had a higher average amount of Native American ancestry compared to Black and non-Hispanic White Americans. On average, Hispanic Americans were found to be 52% European, around 38% Native American, and less than 10% African. [97][98] However, these results, being an average of the entire Hispanic population, vary sharply between individuals and between regions. Hispanic participants from the West Coast and West South Central regions, where the Hispanic population is predominantly Mexican-American, [99] had an average of 43% Native American ancestry. [98] On the other hand, those from the Mid-Atlantic region, where the Hispanic population is predominantly of Puerto Rican or Dominican descent, [100] averaged only 11% Native American ancestry. [98]

Age

As of 2014, one-third, or 17.9 million, of the Hispanic population was younger than 18, and a quarter, 14.6 million, were Millennials. This makes them more than half of the Hispanic population within the United States. [101]

Education

• See also: Hispanic-serving institution

Hispanic K–12 education

The Menaul School is a boarding school in Albuquerque, New Mexico, established in 1896 to educate Hispanic-Americans.

With the increasing Hispanic population in the United States, Hispanics have had a considerable impact on the K–12 system. In 2011–12, Hispanics constituted 24% of all enrollments in the United States, including 52% and 51% of enrollment in California and Texas, respectively. [102] Further research shows the Hispanic population will continue to grow in the United States, implicating that more Hispanics will populate US schools.

The state of Hispanic education shows some promise. First, Hispanic students attending pre-K or kindergarten were more likely to attend full-day programs. [102] Second, Hispanics in elementary education were the second largest group represented in gifted and talented programs. [102] Third, Hispanic students' average NAEP math and reading scores have consistently increased over the last 10 years. [102] Finally, Hispanics were more likely than other groups, including White people, to go to college. [102]

However, their academic achievement in early childhood, elementary, and secondary education lags behind other groups. [102] For instance, their average math and reading NAEP scores were lower than every other group except African Americans, and they have the highest dropout rate of any group (13%, despite decreasing from 24%). [102]

Felicitas and Gonzalo Méndez led an educational civil rights battle culminating in the 1947 landmark case, Mendez v. Westminster, which ended the segregation of Mexican students.

To explain these disparities, some scholars have suggested there is a Hispanic "Education Crisis" due to failed school and social policies. [103] To this end, scholars have further offered several potential reasons, including language barriers, poverty, and immigrant/nativity status, resulting in Hispanics not performing well academically. [104][105]

English-language learners

Currently, Hispanic students make up 80% of English-language learners in the United States. [106] In 2008–2009, 5.3 million students were classified as English Language Learners (ELLs) in pre-K to 12th grade. [107] This is a result of many students entering the education system at different ages, although the majority of ELLs are not foreign-born. [107] To provide English instruction for Hispanic students, there have been a multitude of English Language programs. Schools make demands regarding English fluency. There are test requirements to certify students who are non-native English speakers in writing, speaking, reading, and listening, for example. They take an ELPAC test, which evaluates their English efficiency. This assessment determines whether they are considered ELL students or not. For Hispanic students, being an ELL student will have a big impact because it's additional pressure to pass an extra exam apart from their own original classes. Furthermore, if the exam is not passed before they attend high school, the student will fall behind in their courses due to the additional ELD courses instead of taking their normal classes that year. [108] However, the great majority of these programs are English Immersion, which arguably undermines the students' culture and knowledge of their primary language. [105] As such, there continues to be great debate within schools as to which program can address these language disparities.

Immigration status

Escuela Popular, a Spanish-English dual immersion school in San Jose, California.

There are more than five million ELLs from all over the world attending public schools in the United States and speaking at least 460 different languages. [108] Undocumented immigrants have not always had access to compulsory education in the United States. However, since the landmark Supreme Court case Plyler v. Doe in 1982, immigrants have received access to K–12 education. This significantly impacted all immigrant groups, including Hispanics. However, their academic achievement is dependent upon several factors, including, but not limited to, time of arrival and schooling in their country of origin. [109] When non-native speakers arrive in the United States, the student not only enters a new country, language, or culture, but they also enter a testing culture to determine everything from their placements to advancement into the next grade level in their education. [108] Moreover, Hispanic immigration/nativity status plays a major role regarding their academic achievement. For instance, first- and second-generation Hispanics outperform their later generational counterparts. [110] Additionally, their aspirations appear to decrease as well. [111] This has major implications for their post-secondary futures.

Simultaneous bilingualism

The term "simultaneous bilinguals," coined by researcher Guadalupe Valdez, [112] refers to individuals who acquire two languages as a "first" language. Most American circumstantial bilinguals acquire their ethnic or immigrant language first and then English. The period of acquisition of the second language is known as incipient bilingualism.

Hispanic higher education

The California State University system has the highest number of Hispanic students of any university system in the country. The University of Puerto Rico is the largest Spanish-language educational institution in the United States.

Those with a bachelor's degree or higher ranges from 50% of Venezuelans compared to 18% for Ecuadorians 25 years and older. Among the largest Hispanic groups, those with a bachelor's or higher was 25% for Cubans, 16% of Puerto Ricans, 15% of Dominicans, and 11% for Mexicans. Over 21% of all second-generation Dominican Americans have college degrees, slightly below the national average (28%) but significantly higher than US-born Mexican Americans (13%) and US-born Puerto Rican Americans (12%). [113]

Hispanics make up the second or third largest ethnic group in Ivy League universities, considered to be the most prestigious in the United States. Hispanic enrollment at Ivy League universities has gradually increased over the years. Today, Hispanics make up between 8% of students at Yale University to 15% at Columbia University. [114] For example, 18% of students in the Harvard University Class of 2018 are Hispanic. [115]

Hispanic enrollment in universities and college systems (2012–2013)

Rank	University system	Hispanic enrollment	% of student body
1	Florida International University	24,105	67%
2	University of Texas at El Paso	15,459	81%
3	University of Texas Pan American	15,009	91%
4	University of Texas at San Antonio	11,932	47%
5	California State University at Northridge	11,774	38%
6	California State University at Fullerton	11,472	36%
7	Arizona State University	11,465	19%
8	California State University at Long Beach	10,836	35%
9	California State University at Los Angeles	10,392	58%
10	University of Central Florida	10,255	20%

Universities with the largest Hispanic graduate enrollment (2013)

Rank	University	Hispanic enrollment	% of student body
1	Nova Southeastern University	4,281	20%
2	Florida International University	3,612	42%
3	University of Southern California	2,358	11%
4	University of Texas Pan American	2,120	78%
5	University of Texas at El Paso	2,083	59%
6	CUNY Graduate Center	1,656	30%
7	University of New Mexico	1,608	26%
8	University of Texas at San Antonio	1,561	35%
9	University of Florida	1,483	9%
10	Arizona State University	1,400	10%

Hispanic student enrollment in university and college systems (2012–2013)

Rank	University system	Hispanic enrollment	% of student body
1	California Community College System [119]	642,045	41%
2	California State University [120]	149,137	33%
3	Florida College System [121]	118,821	26%
4	University of Texas System [122]	84,086	39%
5	State University System of Florida [123]	79,931	24%
6	City University of New York [124]	77,341	30%
7	State University of New York [125]	43,514	9%
8	University of California	42,604	18%
9	Texas A&M University System [126][127]	27,165	25%
10	Nevada System of Higher Education [128]	21,467	21%
–	Ivy League [114]	11,562	10%

Hispanics study in colleges and universities throughout the country; some choose to attend federally-designated Hispanic-serving institutions, institutions that are accredited, degree-granting, public or private nonprofit institutions of higher education with 25 percent or more total undergraduate Hispanic full-time equivalent (FTE) student enrollment. There are over 270 institutions of higher education that have been designated as an HSI. [117]

Health

Longevity

Santa Clara Valley Medical Center in San Jose, California.

As of 2016, life expectancy for Hispanic Americans is 81.8 years, which is higher than the life expectancy for White Americans (78.6 years). [129] Research on the "Hispanic paradox"—the well-established apparent mortality advantage of Hispanic Americans compared to White Americans, despite the latter's more advantaged socioeconomic status—has been principally explained by "(1) health-related migration to and from the US; and (2) social and cultural protection mechanisms, such as maintenance of healthy lifestyles and behaviors adopted in the countries of origin, and availability of extensive social networks in the US." [130] The "salmon bias" hypothesis, which suggests that the Hispanic health advantage is attributable to higher rates of return migration among less-healthy migrants, has received some support in the scholarly literature. [131] A 2019 study, examining the comparatively better health of foreign-born American Hispanics, challenged the hypothesis that a stronger orientation toward the family (familism) contributed to this advantage. [132] Some scholars have suggested that the Hispanic mortality advantage is likely to disappear due to the higher rates of obesity and diabetes among Hispanics relative to White people, although lower rates of smoking (and thus smoking-attributable mortality) among Hispanics may counteract this to some extent. [130]

As the COVID-19 coronavirus spread throughout the United States, disproportionate numbers of cases have been observed among Black and Hispanic populations. [133][134][135]

Healthcare

Memorial Hermann–Texas Medical Center in Houston, Texas.

As of 2017, about 19% of Hispanic Americans lack health insurance coverage, which is the highest of all ethnic groups except for Indigenous Americans and Alaska Natives. [136] In terms of extending health coverage, Hispanics benefited the most among US ethnic groups from the Affordable Care Act (ACA); among non-elderly Hispanics, the uninsured rate declined from 26.7% in 2013 to 14.2% in 2017. [136] Among the population of non-elderly uninsured Hispanic population in 2017, about 53% were non-citizens, about 39% were US-born citizens, and about 9% were naturalized citizens. [136] (The ACA does not help undocumented immigrants or legal immigrants with less than five years' residence in the United States gain coverage). [136]

According to a 2013 study, Mexican women have the highest uninsured rate (54.6%) compared to other immigrants (26.2%), Black individuals (22.5%), and White individuals (13.9%). [137] According to the study, Mexican women are the largest female immigrant group in the United States and are also most at risk for developing preventable health conditions. [137] Multiple factors such as limited access to health care, legal status, and income increase the risk of developing preventable health conditions because many undocumented immigrants postpone routine doctor visits until they become seriously ill.

Effects of family separation

Ursula detention center in McAllen, Texas is the largest U.S. Customs and Border Protection facility for processing undocumented immigrants. Rally to end the Trump administration family separation policy in San Francisco.

The American Academy of Pediatrics, the Canadian Paediatric Society, the American Medical Association, the Canadian Medical Association, and the International Society for Social Pediatrics and Child Health strongly condemn the systematic splitting of immigrant families. During the summer of 2018, over 2,300 immigrant children, reportedly including preverbal and breastfed infants, were relocated to separate shelters across the USA pending their parents' cases. [138] By 2025, at least 5,600 migrant children had been separated from their parents, hundreds of whom have never been reunited, while families continue to be separated. [139] In 2025, more than 100 US citizen infants and children were separated from their parents. [140]

Immigration policies for arriving Mexican and Central American immigrants are linked to mental health issues among documented and undocumented immigrant families and youth. The effects are often long-term, and the impact extends to the community level. Children may experience emotional trauma and long-term changes in behaviors. Additionally, when parents are forcefully removed, children often develop feelings of abandonment and might blame themselves for what has happened to their family. Some children believe in the possibility of never seeing their parents again. These effects can cause negative parent-child attachment. Reunification may be difficult because of immigration laws and re-entry restrictions, which further affect the mental health of children and parents. [141] Parents who leave their home country also experience negative mental health experiences. According to a study published in 2013 on Mexican migrant men, 46% of those who participated in the study reported elevated levels of depressive symptoms, associated with structural stressors (family separation, sending remittances to Mexico) and situational stressors (fearfulness, worry about police confrontation, treatment by non-Latinos, and lack of support). [142]

Vulnerabilities

President Donald Trump visiting the newly built Alligator Alcatraz immigrant detention facility in Florida. President Donald Trump and his administration have pursued a deportation policy characterized as "hardline" [143] with "huge camps" for immigrant detention. [144] According to a mid-July list of the population detained at the immigration detention center in the Everglades dubbed "Alligator Alcatraz," more than 95% of the detainees originated from Latin American countries, with approximately 20% from Guatemala, ~20% from Mexico, and another ~10% from Cuba. [145] On July 16, 2025, the American Civil Liberties Union, the ACLU of Florida, and Americans for Immigrant Justice filed a class action suit claiming the Trump administration violates the First Amendment and Fifth Amendment rights of people being detained, as well as the First Amendment rights of legal service organizations and law firms with clients held at the facility. [146]

Many immigrant families cannot enjoy everyday activities without exercising caution because they fear encountering immigration officers, which limits their involvement in community events. Undocumented families may also not trust government institutions and services. Because of their fear of encountering immigration officers, immigrants may feel ostracized and isolated, which can lead to the development of mental health issues such as depression and anxiety. [141] The harmful effects of being ostracized from the rest of society are not limited to just undocumented immigrants but affect the entire family, even if some members are of legal status. Children often report being victims of bullying in school by classmates because their parents are undocumented. [147] This can cause them to feel isolated and develop a sense of inferiority, which can negatively impact their academic performance.

Stress

Little Havana is a hub for the Cuban community of Miami, Florida.

Despite the struggles Hispanic families encounter, they have found ways to stay motivated. Many immigrants use religion as a source of motivation. Mexican immigrants believe that the difficulties they face are part of God's bigger plan and believe their life will get better in the end. They keep their faith strong and pray every day, hoping that God will keep their families safe. [147] Immigrants participate in church services and bond with other immigrants who share the same experiences. [141] Undocumented Hispanics also find support from friends, family, and the community, which serve as coping mechanisms. Some Hispanics state that their children are the reason they have the strength to keep going. They want their children to have a future and give them things they are not able to have themselves. [147] The community is able to provide certain resources that immigrant families need, such as tutoring for their children, financial assistance, and counseling services. [141] Some identified that maintaining a positive mental attitude helped them cope with the stresses they experience. Many immigrants refuse to live their life in constant fear, which leads to depression, in order to enjoy life in the United States. [147] Since many immigrants have unstable sources of income, many plan ahead to prevent future financial stress. They put money aside and find ways to save money instead of spending it, such as learning to fix appliances themselves. [147]

Poverty and mental health

In 1958, Los Angeles County Sheriffs forcibly evicted the Mexican/Chicano community of Chavez Ravine for the construction of Dodger Stadium, in a dispute known as the "Battle of Chavez Ravine".

Many Hispanic families migrate to find better economic opportunities in order to send remittances back home. Being undocumented limits the possibilities of jobs that immigrants undertake, and many struggle to find stable employment. Many Hispanics report that companies turned them down because they do not have a Social Security number. If they are able to obtain a job, immigrants risk losing it if their employer finds out they are unable to provide proof of residency or citizenship. Many look towards agencies that do not ask for identification, but those jobs are often unreliable. To prevent themselves from being detained and deported, many have to work under exploitation. In a study, a participant reported, "If someone knows that you don't have the papers ... that person is a danger. Many people will con them ... if they know you don't have the papers, with everything they say 'hey I'm going to call immigration on you.'" [147] These conditions lower the income that Hispanic families bring to their household, and some find living each day very difficult. When an undocumented parent is deported or detained, income will be lowered significantly if the other parent also supports the family financially. The parent who is left has to look after the family and might find working difficult to manage along with other responsibilities. Even if families are not separated, Hispanics are constantly living in fear that they will lose their economic footing.

Living in poverty has been linked to depression, low self-esteem, loneliness, crime activities, and frequent drug use among youth. [141] Families with low incomes are unable to afford adequate housing, and some of them are evicted. The environment in which the children of undocumented immigrants grow up is often composed of poor air quality, noise, and toxins, which prevent healthy development. [141] Furthermore, these neighborhoods are prone to violence and gang activities, forcing the families to live in constant fear, which can contribute to the development of PTSD, aggression, and depression.

Economic outlook

Income by Race and Ethnicity and Hispanic / Latino origins 2023 shows the economic status of different ethnic groups. [148]

Median income

In 2017, the US census reported the median household incomes of Hispanic Americans to be $50,486. This is the third consecutive annual increase in median household income for Hispanic-origin households. [94]

Poverty

According to the US census, the poverty rate for Hispanics was 18.3 percent in 2017, down from 19.4 percent in 2016. Hispanics accounted for 10.8 million individuals in poverty. [94] In comparison, the average poverty rates in 2017 for non-Hispanic White Americans was 8.7 percent with 17 million individuals in poverty, Asian Americans was 10.0 percent with 2 million individuals in poverty, and African Americans was 21.2 percent with 9 million individuals in poverty. [94]

Dolores Huerta is an activist for workers', immigrants', and women's rights. She was the first Hispanic inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame in 1993. [149][150]

Among the largest Hispanic groups during 2015 were: Honduran Americans & Dominican Americans (27%), Guatemalan Americans (26%), Puerto Ricans (24%), Mexican Americans (23%), Salvadoran Americans (20%), Cuban Americans and Venezuelan Americans (17%), Ecuadorian Americans (15%), Nicaraguan Americans (14%), Colombian Americans (13%), Argentinian Americans (11%), and Peruvian Americans (10%). [151]

Poverty affects many underrepresented students, as racial/ethnic minorities tend to stay isolated within pockets of low-income communities. This results in several inequalities, such as "school offerings, teacher quality, curriculum, counseling, and all manner of things that both keep students engaged in school and prepare them to graduate." [152] In the case of Hispanics, the poverty rate for Hispanic children in 2004 was 28.6 percent. [106] Moreover, with this lack of resources, schools reproduce these inequalities for generations to come. To assuage poverty, many Hispanic families can turn to social and community services as resources.

Cultural matters

• Main articles: American culture and Hispanic culture

The Hispanic Society of America was founded in 1904.

The geographic, political, social, economic, and racial diversity of Hispanic Americans makes all Hispanics very different depending on their family heritage and/or national origin. Many times, there are many cultural similarities between Hispanics from neighboring countries than from more distant countries (i.e., Spanish Caribbean, Southern Cone, Central America, etc.). Yet several features tend to unite Hispanics from these diverse backgrounds.

Language

Spanish

•

The Constitution of California was written in both Spanish (left) and English (right) in 1849.

As one of the most important uniting factors of Hispanic Americans, Spanish is an important part of Hispanic culture. Teaching Spanish to children is often one of the most valued skills taught among Hispanic families. Spanish is not only closely tied to a person's family, heritage, and overall culture but is valued for increased opportunities in business and one's future professional career. A 2013 Pew Research survey showed that 95% of Hispanic adults said "it's important that future generations of Hispanics speak Spanish." [153][154] Given the United States' proximity to other Spanish-speaking countries, Spanish is being passed on to future American generations. Among second-generation Hispanics, 80% speak fluent Spanish, and among third-generation Hispanics, 40% speak fluent Spanish. [155] Spanish is also the most popular language taught in the United States. [156][157]

Coachella is an example of a city government that is officially bilingual in English and Spanish. [158]

Hispanics have revived the Spanish language in the United States, first brought to North America during the Spanish colonial period in the 16th century. Spanish is the oldest European language in the United States, spoken uninterruptedly for four and a half centuries, since the founding of Saint Augustine, Florida in 1565. [159][160][161][162] Today, 90% of all Hispanics speak English, and at least 78% speak fluent Spanish. [163] Additionally, 2.8 million non-Hispanic Americans also speak Spanish at home, for a total of 41.1 million. [96]

With 40% of Hispanic Americans being immigrants, [164] and with many of the 60% who are US-born being the children or grandchildren of immigrants, bilingualism is the norm in the community at large. At home, at least 69% of all Hispanics over the age of five are bilingual in English and Spanish, whereas up to 22% are monolingual English speakers, and 9% are monolingual Spanish speakers. Another 0.4% speak a language other than English and Spanish at home. [163]

American Spanish dialects

Spanish speakers in the United States

Year	Number of speakers	Percent of population
1980	11.0 million	5%
1990	17.3 million	7%
2000	28.1 million	10%
2010	37.0 million	13%
2012	38.3 million	13%
2020*	40.0 million	14%

*-Projected; sources: [153][165][166][167]

The Spanish dialects spoken in the United States differ depending on the country of origin of the person or the person's family heritage. However, generally, Spanish spoken in the Southwest is Mexican Spanish or Chicano Spanish. A variety of Spanish native to the Southwest spoken by descendants of the early Spanish colonists in New Mexico and Colorado is known as Traditional New Mexican Spanish. One of the major distinctions of Traditional New Mexican Spanish is its use of distinct vocabulary and grammatical forms that make New Mexican Spanish unique among Spanish dialects. The Spanish spoken in the East Coast is generally Caribbean Spanish and is heavily influenced by the Spanish of Cuba, the Dominican Republic, and Puerto Rico. Isleño Spanish, descended from Canarian Spanish, is the historic Spanish dialect spoken by the descendants of the earliest Spanish colonists beginning in the 18th century in Louisiana. Spanish spoken elsewhere throughout the country varies, although it is generally Mexican Spanish. [96][168]

Heritage Spanish speakers tend to speak Spanish with near-native level phonology but a more limited command of morphosyntax. [169] Hispanics who speak Spanish as a second language often speak with English accents.

Spanglish and English dialects

• Main articles: Chicano English, Spanglish, Miami § Dialect, and New York Latino English

El Museo del Barrio, in Manhattan, is the oldest museum in the country dedicated to Latino art.

Hispanics have influenced the way Americans speak with the introduction of many Spanish words into the English language. Among younger generations of Hispanics, Spanglish, a term for any mix of Spanish and English, is common in speaking. As they are fluent in both languages, speakers will often switch between Spanish and English throughout the conversation. Spanglish is particularly common in Hispanic-majority cities and communities such as Miami, Hialeah, San Antonio, Los Angeles, and parts of New York City. [170]

Hispanics have also influenced the way English is spoken in the United States. In Miami, for example, the Miami dialect has evolved as the most common form of English spoken and heard in Miami today. This is a native dialect of English, and was developed among second- and third-generation Cuban Americans in Miami. Today, it is commonly heard everywhere throughout the city. Gloria Estefan and Enrique Iglesias are examples of people who speak with the Miami dialect. Another major English dialect is spoken by Chicanos and Tejanos in the Southwestern United States, called Chicano English. George Lopez and Selena are examples of speakers of Chicano English. [171] An English dialect spoken by Puerto Ricans and other Hispanic groups is called New York Latino English; Jennifer Lopez and Cardi B are examples of people who speak with the New York Latino dialect.

When speaking in English, American Hispanics may often insert Spanish tag and filler items such as tú sabes, este, and órale, into sentences as a marker of ethnic identity and solidarity. The same often occurs with grammatical words like pero. [172]

Religion

The Cathedral of San Carlos Borromeo, built in 1791 in Monterey, California, is the oldest serving cathedral in the country. San Antonio Missions National Park in Texas, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, comprising four historic mission sites.

According to a Pew Center study conducted in 2019, the majority of Hispanic Americans are Christians (72%). [173] Among American Hispanics, as of 2018–19, 47% are Catholic, 24% are Protestant, 1% are Mormon, less than 1% are Orthodox Christian, 3% are members of non-Christian faiths, and 23% are unaffiliated. [173] The proportion of Hispanics who are Catholic has dropped from 2009 (when it was 57%), while the proportion of unaffiliated Hispanics has increased since 2009 (when it was 15%). [173] Among the Hispanic Protestant community, most are [evangelical], but some belong to mainline denominations. [174] Compared to Catholic, unaffiliated, and mainline Protestant Hispanics, Evangelical Protestant Hispanics are substantially more likely to attend services weekly, pray daily, and adhere to biblical liberalism. [174] As of 2014, about 67% of Hispanic Protestants and about 52% of Hispanic Catholics were renewalist, meaning that they described themselves as Pentecostal or charismatic Christians (in the Catholic tradition, called Catholic charismatic renewal). [175]

Catholic affiliation is much higher among first-generation Hispanic immigrants than it is among second- and third-generation Hispanic immigrants, who exhibit a fairly high rate of conversion to Protestantism or the unaffiliated camp. [176] According to Andrew Greeley, as many as 600,000 American Hispanics leave Catholicism for Protestant churches every year, and this figure is much higher in Texas and Florida. [177] Hispanic Catholics are developing youth and social programs to retain members. [178]

Founded in 1609, the National Shrine of Our Lady of La Leche, in St. Augustine, Florida, is the oldest shrine in the country.

Hispanics make up a substantial proportion (almost 40%) of Catholics in the United States, [179] although the number of American Hispanic priests is low relative to Hispanic membership in the church. [180] In 2019, José Horacio Gómez, Archbishop of Los Angeles and a naturalized American citizen born in Mexico, was elected as president of the US Conference of Catholic Bishops. [179]

Pew Research Center: Hispanic and Latino Religious Affiliation (2010–2022) [181]

Date	Catholicism	Unaffiliated	Evangelical Protestant	Non-Evangelical Protestant	Other religion
2022	43	30	15	6	4
2021	46	25	14	7	5
2018	49	20	19	7	3
2016	54	17	15	7	5
2015	54	17	18	7	4
2014	58	12	14	7	7
2013	55	18	17	7	3
2012	58	13	15	6	3
2011	62	14	13	6	3
2010	67	10	12	5	3

Media

• See also: Latino literature

LA Plaza de Cultura y Artes is a museum and cultural center in Los Angeles.

The United States is home to thousands of Spanish-language media outlets, which range in size from giant commercial and some non-commercial broadcasting networks and major magazines with circulations numbering in the millions, to low-power AM radio stations with listeners numbering in the hundreds. There are hundreds of Internet media outlets targeting US Hispanic consumers. Some of the outlets are online versions of their printed counterparts, and some are online exclusively.

Increased use of Spanish-language media leads to increased levels of group consciousness, according to survey data. The differences in attitudes are due to the diverging goals of Spanish-language and English-language media. The effect of using Spanish-language media serves to promote a sense of group consciousness among Hispanics by reinforcing roots in the Hispanic world and the commonalities among Hispanics of varying national origin. [182][183]

The first Hispanic-American owned major film studio in the United States is based in Atlanta, Georgia. In 2017, Ozzie and Will Areu purchased Tyler Perry's former studio to establish Areu Bros. Studios. [184][185]

Hispanics are more likely to use social media such as TikTok and Instagram than non-Hispanics. [186]

Radio

The Cheech Marin Center for Chicano Art & Culture in Riverside, California.

Spanish-language radio is the largest non-English broadcasting media. [187] While other foreign-language broadcasting declined steadily, Spanish broadcasting grew steadily from the 1920s to the 1970s. The 1930s were boom years. [188] The early success depended on the concentrated geographical audience in Texas and the Southwest. [189] American stations were close to Mexico, which enabled a steady circular flow of entertainers, executives, and technicians, and stimulated the creative initiatives of Hispanic radio executives, brokers, and advertisers. Ownership became increasingly concentrated in the 1960s and 1970s. The industry sponsored the now-defunct trade publication Sponsor from the late 1940s to 1968. [190] Spanish-language radio has influenced American and Hispanic discourse on key current affairs issues such as citizenship and immigration. [191]

Networks

Museum of Latin American Art in Long Beach, California. National Museum of Mexican Art in Chicago. National Museum of Puerto Rican Arts and Culture in Chicago.

Notable Hispanic-oriented media outlets include:

CNN en Español, a Spanish-language news network based in Atlanta, Georgia;
ESPN Deportes and Fox Deportes, two Spanish-language sports television networks.
Telemundo, the second-largest Spanish-language television network in the United States, with affiliates in nearly every major U.S. market, and numerous affiliates internationally;
TeleXitos, an American Spanish-language digital multicast television network owned by NBCUniversal Telemundo Enterprises.
Universo, a cable network that produces content for U.S.-born Hispanic audiences;
Univisión, the largest Spanish-language television network in the United States, with affiliates in nearly every major U.S. market, and numerous affiliates internationally. It is the country's fourth-largest network overall; [192]
UniMás, an American Spanish-language free-to-air television network owned by TelevisaUnivision.
Fusion TV, an English television channel targeting Hispanic audiences with news and satire programming;
Galavisión, a Spanish-language television channel targeting Hispanic audiences with general entertainment programming;
Estrella TV, an American Spanish-language broadcast television network owned by Estrella Media.
V-me, a Spanish-language television network;
Primo TV, an English-language cable channel aimed at Hispanic youth.;
Azteca América, a Spanish-language television network in the United States, with affiliates in nearly every major U.S. market, and numerous affiliates internationally;
Fuse, a former music channel that merged with the Hispanic-oriented NuvoTV in 2015.
FM, a music-centric channel that replaced NuvoTV following the latter's merger with Fuse in 2015.
3ABN Latino, a Spanish-language Christian television network based in West Frankfort, Illinois;
TBN Enlace USA, a Spanish-language Christian television network based in Tustin, California;

Print

La Opinión, a Spanish-language daily newspaper published in Los Angeles, California, and distributed throughout the six counties of Southern California. It is the largest Spanish-language newspaper in the United States.
El Nuevo Herald and Diario Las Américas, Spanish-language daily newspapers serving the greater Miami, Florida market.
El Tiempo Latino, a Spanish-language free-circulation weekly newspaper published in Washington, D.C..
Latina, a magazine for bilingual, bicultural Hispanic women.
People en Español, a Spanish-language magazine counterpart of People.
Vida Latina, a Spanish-language entertainment magazine distributed throughout the Southern United States.

Sports

• Main article: Hispanic and Latino athletes in American sports

Javier Báez making a baseball play

Soccer is a common sport for Hispanics from outside of the Caribbean region, particularly immigrants. They have played a major role in boosting the sport's popularity in the United States. [193] Baseball is common among Caribbean Hispanics. They and their culture now form a major part of the fanbase and players in MLB. [194]

Other popular sports include boxing, gridiron football, and basketball.

Music

Because of different cultures throughout the Hispanic world, there are various music forms throughout Hispanic countries, with different sounds and origins. Reggaeton and hip hop are genres that are most popular to Hispanic youth in the United States. Recently, Latin trap, trap corridos, and Dominican dembow have gained popularity. [195][196][197]

Cuisine

Mexican food has become part of the mainstream American cuisine, as have its offshoots of Tex-Mex and Cal-Mex cuisines.

Hispanic food, particularly Mexican food, has influenced American cuisine and eating habits. Mexican cuisine has become mainstream in American culture. Across the United States, tortillas and salsa are arguably becoming as common as hamburger buns and ketchup. Tortilla chips have surpassed potato chips in annual sales, and plantain chips, popular in Caribbean cuisines, have continued to increase sales. [198] The avocado has been described as "America's new favorite fruit"; its largest market within the US is among Hispanic Americans. [199]

Due to the large Mexican-American population in the Southwestern United States and its proximity to Mexico, Mexican food there is believed to be some of the best in the United States. Cubans brought Cuban cuisine to [Miami], and today, cortaditos, pastelitos de guayaba, and empanadas are common mid-day snacks in the city. Cuban culture has changed Miami's coffee-drinking habits, and today a café con leche or a cortadito is commonly had at one of the city's numerous coffee shops. [200] The Cuban sandwich, developed in Miami, is now a staple and icon of the city's cuisine and culture. [201]

Familial situations

Family life and values

Mexican American girls at a Quinceañera celebration in Santa Fe, New Mexico.

Hispanic culture places a strong value on family and is commonly taught to Hispanic children as one of the most important values in life. Statistically, Hispanic families tend to have larger and closer-knit families than the American average. Hispanic families tend to prefer to live near other family members. This may mean that three or sometimes four generations may be living in the same household or near each other, although four generations is uncommon in the United States. The role of grandparents is believed to be very important in the upbringing of children. [202]

Hispanics tend to be very group-oriented, and an emphasis is placed on the well-being of the family above the individual. The extended family plays an important part in many Hispanic families, and frequent social family gatherings are common. Traditional rites of passage, particularly Roman Catholic sacraments, such as baptisms, birthdays, first Holy Communions, quinceañeras, Confirmations, graduations, and weddings, are all popular moments of family gatherings and celebrations in Hispanic families. [203][204]

Education is another important priority for Hispanic families. Education is seen as the key toward continued upward mobility in the United States among Hispanic families. A 2010 study by the Associated Press showed that Hispanics place a higher emphasis on education than the average American. Hispanics expect their children to graduate university. [205][206]

Hispanic youth today stay at home with their parents longer than before. This is due to more years spent studying and the difficulty of finding paid employment that meets their aspirations. [207]

Intermarriage

Mission San Xavier del Bac in Tucson, Arizona, was founded in 1692. Little Lima in Paterson, New Jersey is home to the largest community of Peruvians outside of South America.

Hispanic Americans, like many immigrant groups before them, are out-marrying at high rates. Out-marriages constituted 17.4% of all existing Hispanic marriages in 2008. [208] The rate was higher for newlyweds (which excludes immigrants who are already married): Among all newlyweds in 2010, 25.7% of all Hispanics married a non-Hispanic (this compares to out-marriage rates of 9.4% of White people, 17.1% of Black people, and 27.7% of Asians). The rate was larger for native-born Hispanics, with 36.2% of native-born Hispanics (both men and women) out-marrying compared to 14.2% of foreign-born Hispanics. [209] The difference is attributed to recent immigrants tending to marry within their immediate immigrant community due to commonality of language, proximity, familial connections, and familiarity. [208]

In 2008, 81% of Hispanics who married out married non-Hispanic White people, 9% married non-Hispanic Black people, 5% married non-Hispanic Asians, and the remainder married non-Hispanic, multi-racial partners. [208]

Of approximately 275,500 new interracial or interethnic marriages in 2010, 43.3% were White-Hispanic (compared to White-Asian at 14.4%, White-Black at 11.9%, and other combinations at 30.4%; "other combinations" consists of pairings between different minority groups and multi-racial people). [209] Unlike those for marriage to Black people and Asians, intermarriage rates of Hispanics to White people do not vary by gender. The combined median earnings of White/Hispanic couples are lower than those of White/White couples but higher than those of Hispanic/Hispanic couples. 23% of Hispanic men who married White women have a college degree compared to only 10% of Hispanic men who married a Hispanic woman. 33% of Hispanic women who married a White husband are college-educated compared to 13% of Hispanic women who married a Hispanic man. [209]

Attitudes among non-Hispanics toward intermarriage with Hispanics are mostly favorable, with 81% of White people, 76% of Asians, and 73% of Black people "being fine" with a member of their family marrying a Hispanic, and an additional 13% of White people, 19% of Asians, and 16% of Black people "being bothered but accepting of the marriage." Only 2% of White people, 4% of Asians, and 5% of Black people would not accept a marriage of their family member to a Hispanic. [208]

Hispanic attitudes toward intermarriage with non-Hispanics are likewise favorable, with 81% "being fine" with marriages to White people and 73% "being fine" with marriages to Black people. A further 13% admitted to "being bothered but accepting" of a marriage of a family member to a White, and 22% admitted to "being bothered but accepting" of a marriage of a family member to a Black. Only 5% of Hispanics objected outright to the marriage of a family member to a non-Hispanic Black and 2% to a non-Hispanic White. [208]

Unlike intermarriage with other racial groups, intermarriage with non-Hispanic Black people varies by nationality of origin. Puerto Ricans have by far the highest rates of intermarriage with Black people of all major Hispanic national groups, who also have the highest overall intermarriage rate among Hispanics. [205][210][211][212][213][214][215] Cubans have the highest rate of intermarriage with non-Hispanic White people of all major Hispanic national groups and are the most assimilated into White American culture. [216][217]

Cultural adjustment

Spanish Revival architecture in Santa Barbara, California.

As Hispanic migrants become the norm in the United States, the effects of this migration on the identity of these migrants and their kin become most evident in the younger generations. Crossing the borders changes the identities of both the youth and their families. Often, "one must pay special attention to the role expressive culture plays as both entertainment and as a site in which identity is played out, empowered, and reformed" because it is "sometimes in opposition to dominant norms and practices and sometimes in conjunction with them." [218] The exchange of their culture of origin with American culture creates a dichotomy within the values that the youth find important, therefore changing what it means to be Hispanic in the global sphere.

Transnationalism

Along with feeling that they are neither from the country of their ethnic background nor the United States, a new identity within the United States is formed called latinidad. This is especially seen in cosmopolitan social settings like New York City, Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles, and San Francisco. Underway is "the intermeshing of different Latino subpopulations has laid the foundations for the emergence and ongoing evolution of a strong sense of latinidad," which establishes a "sense of cultural affinity and identity deeply rooted in what many Hispanics perceive to be a shared historical, spiritual, aesthetic, and linguistic heritage, and a growing sense of cultural affinity and solidarity in the social context of the United States." [218] This unites Hispanics as one, creating cultural kin with other Hispanic ethnicities.

Gender roles

Angustias de la Guerra played a crucial role in defending women's property rights during the drafting of the 1849 Constitution of California. [219]

In a 1998 study of Mexican Americans, it was found that males were more likely to endorse the notion that men should be the sole breadwinners of the family, while Mexican American women did not endorse this notion. [220]

Prior to the 1960s countercultural movement, Mexican men often felt an exaggerated need to be the sole breadwinner of their families. [221] There are two sides to machismo: the man who has a strong work ethic and lives up to his responsibilities, or the man who drinks heavily and therefore displays unpleasant behavior towards his family. [220]

The traditional roles of women in a Hispanic community are housewife and mother; a woman's role is to cook, clean, and care for her children and husband, putting herself and her needs last. [222] The typical structure of a Hispanic family forces women to defer authority to her husband, allowing him to make the important decisions that both the woman and children must abide by. [223] In traditional Hispanic households, women and young girls are homebodies or muchachas de la casa ("girls of the house"), showing that they abide "by the cultural norms ... [of] respectability, chastity, and family honor [as] valued by the [Hispanic] community." [224]

Pachucas were a counter-culture that subverted gender norms and influenced the rise of Chicana feminism.

Migration to the United States can change the identity of Hispanic youth in various ways, including how they carry their gendered identities. [225] However, when Hispanic women come to the United States, they tend to adapt to the perceived social norms of this new country, and their social location changes as they become more independent and able to live without the financial support of their families or partners. [225] The unassimilated community views these adapting women as being de la calle ("of [or from] the street"), transgressive, and sexually promiscuous. [225] A woman's motive for pursuing an education or career is to prove she can care for herself and make something of herself, breaking the traditional gender role that a Hispanic woman can only serve as a mother or housewife, thus changing a woman's role in society. [226] Some Hispanic families in the United States "deal with young women's failure to adhere to these culturally prescribed norms of proper gendered behavior in a variety of ways, including sending them to live in ... [the sending country] with family members, regardless of whether or not ... [the young women] are sexually active." [227] Now there has been a rise in the Hispanic community where both men and women are known to work and split household chores among themselves; women are encouraged to gain an education, degree, and pursue a career. [228]

Sexuality

José Sarria became the first openly gay candidate for public office in the United States when he ran for the San Francisco Board of Supervisors in 1961.

According to polling data released in 2022, 11% of Hispanic American adults identify as gay, lesbian, bisexual, or transgender. This is more than twice the rate of White Americans or African Americans. Over 20% of Hispanic Millennials and Gen Z claimed an LGBT identity. [229] The growth of the young Hispanic population is driving an increase in the LGBT community in the United States. [230] Studies have shown that Hispanic Americans are over-represented among transgender people in the United States. [231][232]

According to Gattamorta et al. (2018), the socially constructed notion of machismo reinforces male gender roles in Hispanic culture, which can lead to internalized homophobia in Hispanic gay men and increase mental health issues and suicidal ideation. [233] However, according to Reyes Salinas, more recent research shows that there has been an explosive growth of LGBT self-identification among young Hispanic Americans, which may signal that Hispanic attitudes towards LGBT have broken down. [229] According to Marina Franco, polling conducted in 2022 suggests that the Hispanic community in America is largely accepting of LGBT people and gay marriage, which is significant in light of the rapid growth of LGBT self-identification among Hispanics. [234]

Relations with other minority groups

Paseo Boricua in Chicago is a hub for the city's Puerto Rican community. The Mission District in San Francisco is the historic hub for the city's Chicano and Mexican community.

As a result of the rapid growth of the Hispanic population, there has been some tension with other minority populations, especially the African-American population, as Hispanics have increasingly moved into once exclusively Black areas. [235][236] There has also been increasing cooperation between minority groups to work together to attain political influence. [237][238]

A 2007 UCLA study reported that 51% of Black people felt that Hispanics were taking jobs and political power from them, and 44% of Hispanics said they feared African-Americans, identifying them (African-Americans) with high crime rates. That said, large majorities of Hispanics credited American Black people and the civil rights movement with making life easier for them in the United States. [239][240]
A Pew Research Center poll from 2006 showed that Black people overwhelmingly felt that Hispanic immigrants were hard working (78%) and had strong family values (81%); 34% believed that immigrants took jobs from Americans, 22% of Black people believed that they had directly lost a job to an immigrant, and 34% of Black people wanted immigration to be curtailed. The report also surveyed three cities: Chicago (with its well-established Hispanic community); Washington, D.C. (with a less-established but quickly growing Hispanic community); and Raleigh-Durham (with a very new but rapidly growing Hispanic community). The results showed that a significant proportion of Black people in those cities wanted immigration to be curtailed: Chicago (46%), Raleigh-Durham (57%), and Washington, D.C. (48%). [241]
Per a 2008 University of California, Berkeley Law School research brief, a recurring theme in Black/Hispanic tensions is the growth in "contingent, flexible, or contractor labor," which is increasingly replacing long-term steady employment for jobs on the lower rung of the pay scale (which had been disproportionately filled by Black people). The transition to this employment arrangement corresponds directly with the growth in the Hispanic immigrant population. The perception is that this new labor arrangement has driven down wages, removed benefits, and rendered temporary jobs that were once stable (but also benefiting consumers who receive lower-cost services) while passing the costs of labor (healthcare and indirectly education) onto the community at large. [242]
A 2008 Gallup poll indicated that 60% of Hispanics and 67% of Black people believe that good relations exist between US Black people and Hispanics, [243] while only 29% of Black people, 36% of Hispanics, and 43% of White people say Black–Hispanic relations are bad. [243]

Politics

• Main article: Hispanic and Latino American politics

Romualdo Pacheco of California was the first Latino to represent a state in the U.S. Congress (1879–83) and the only Hispanic person to serve as governor of California since the American Conquest of California. Joseph Marion Hernández of the [Florida Territory], elected in 1822, was the first Hispanic American to serve in the United States Congress in any capacity.

Political affiliations

• Main page: Category:Hispanic and Latino American members of the Cabinet of the United States

Hispanics differ on their political views depending on their location and background. The majority (57%) [244] either identify as or support the Democrats, and 23% identify as Republicans. [244] This 34-point gap as of December 2007 was an increase from the gap of 21 points 16 months earlier. While traditionally a key Democratic Party constituency at-large, [245] beginning in the early 2010s, Hispanics have begun to split [246] between the Democrats and the Republican Party. [247][248][249] In a 2022 study, it was found that 64% of Latinos surveyed had positive attitudes towards President Obama's executive actions on immigration, which was notably four percentage points lower than that of non-Hispanic Black respondents. It was also noted that support for undocumented immigrants was lowest among Latinos living in developing 'bedroom communities' or newly built suburbs designed for commuters. This was also the case for Latinos of affluent income levels; however, they were still most likely to display a positive attitude towards undocumented immigrants, especially when compared to their non-Hispanic White counterparts. [250]

Cuban Americans, Colombian Americans, Chilean Americans, and Venezuelan Americans tend to favor conservative political ideologies and support the Republicans. Mexican Americans, Puerto Ricans, and Dominican Americans tend to favor progressive political ideologies and support the Democrats. However, because the latter groups are far more numerous—as, again, Mexican Americans alone are 64% of Hispanics—the Democratic Party is considered to be in a far stronger position with the ethnic group overall.

Some political organizations associated with Hispanic Americans are the League of United Latin American Citizens (LULAC), the National Council of La Raza (NCLR), the United Farm Workers, the Cuban American National Foundation, and the National Institute for Latino Policy.

Political impact

• Main article: List of minority governors and lieutenant governors in the United States

• See also: Latino vote

Octaviano Ambrosio Larrazolo of New Mexico was the first Hispanic to serve in the U.S. Senate (1928–29).

The United States has a population of over 60 million Hispanic Americans, of whom 27 million are citizens eligible to vote (13% of total eligible voters); therefore, Hispanics have a very important effect on presidential elections since the vote difference between the two main parties is usually around 4%. [251][252][253][254]

Elections of 1986–1996

Lauro Cavazos of Texas was the first Hispanic to serve in the U.S. Cabinet, as Secretary of Education (1988–90).

During the 1986 midterm elections, Hispanic voter turnout was increasing, although it remained lower compared to other demographic groups. The political concerns of Hispanic communities during this period included immigration reform and civil rights, with modest gains for Latino candidates at state and local levels. In the 1988 presidential election, George H.W. Bush (Republican) and Michael Dukakis (Democrat) were the main contenders, and although Hispanic voters were becoming more engaged, their influence was still emerging. The 1990 Census highlighted the substantial growth of Hispanic populations in the United States, leading to greater attention from political parties to Hispanic issues and concerns.

The 1992 presidential election marked a significant shift as Bill Clinton (Democrat) actively engaged with Hispanic voters, resulting in increased Latino support and signaling broader Democratic outreach. Clinton's administration would further stimulate Hispanic political activity. The 1994 midterm elections saw Republican gains and were significantly impacted by debates over immigration and welfare reform, including California's Proposition 187, which sought to limit public services for undocumented immigrants and mobilized many Latino voters.

By the 1996 presidential election, Bill Clinton's successful re-election campaign reflected the growing influence of Hispanic voters. Key issues for the Latino community during this time included immigration, education, and healthcare. The period also witnessed an increase in Latino representation in Congress with figures such as Bob Menendez and Luis Gutiérrez emerging as prominent leaders. Overall, the period from 1986 to 1996 marked a critical phase in the evolving political influence and representation of Hispanic and Latino Americans in the United States.

Elections of 1996–2006

Barbara Vucanovich of Nevada was the first Hispanic woman to serve in the U.S. Congress (1995–97). Bill Richardson of New Mexico was the first Hispanic U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations (1997–98). Alberto Gonzales of Texas was the first Hispanic to serve as Attorney General of the United States (2005–07).

In the 1996 presidential election, 72% of Hispanics backed President Bill Clinton. In 2000, the Democratic total fell to 62%, and went down again in 2004, with Democrat John Kerry winning Hispanics 54–44 against Bush. [255] Hispanics in the West, especially in California, were much stronger for the Democratic Party than in Texas and Florida. California Hispanics voted 63–32 for Kerry in 2004, and both Arizona and New Mexico Hispanics by a smaller 56–43 margin. Texas Hispanics were split nearly evenly, favoring Kerry 50–49 over their favorite son candidate, and Florida Hispanics (who are mostly Cuban American) backed Bush by a 54–45 margin.

In 1998, California Proposition 227, which sought to eliminate bilingual education in public schools, was passed. This initiative highlighted the political mobilization of Latino communities and their influence on educational policy in California.

The 2000 presidential election was notably close, with George W. Bush winning the presidency over Al Gore. Bush's outreach to Hispanic voters, particularly in battleground states such as Florida, was a significant factor in his narrow victory. Despite the growing visibility of Hispanic candidates, their representation at the national level remained limited. By the 2002 midterm elections, there was a notable increase in Hispanic representation in Congress, with more Latino candidates successfully winning seats in the House of Representatives. This trend continued to grow, reflecting the expanding political engagement of Hispanic Americans. In the 2004 presidential election, George W. Bush was re-elected, with a notable increase in Hispanic support attributed to his campaign's targeted outreach efforts. Prominent Latino figures, including New Mexico Governor Bill Richardson and U.S. Senators Ken Salazar, gained national recognition during this period.

In the 2006 midterm election, however, due to the unpopularity of the Iraq War, the heated debate concerning illegal Hispanic immigration, and Republican-related Congressional scandals, Hispanics voted as strongly Democratic as they have since the Clinton years. Exit polls showed the group voting for Democrats by a lopsided 69–30 margin, with Florida Hispanics for the first time split evenly.

The runoff election in Texas' 23rd congressional district was seen as a bellwether of Hispanic politics. Democrat Ciro Rodriguez's unexpected (and unexpectedly decisive) defeat of Republican incumbent Henry Bonilla was seen as proof of a leftward lurch among Hispanic voters; majority-Hispanic counties overwhelmingly backed Rodriguez, and majority European-American counties overwhelmingly backed Bonilla.

Elections of 2008–2012

Sonia Sotomayor of New York is the first Hispanic to serve on the Supreme Court of the United States, since 2009. Hilda Solis of California was the first Hispanic woman to serve in the U.S. Cabinet, as Secretary of Labor (2009–13). Susana Martinez of New Mexico was the first Hispanic woman to serve as state governor (2011–19).

In the 2008 Presidential election's Democratic primary, Hispanics participated in larger numbers than before, with Hillary Clinton receiving most of the group's support. [256] Pundits discussed whether Hispanics would not vote for Barack Obama because he was African-American. [237] Hispanics voted 2 to 1 for Mrs. Clinton, even among the younger demographic. In other groups, younger voters went overwhelmingly for Obama. [257] Among Hispanics, 28% said race was involved in their decision, as opposed to 13% for (non-Hispanic) White people. [257] Obama defeated Clinton.

In the matchup between Obama and Republican candidate John McCain, Hispanics supported Obama with 59% to McCain's 29% in the June 30 Gallup tracking poll. [258] This was higher than expected, since McCain had been a leader of the comprehensive immigration reform effort (John McCain was born in Panama to parents who were serving in the US Navy but raised in the United States). [259] However, McCain had retreated from reform during the Republican primary, damaging his standing among Hispanics. [260][better source needed] Obama took advantage of the situation by running ads in Spanish highlighting McCain's reversal. [261][better source needed]

In the general election, 67% of Hispanics voted for Obama, [262][263] with relatively strong turnout in states such as Colorado, New Mexico, Nevada, and Virginia, helping Obama carry those formerly Republican states. Obama won 70% of non-Cuban Hispanics and 35% of the traditionally Republican Cuban Americans who have a strong presence in Florida. The relative growth of non-Cuban vs. Cuban Hispanics also contributed to his carrying Florida's Hispanics with 57% of the vote. [262][264]

While employment and the economy were top concerns for Hispanics, almost 90% of Hispanic voters rated immigration as "somewhat important" or "very important" in a poll taken after the election. [265] Republican opposition to the Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act of 2007 had damaged the party's appeal to Hispanics, especially in swing states such as Florida, Nevada, and New Mexico. [265