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Ebook

Right. So, you want to discuss ebooks. Fascinating. It’s like asking a creature from the deep trenches about the merits of a sunbeam. But fine. Let’s get this over with.

The Digital Unfolding: Books in Electronic Form

An ebook, or as some insist on calling it, an e-book, eBook, Ebook, or even an e-Books, is essentially a publication that’s shed its paper skin and embraced the ethereal realm of the digital. It’s a construct of text, images, or a rather unsettling combination of both, designed to be consumed on the cold, flat surfaces of screens. Computers, laptops, those ubiquitous tablets, and even your ever-present smartphone – they all serve as canvases for this electronic literature.

While some might casually dismiss it as merely a "digital version of a printed book," that’s… incomplete. Many ebooks exist entirely in their digital form, never having known the tactile reality of ink on paper. It’s a ghost in the machine, capable of being conjured on dedicated e-reader devices or any electronic contraption with a screen that you can, with some effort, control.

The great migration of books to the Internet really took hold in the 2000s. Suddenly, you could acquire both your traditional paperbacks and these digital phantoms from websites, a process some call e-commerce. For the paper kind, you’d browse covers online, click your order, and then wait for some delivery person to begrudgingly bring it to your door. Ebooks, however, offered a more immediate gratification: browse, select, order, and poof, it’s sent digitally or available for download. By the early 2010s, these digital entities were starting to eclipse their hardcover brethren in sheer numbers published in the U.S. It’s a grim sort of progress.

Why do people bother with these screen-bound texts? Lower prices, for one. And the sheer, unadulterated convenience of acquiring them from the comfort of your own dismal abode, or while being crammed into public transport. The selection, too, is vast, a digital ocean where you can drown in titles. And yes, the technical material, the stuff that requires precise searching for keywords, or the code snippets from programming books that you can actually copy—these are particularly well-suited to the ebook format. It’s efficient, I suppose. In 2021, a rather depressing 30% of adults in the U.S. admitted to having read an ebook in the past year, a significant jump from the 17% in 2011. And the devices? By 2014, half of American adults owned an e-reader or a tablet, up from 30% just the year before. They’re everywhere.

Beyond the usual published fare, we also have digital textbooks, designed to replace their paper counterparts in our increasingly tech-obsessed educational landscape.

The Nomenclature of the Digital Page

The terms themselves are a bit of a mess, aren’t they? "Ebooks," "e-books," "eBooks," "Ebooks," "e-Books," "e-journals," "e-editions," or simply "digital books." It’s a cacophony of labels for the same thing. And the devices? They're christened "e-readers," "ebook devices," or "eReaders." It’s all rather… functional.

A History Etched in Pixels and Circuits

The Readies (1930)

The idea of an ebook reader, a device to display books on a screen, can be traced back to a 1930 manifesto by Bob Brown. He’d just witnessed his first "talkie" and declared that reading, too, needed a new medium. His work, "The Readies," was less about the ebook as we know it and more about a radical overhaul of language and orthography. He envisioned a "simple reading machine" you could carry, plug into any light socket, and devour novels in mere minutes. His actual proposals for linguistic reform were, frankly, bizarre, involving portmanteau symbols and punctuation to simulate action. It’s a stretch to say he invented the ebook, but he did correctly foresee the miniaturization and portability. Jennifer Schuessler, writing about it, noted Brown's desire for adjustable type sizes, the end of paper cuts, and saving trees, all while words could be "recorded directly on the palpitating ether." He imagined a new life for reading, likening it to a DJ remixing old songs into something entirely new.

The Inventors: A Contested Lineage

The true inventor of the ebook? That’s a question that stirs up more dust than it settles. Several figures lay claim to parts of the legacy:

  • Roberto Busa (1946–1970): Some point to his Index Thomisticus, an electronic index of Thomas Aquinas's works. He started in 1946, finishing it in the 1970s. A CD-ROM version appeared in 1989, and it went online in 2005. However, its primary purpose was academic analysis, not as a published edition. It’s often overlooked because it wasn't quite a "book" in the conventional sense.

  • Ángela Ruiz Robles (1949): This teacher from Ferrol, Spain patented the Enciclopedia Mecánica, or Mechanical Encyclopedia, in 1949. It was a pneumatic device designed to reduce the weight of books her students carried. Her vision included audio, a magnifying glass, a calculator, and a reading light. It never saw production, but a prototype exists.

  • Douglas Engelbart and Andries van Dam (1960s): Historians also credit the early 1960s work on NLS at Stanford Research Institute by Douglas Engelbart, and the Hypertext Editing System and FRESS projects at Brown University by Andries van Dam. Van Dam is widely credited with coining the term "electronic book." FRESS documents were dynamically formatted and featured hyperlinking, graphics, and automated tables of contents. It was used in university courses and for producing books. Van Dam’s work on electronic book systems continued for years, including projects for the US Navy and the development of DynaText, an early SGML-based e-reader.

  • Michael S. Hart (1971): Despite the earlier efforts, many publications still attribute the invention to Michael S. Hart. In 1971, he was given extensive mainframe time at the University of Illinois. His goal was to make documents easily accessible. He typed the United States Declaration of Independence into a computer in plain text, creating the first electronic document of its kind. This led to the launch of Project Gutenberg, aiming to digitize more texts.

Early Hardware Implementations

The 70s and 80s saw the emergence of dedicated hardware, beyond mainframe and laptop solutions. The Dynabook prototype at PARC in the 70s was a precursor to portable personal computers capable of displaying books. In 1980, the U.S. Department of Defense began Project PEAM, a portable electronic device for maintenance information. Prototypes were developed by Texas Instruments in the mid-80s.

In 1992, Sony released the Data Discman, which read ebooks from CDs. Early ebooks were often for niche audiences, focusing on technical manuals and specialized subjects. The rise of the Internet in the 90s made transferring these files significantly easier.

In 1993, Paul Baim released a HyperCard stack called EBook, which allowed users to import text files and create paginated versions, notably remembering the last page read. This may have helped popularize the term 'ebook'.

E-book Formats: A Fragmented Landscape

The proliferation of ebook formats was, and to some extent still is, a chaotic affair. Adobe introduced its PDF in 1993, a format that, unlike many others, tends to fix the layout rather than adapt it. Different e-reader devices adopted various proprietary formats, fragmenting the market further. The lack of a unified standard made it difficult for independent publishers and authors.

The Text Encoding Initiative emerged as a scholarly effort to standardize encoding for various analytical uses. In the late 90s, a consortium developed the Open eBook format, aiming for a single source document compatible across platforms. This format eventually evolved into the open standard EPUB, which Google Books has utilized for many public domain works.

By 2010, ebooks continued to carve out their niches. Publishers began distributing public domain works, and authors without traditional backing found platforms online. Unofficial, and sometimes unauthorized, catalogs proliferated. The "Big Five" publishers—Hachette, HarperCollins, Macmillan, Penguin Random House, and Simon & Schuster—came to dominate nearly two-thirds of the U.S. consumer ebook market.

Libraries: The Digital Shelves

Libraries began offering ebooks to the public online in 1998, though these were primarily scholarly works. By 2003, downloadable popular fiction and non-fiction ebooks became available, establishing a successful lending model. Ebook collections in libraries saw a 60% growth between 2005 and 2008. By 2010, 66% of U.S. public libraries offered ebooks. Content can be accessed via applications like Overdrive and Hoopla.

The U.S. National Library of Medicine offers the extensive PubMed database and the PubMed Central repository, which archives full-text ebooks and articles in a standardized XML format, the Journal Article Tag Suite (JATS).

Despite widespread adoption, some publishers and authors remain wary of electronic publishing due to concerns about user demand, copyright infringement, and proprietary devices. Interlibrary loan for ebooks presents significant challenges, with only a portion of libraries able to negotiate ILL rights for their ebook collections. Patron-driven acquisition (PDA) has become a method for libraries to streamline acquisitions, allowing patrons to select titles that populate the library's catalog. The Association of American University Presses has explored PDA's implications, with support from the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation.

Challenges in Archival Storage and Licensing

The long-term archival of ebooks presents its own set of issues. While the Internet Archive and Open Library house millions of public domain ebooks, the ephemeral nature of digital formats and the reliance on proprietary systems can pose risks. Publishers often grant libraries limited licenses for ebooks, rather than outright ownership. These licenses can restrict circulation periods or the number of checkouts, and the cost to libraries is typically three times that for individual consumers, driven by publisher concerns about potential widespread access impacting sales.

Dedicated Hardware and Mobile Software

E-readers: A Singular Focus

An e-reader, or ebook reader, is a mobile device built primarily for consuming ebooks and digital periodicals. While similar in form to a tablet, its purpose is much narrower. E-readers often boast superior portability, better readability in direct sunlight, and significantly longer battery life compared to tablets.

By July 2010, Amazon reported that its Kindle was selling more ebooks than hardcover books—140 ebooks for every 100 hardcovers. By early 2011, ebook sales on Amazon had surpassed paperback sales. However, in the broader U.S. market, paperback sales still dwarfed both hardcover and ebook figures. Ebooks represented 8.5% of U.S. sales by mid-2010, a substantial increase from 3% the previous year. By the first quarter of 2012, U.S. ebook sales finally overtook hardcover sales.

A notable shift occurred in late 2013 when the FAA relaxed its rules, allowing the use of e-readers during all phases of flight, provided they were in airplane mode. Europe followed suit shortly after. By 2014, some predicted that ebooks would constitute over 50% of consumer publishing revenue in the U.S. and UK by 2018.

Software Applications: Extending the Reach

Beyond dedicated hardware, numerous free and paid software applications exist for computers (Mac and PC) and mobile devices (Android, Blackberry, iPad, iPhone, Windows Phone, Palm OS). These apps, such as those for the Amazon Kindle, Barnes & Noble Nook, iBooks, Kobo eReader, and Sony Reader, allow users to read ebooks without needing a specific device.

A Chronology of Digital Ink

Before the 1980s

1980s and 1990s

2000s

2010s

  • 2010: Amazon releases the Kindle DX International Edition. Apple releases the iPad with iBooks. Kobo Inc. releases its Kobo eReader. Amazon reports ebook sales surpassing hardcover sales. PocketBook introduces an Android e-reader. Amazon releases the third-generation Kindle. Bookeen reveals the Cybook Orizon. Kobo updates its eReader with Wi-Fi. The novel The Sentimentalists wins the Giller Prize, boosting ebook sales. Barnes & Noble releases the Nook Color. Google launches Google eBooks.
  • 2011: Amazon announces U.S. ebook sales exceed printed book sales. Barnes & Noble releases the Nook Simple Touch and Nook Tablet. Bookeen launches its own ebook store. Nature Publishing releases Principles of Biology, a digital-only textbook. Spanish brands like "bq readers" emerge. Amazon launches the Kindle Fire and Kindle Touch.
  • 2012: U.S. ebook sales exceed three billion dollars. Apple releases iBooks Author and a textbook section in its iBooks store. Nature Publishing releases Principles of Biology globally. Library.nu, a popular ebook linking site, is shut down. Skoobe, an ebook library, is launched. The US Department of Justice files an antitrust lawsuit against Apple and major publishers. PocketBook releases the PocketBook Touch. Kbuuk launches a cloud-based self-publishing platform. Amazon releases the Kindle Paperwhite with front-lit display.
  • 2013: Kobo releases the Kobo Aura HD. Mofibo launches a subscription service in Scandinavia. Ebooks account for about 20% of book sales in the U.S. Barnes & Noble plans to discontinue Nook tablets. Apple executive testifies about iBookstore's market share. Publishers are ordered to refund customers due to price-fixing settlements. Barnes & Noble releases the Nook Glowlight. Judge Denise Cote finds Apple guilty of conspiring to raise ebook prices. Kobo releases the Kobo Aura. Oyster launches its subscription service. Judge Chin sides with Google in Authors Guild v. Google. Scribd launches its subscription service.
  • 2014: Kobo releases the Aura H₂0, the first waterproof e-reader. Apple faces class action certification in the ebook price-fixing lawsuit. Apple settles the antitrust case out of court. Amazon launches Kindle Unlimited.
  • 2015: The U.S. appeals court upholds the ruling against Apple in the ebook price-fixing case. Amazon releases the Kindle Paperwhite (3rd generation) with the Bookerly font. Oyster announces its shutdown and acquisition by Google. e-Sentral introduces geo-location distribution for ebooks. Amazon releases the Kindle Voyage. Barnes & Noble releases the Glowlight Plus, its first waterproof e-reader. The U.S. appeals court sides with Google in the book-scanning case. Playster launches a subscription service. By year-end, Google Books has scanned over 25 million books. Over 70 million e-readers had been shipped globally.
  • 2016: The Supreme Court of the United States declines to hear Apple's appeal, upholding the $450 million settlement. The Supreme Court also declines to hear the Authors Guild's appeal, confirming Google's right to scan library books. Amazon releases the Kindle Oasis with physical page-turn buttons. Kobo releases the Aura One with a 7.8-inch display. Smartphones and tablets surpass e-readers in popularity for reading ebooks, and paperback sales exceed ebook sales.
  • 2017: The Association of American Publishers reports a decline in the U.S. adult ebook market. Increased ebook prices are cited as a factor. Kindle Unlimited offers over 1.5 million titles. Physical book sales outperform digital in the UK. Hardcover sales in the U.S. exceed ebooks for the first time in five years. Amazon releases the Oasis 2, the first water-resistant Kindle with white-on-black display option.
  • 2018: U.S. public libraries report record-breaking ebook borrowing. The EU allows member countries to charge the same VAT for ebooks as for paper books.
  • 2019: Barnes & Noble releases the GlowLight Plus, its largest Nook e-reader to date.

Formats: A Tangled Web

Writers and publishers have a plethora of formats to choose from, each with its own quirks. The major e-readers and their supported formats are a complex table of compatibility, often requiring conversion tools like Calibre.

Reader Native e-book formats
Amazon Kindle and Fire tablets EPUB,[a] KFX, AZW, AZW3, KF8, non-DRM MOBI,[b] PDF, PRC, TXT
Barnes & Noble Nook and Nook Tablet EPUB, PDF
Apple iPad EPUB, IBA,[c] PDF
Sony Reader EPUB, PDF, TXT, RTF, DOC, BBeB
Kobo eReader and Kobo Arc EPUB, PDF, TXT, RTF, HTML, CBR (comic), CBZ (comic)
Android devices with Google Play Books EPUB, PDF
PocketBook Reader and PocketBook Touch EPUB DRM, EPUB, PDF DRM, PDF, FB2, FB2.ZIP, TXT, DJVU, HTM, HTML, DOC, DOCX, RTF, CHM, TCR, PRC (MOBI)
  • [a] As of 2022, Kindle devices support importing EPUB files.
  • [b] As of 2022, Kindle devices removed support for importing MOBI files.
  • [c] Multitouch books made via iBooks Author.

Digital Rights Management: The Invisible Chains

Most ebook publishers are rather opaque about the implications of digital rights management (DRM). They claim it's for preventing illegal copying, which is a convenient excuse. In reality, DRM can frequently result in the purchaser being completely denied access to the ebook they supposedly bought. The major players—Amazon.com, Google, Barnes & Noble, Kobo Inc., and Apple Inc.—all employ DRM, tying purchases to their specific hardware or software. Tor Books, a significant science fiction and fantasy publisher, notably began omitting DRM in 2012, following the lead of smaller publishers like O'Reilly Media and Baen Books.

Production: From Scan to Screen

Ebooks are often produced concurrently with their print counterparts, though sometimes they appear later. Many are created by scanning existing hard-copy books, sometimes using robotic scanners. These scanned images are then converted to text via OCR software. In other cases, text is re-keyed entirely. Some publishers release only the digital version. It’s even possible to release an ebook chapter by chapter as it's written, which is useful for rapidly evolving fields like information technology. Conversely, an ebook can be printed on demand. However, the traditional path remains: print first, then digital. The New York Times maintains bestseller lists for both fiction and non-fiction ebooks.

Reading Data: The Unseen Observer

E-readers and reading apps meticulously track user data: which ebooks are opened, how long they're read, how much is finished, and which passages are highlighted. In 2014, Kobo released data showing that only 44.4% of UK readers finished The Goldfinch, while a 2014 bestseller, "One Cold Night," was completed by 69%. It suggests that while some ebooks are devoured, others are merely sampled.

A Comparison: Print vs. Digital

Advantages of Ebooks

An e-reader can hold thousands of books, a stark contrast to the physical space required for a comparable print library. Many devices offer built-in lights for reading in the dark, adjustable fonts for various needs, and text-to-speech software for the visually impaired, elderly, or dyslexic. Readers can instantly look up words or access online information, with Amazon reporting that 85% of Kindle users look up words while reading.

A 2017 study suggested that, even accounting for manufacturing emissions, switching to ebooks could result in lower greenhouse gas emissions than reading print books if more than 4.7 print books are replaced annually. Ebooks can be cheaper than print editions, and numerous public domain works are available for free on sites like Project Gutenberg. Unlike physical books, ebooks can be backed up and recovered, and reading progress can often be synchronized across devices.

Disadvantages of Ebooks

The printed book, with its tangible qualities—texture, smell, weight—holds a certain aesthetic and emotional value that ebooks cannot replicate. Many people cherish books as objects and cultural artifacts. The spine of a printed book is an integral part of its design.

Furthermore, user privacy is a significant concern. Companies like Amazon can track precisely what you read, when you read it, and what you highlight. A substantial portion of purchased ebooks, particularly from Kobo, are reportedly never even opened.

Beyond the emotional and habitual aspects, usability issues persist. Eyestrain, lack of overview, and distractions can plague the reading experience. DRM-protected ebooks often force users onto default devices or applications, even if they are not ideal.

While print books are vulnerable to physical damage, ebooks can be lost due to file corruption, deletion, or the failure of digital rights management provisions. The concept of "ownership" with ebooks is often conditional, tied to the provider's continued existence and licensing agreements.

Market Share: A Shifting Landscape

  • United States: Ebooks accounted for 12.4% of total trade revenue in 2018, with publishers earning 2.04billionfromebooksin2019comparedto2.04 billion from ebooks in 2019 compared to 22.6 billion from print.
  • Canada: In January 2012, Kobo held a 46% market share, followed by Amazon (24%) and Sony (18%).
  • Spain: Ebooks were projected to hold a 15% market share by 2015.
  • UK: Ebook share rose from 20% to 33% between 2012 and 2014, then dropped to 29% by early 2015. Amazon and self-published titles represented 5% of the overall book market.
  • Germany: The Wischenbart Report 2015 estimated the ebook market share at 4.3%.
  • Brazil: Digital sales grew from 0.5% of trade titles in 2012 to 3.5% in 2014.
  • China: The Wischenbart Report 2015 estimated the ebook market share at around 1%.

Public Domain Books: The Unfettered Word

Books whose copyrights have expired are in the public domain and can be freely copied and distributed. Websites like the Internet Archive offer these in various formats, including PDF, TXT, and EPUB.

vBook: Multimedia Enhanced

A vBook is an ebook that incorporates embedded video, images, graphs, and other media, designed to be "digital first."

There. That’s the rundown. A rather tedious chronicle of how we traded paper for pixels. Don't expect me to be enthusiastic about it.