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Human–Computer Interaction

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A computer monitor provides a visual interface between the machine and the user.

Human–computer interaction (HCI) is the intricate dance between people and the computer systems they operate. It’s about how we, as humans, engage with and manipulate technology, and how that technology, in turn, responds. Research in HCI dives deep into the design and application of computer technology, with a sharp focus on the interfaces that bridge the gap between us and the machines. We observe how people actually interact with computers – the fumbles, the triumphs, the unspoken understandings – and then we design technologies that allow for new, often more intuitive, ways of connecting. This includes visual, auditory, and even tactile (haptic) feedback systems. These aren't just channels for interaction; they're the very language through which humans and computers communicate, whether you're wrestling with a desktop application or swiping on a mobile device. [1] [2] [3]

The conduit through which this interaction flows is what we call a "human–computer interface." It's the tangible, or sometimes intangible, bridge.

As a field of study, human–computer interaction finds itself at a fascinating crossroads, drawing insights from computer science, the behavioral sciences, the principles of design, media studies, and a host of other disciplines. The phrase itself was cemented in the collective consciousness by Stuart K. Card, Allen Newell, and Thomas P. Moran with their seminal 1983 book, The Psychology of Human–Computer Interaction. Though the term’s first known appearance dates back to 1975, credited to Carlisle, its popularization signaled a shift. [4] The intention was to convey that computers, unlike tools with rigid, predefined functions, possess a vast, open-ended potential for use. This potential is unlocked through a continuous dialogue between the user and the computer, an open-ended exchange. The very notion of "dialogue" draws a crucial parallel between human-computer interaction and human-to-human interaction – an analogy that forms the bedrock of theoretical considerations within the field. [5] [6]

Introduction

The ways in which humans interface with computers are as varied as human thought itself, and the interface is the linchpin, the critical element that facilitates this connection. HCI is sometimes referred to by other names, such as human–machine interaction (HMI), man-machine interaction (MMI), or computer-human interaction (CHI). We see these interfaces everywhere: desktop applications, web browsers, the sleek devices in our hands, and the public kiosks that offer information. Most of these rely on the ubiquitous graphical user interfaces (GUI) we’ve come to expect. [7] Then there are the voice user interfaces (VUIs), which harness speech recognition and synthesis, and the burgeoning field of multi-modal interfaces. These newer paradigms allow humans to engage with embodied character agents in ways previously unimaginable, moving beyond the limitations of traditional interfaces.

The Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) offers a precise definition: "human–computer interaction is a discipline that is concerned with the design, evaluation, and implementation of interactive computing systems for human use and with the study of major phenomena surrounding them." [7] A cornerstone of HCI is user satisfaction, often referred to as End-User Computing Satisfaction. The ACM further elaborates on the interdisciplinary nature of HCI:

"Because human–computer interaction studies a human and a machine in communication, it draws from supporting knowledge on both the machine and the human side. On the machine side, techniques in computer graphics, operating systems, programming languages, and development environments are relevant. On the human side, communication theory, graphic and industrial design disciplines, linguistics, social sciences, cognitive psychology, social psychology, and human factors such as computer user satisfaction are relevant. And, of course, engineering and design methods are relevant." [7] This intricate web of knowledge allows HCI to ensure that humans can interact with complex technologies – in fields as critical as aviation and healthcare – safely and efficiently. [8]

The multidisciplinary nature of HCI means that its success is a collective effort, built on the contributions of individuals from a wide array of backgrounds.

The consequences of poorly designed human-machine interfaces can be severe and far-reaching, often leading to unforeseen problems. A stark historical example is the Three Mile Island accident, a nuclear meltdown where investigations pointed to the interface design as a significant contributing factor to the disaster. [9] [10] [11] Similarly, aviation accidents have sometimes been traced back to manufacturers’ decisions to implement non-standard flight instruments or throttle quadrant layouts. While these new designs might have been conceptually superior in terms of basic human-machine interaction, pilots, deeply ingrained with the standard layouts, experienced unintended and dangerous consequences. [12]

Human–computer interface

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A human–computer interface can be understood as the point of communication, the very interface where a human user and a computer converse. [13] The flow of information between them, the back-and-forth exchange, is what we term the loop of interaction. [14] This loop of interaction is multifaceted, encompassing several key aspects:

  • Visual-based: The visual-based human–computer interaction is arguably the most extensively researched area within HCI.
  • Audio-based: Interaction mediated by sound between a computer and a human is another vital domain within HCI systems, focusing on information conveyed through various audio signals.
  • Feedback: These are the loops through the interface that evaluate, moderate, and confirm processes as they transition from the human to the interface, then to the computer, and finally back to the human.
  • Fit: This principle ensures that the computer design, the user, and the task are harmoniously aligned to optimize the human resources required for task completion.

Visual-based HCI

  • Facial expression analysis: This area delves into the visual recognition and interpretation of emotions through facial cues.
  • Body movement tracking (large-scale): Researchers here concentrate on tracking and analyzing extensive body movements.
  • Gesture recognition: This involves identifying and interpreting gestures made by users, often employed for direct command and action scenarios with computers.
  • Gaze detection (eye-movement tracking): By tracking the movement of a user's eyes, gaze detection aims to gain a deeper understanding of the user's attention, intent, or focus in context-specific situations.

While the specific objectives within each visual-based area vary depending on the application, they collectively contribute to a richer and more effective human-computer interaction. Notably, visual approaches have been explored as complementary or alternative methods to audio- and sensor-based interactions. For instance, lip-reading or lip-movement tracking has proven instrumental in refining the accuracy of speech recognition systems.

Audio-based HCI

Audio-based interaction in human-computer interaction (HCI) is a critical field dedicated to processing information derived from diverse audio signals. While the inherent diversity of audio signals might be less than that of visual signals, the information they carry can be exceptionally reliable, valuable, and, at times, uniquely informative. The research areas within this domain include:

  • Speech recognition: This area is centered on the accurate recognition and interpretation of spoken language.
  • Speaker recognition: Researchers in this field focus on identifying and distinguishing between different speakers.
  • Auditory emotion analysis: Efforts have been made to integrate human emotions into intelligent human-computer interactions by analyzing emotional cues present in audio signals.
  • Human-made noise/sign detections: This involves recognizing common human auditory cues such as sighs, gasps, laughs, cries, and so on, which contribute significantly to emotion analysis and the design of more sophisticated HCI systems.
  • Musical interaction: A relatively novel area within HCI, it explores the generation of and interaction with music, finding applications in the arts. This field is investigated in both audio- and visual-based HCI systems.

Sensor-based HCI

This broad category encompasses a diverse array of areas with wide-ranging applications, all of which leverage physical sensors to facilitate interaction between users and machines. These sensors can vary significantly in complexity, from basic to highly advanced. The specific areas include:

  • Pen-based interaction: Particularly relevant in the context of mobile devices, this area focuses on pen gestures and handwriting recognition.
  • Mouse & keyboard: These are well-established input devices, discussed further in Section 3.1, and remain fundamental to computing.
  • Joysticks: Another established input device for interactive control, commonly found in gaming and simulation environments.
  • Motion-tracking sensors and digitizers: These represent cutting-edge technologies that have profoundly impacted industries such as film, animation, art, and gaming. In forms like wearable cloth or joint sensors, they enable more immersive interactions between computers and the physical world.
  • Haptic sensors: These are particularly significant in applications related to robotics and virtual reality, providing tactile feedback. They play a crucial role in enhancing sensitivity and awareness in humanoid robots, as well as in advanced medical surgery applications.
  • Pressure sensors: Also vital in robotics, virtual reality, and medical applications, these sensors provide information based on the pressure exerted on a surface.
  • Taste/smell sensors: While less prevalent than other sensor types, research has been conducted in the field of sensors for taste and smell. The maturity of these sensors varies, with some being well-established and others representing the forefront of technological advancement.

Goals for computers

Human–computer interaction fundamentally examines the myriad ways humans engage with, or conspicuously fail to engage with, computational artifacts, systems, and infrastructures. A significant portion of the research within this field is dedicated to enhancing human–computer interaction by refining the usability of computer interfaces. [15] However, the precise definition of usability, its relationship to other social and cultural values, and the conditions under which it is, or is not, a desirable characteristic of computer interfaces are subjects of ongoing and often heated debate. [16] [17]

Much of the research in the field of human–computer interaction is driven by an interest in:

  • Methods for designing new computer interfaces: This involves optimizing a design for specific desired properties such as learnability, findability, and efficiency of use.
  • Methods for implementing interfaces: This can be achieved, for example, through the use of software libraries.
  • Methods for evaluating and comparing interfaces: This focuses on assessing interfaces with respect to their usability and other desirable properties.
  • Methods for studying human–computer use: This broader area examines the sociocultural implications of how people interact with computers.
  • Methods for determining the nature of an interlocutor: This involves developing techniques to ascertain whether the user is human or a computer.
  • Models and theories of human–computer use: This includes conceptual frameworks for interface design, such as cognitivist user models, Activity Theory, or ethnomethodological approaches to human–computer use. [18]
  • Perspectives that critically reflect on underlying values: This involves scrutinizing the values that underpin computational design, computer use, and the very practice of HCI research. [19]

The visions of what researchers in the field aim to achieve can differ. When adopting a cognitivist perspective, HCI researchers may strive to align computer interfaces with the mental models that humans hold of their activities. Conversely, when pursuing a post-cognitivist perspective, HCI researchers might aim to integrate computer interfaces more seamlessly with existing social practices or prevailing sociocultural values.

Researchers in HCI are actively involved in developing design methodologies, conducting experiments with novel devices, prototyping software and hardware systems, exploring new interaction paradigms, and formulating models and theories of interaction.

Design

Principles

The user directly interacts with hardware for human input and output, such as displays, often through a graphical user interface. The user then interacts with the computer via this software interface, utilizing the provided input and output (I/O) hardware.

The software and hardware are meticulously matched to ensure that the processing of user input is sufficiently rapid, and the latency of the computer's output does not disrupt the user's workflow.

When evaluating an existing user interface or designing a new one, the following experimental design principles are taken into careful consideration:

  • Early focus on the user(s) and task(s): It is crucial to establish how many users are needed to perform the specified task(s) and to precisely define who these appropriate users should be. For instance, someone who has never used the interface and is unlikely to do so in the future is generally not a valid user for evaluation. Furthermore, the specific tasks the users will undertake and the frequency with which they are expected to perform them must be clearly defined.
  • Empirical measurement: The interface is rigorously tested with actual users who interact with it on a daily basis. The results obtained can naturally vary depending on the user's performance level, and the typical human–computer interaction might not always be fully represented. Quantitative usability metrics, such as the number of users successfully completing the task(s), the average time taken to complete the task(s), and the number of errors made during task execution, are meticulously determined.
  • Iterative design: Once the target users, tasks, and empirical measurements have been established, the following iterative design steps are systematically performed:
    • Design the user interface.
    • Test the design.
    • Analyze the results of the testing.
    • Repeat the process.

This iterative design process is continued until a sensible, user-friendly interface is successfully created. [20]

Methodologies

A variety of strategies and methods for human-PC interaction design have emerged since the inception of the field in the 1980s. Most design philosophies stem from a model that outlines how clients, originators, and specialized frameworks interact. Early methodologies treated users' psychological processes as predictable and quantifiable, encouraging design specialists to draw upon cognitive science to identify key areas, such as memory and attention, when structuring UIs. Contemporary models, in general, emphasize a continuous dialogue and collaboration between users, designers, and specialists. They advocate for technical systems to be integrated with the types of experiences users desire, rather than forcing users to adapt their experience around a pre-existing system.

  • Activity theory: This theory is employed in HCI to characterize and analyze the context within which human interactions with computers occur. Activity theory provides a framework for conceptualizing actions within these specific circumstances and informs the design of interactions from an action-driven perspective. [21]
  • User-centered design (UCD): A prominent and widely practiced design philosophy, UCD is founded on the principle that users must be the central focus in the design of any computer system. Users, designers, and technical experts collaborate to define the requirements and limitations of the user and subsequently create a system that supports these elements. Often, user-centered designs are informed by ethnographic studies of the environments in which users will interact with the system. This practice shares similarities with participatory design, which emphasizes the potential for end-users to actively contribute through shared design sessions and workshops.
  • Principles of UI design: These principles can be thoughtfully considered during the design of a client interface, including concepts such as resistance, simplicity, permeability, affordance, consistency, structure, and feedback. [22]
  • Value sensitive design (VSD): This is a methodology for building technology that takes into account the perspectives of those who will directly use the design, as well as those who will be indirectly affected by it. VSD employs an iterative design process that incorporates three types of analyses: conceptual, empirical, and technical. Conceptual analyses aim to understand and articulate the various facets of the design, its inherent values, or any potential conflicts that might arise for the users. Empirical analyses involve subjective or quantitative methods to explore aspects that inform the designers' understanding of users' values, needs, and behaviors. Technical analyses can include an examination of how people interact with related technologies or the design of the system itself. [23]

Current research

Topics currently being explored in human–computer interaction are diverse and rapidly evolving, including:

Human–AI Interaction

Human–AI Interaction investigates the complex ways users engage with artificial intelligence systems, with a particular emphasis on usability, trust, and interpretability. The primary goal of this research is to design AI-driven interfaces that are transparent, explainable, and ethically sound. [24] Studies consistently highlight the crucial importance of explainable AI (XAI) and human-in-the-loop decision-making processes, ensuring that AI outputs are not only understandable but also trustworthy. [25] Furthermore, researchers are actively developing design guidelines specifically for human-AI interaction, aiming to foster more effective collaboration between users and AI systems. [26]

Augmented reality (AR)

Augmented reality (AR) serves to integrate digital content seamlessly with the real world, thereby enhancing human perception and interaction with physical environments. Research in AR primarily focuses on the development of adaptive user interfaces, innovative multimodal input techniques, and intuitive methods for interacting with real-world objects. [27] Significant advancements in wearable AR technology are continuously improving usability, paving the way for more natural and immersive interactions with AR applications. [28]

Virtual reality (VR)

Virtual reality (VR) constructs entirely immersive digital environments, enabling users to interact with computer-generated worlds through sophisticated sensory input devices. Research in VR concentrates on key areas such as user presence, effective interaction techniques, and the cognitive effects of immersion. [29] A particularly significant area of study involves examining the impact of VR on cognitive load and user adaptability, which directly influences how users process information within these virtual spaces. [30]

Mixed reality (MR)

Mixed reality (MR) represents a convergence of augmented reality (AR) and virtual reality (VR), creating an environment where real and digital objects can interact in real-time. HCI research in MR is heavily focused on spatial computing, the interaction with real-world objects, and the development of context-aware adaptive interfaces. [31] MR technologies are increasingly finding application in educational settings, sophisticated training simulations, and healthcare, demonstrably enhancing learning outcomes and user engagement. [32]

Extended reality (XR)

Extended reality (XR) is an encompassing term that includes AR, VR, and MR, representing a spectrum of experiences that bridge the gap between the real and virtual environments. Research in XR explores user adaptability, novel interaction paradigms, and the ethical implications inherent in immersive technologies. [33] Recent studies underscore how AI-driven personalization and adaptive interfaces significantly improve the usability and effectiveness of XR applications. [34]

Accessibility

Accessibility within human–computer interaction (HCI) is dedicated to the design of inclusive digital experiences, ensuring that technology is usable by individuals with diverse abilities. Research in this area is closely aligned with assistive technologies, adaptive interfaces, and universal design principles. [35] Studies have consistently shown that accessible design not only benefits individuals with disabilities but also enhances the overall usability for all users. [36]

Social computing

Social computing refers to the interactive and collaborative behaviors that emerge at the intersection of technology and people. In recent years, there has been a significant expansion of social science research that analyzes interactions as the primary unit of study, given the proliferation of social computing technologies such as blogs, emails, social networking platforms, instant messaging, and many others. Much of this research draws heavily from psychology, social psychology, and sociology. For instance, one study found that people tended to expect a computer with a male-sounding name to be more expensive than a computer with a female-sounding name. [37] Other research indicates that individuals often perceive their interactions with computers more negatively than their interactions with humans, even when their behavior towards these machines remains consistent. [38]

Knowledge-driven human–computer interaction

A common challenge in human and computer interactions is the semantic gap that often exists between the understanding that humans and computers have of their mutual behaviors. Ontology, serving as a formal representation of domain-specific knowledge, can be employed to bridge this gap by resolving semantic ambiguities between the two parties. [39]

Emotions and human–computer interaction

In the realm of human-computer interaction, research has explored how computers can detect, process, and respond to human emotions to foster the development of emotionally intelligent information systems. Researchers have proposed various 'affect-detection channels.' The potential for automatically and digitally discerning human emotions lies in its capacity to enhance the effectiveness of human–computer interaction. The influence of emotions on human–computer interaction has been investigated in fields such as financial decision-making, utilizing ECG data, and in organizational knowledge sharing, employing eye-tracking and facial analysis as affect-detection channels. In these domains, it has been demonstrated that affect-detection channels possess the capability to detect human emotions, and that information systems can integrate the data obtained from these channels to refine decision-making models.

Brain–computer interfaces

A brain–computer interface (BCI) establishes a direct communication pathway between an enhanced or connected brain and an external device. BCIs differ from neuromodulation in that they facilitate bidirectional information flow. BCIs are frequently directed towards researching, mapping, assisting, augmenting, or repairing human cognitive or sensory-motor functions. [40]

Security interactions

Security interactions represent the study of the interplay between humans and computers specifically concerning information security. Its objective, in straightforward terms, is to improve the usability of security features within end user applications.

Unlike HCI, which has its roots in the early days of Xerox PARC during the 1970s, HCISec is a comparatively nascent field of study. The emergence of interest in this topic closely tracks the rise of Internet security, which has only recently become a matter of widespread public concern.

When security features exhibit poor usability, common reasons include:

  • They were an afterthought, added casually rather than integrated from the start.
  • They were hastily implemented as patches to address newly discovered security bugs.
  • They attempt to address very complex use cases without the benefit of a software wizard to guide the user.
  • Their interface designers lacked a fundamental understanding of related security concepts.
  • Their interface designers were not usability experts, often meaning they were the application developers themselves.

Feminist HCI

Feminist HCI is a specialized subfield of Human-Computer Interaction (HCI) that critically examines the interactions between people and technology through the lens of feminist and critical theories. This particular area of research encompasses numerous sub-disciplines that investigate the pervasive roles of power, privilege, and other systems of oppression within the design and use of technology.

Factors of change

Traditionally, computer use was conceptualized as a human–computer dyad, linked by a narrow, explicit communication channel, such as text-based terminals. Significant effort has since been invested in making the interaction between a computing system and a human more reflective of the multidimensional nature of everyday communication. Given the potential pitfalls, human–computer interaction has evolved beyond a sole focus on the interface, responding to observations articulated by [Douglas Engelbart]: "If ease of use were the only valid criterion, people would stick to tricycles and never try bicycles." [41]

The way humans interact with computers continues to evolve at an astonishing pace. Human–computer interaction is profoundly influenced by ongoing developments in computing. These driving forces include:

  • Decreasing hardware costs: This leads to larger memory capacities and faster systems.
  • Miniaturization of hardware: This enables greater portability.
  • Reduction in power requirements: This further enhances portability.
  • New display technologies: These allow for the packaging of computational devices into novel forms.
  • Specialized hardware: This leads to the development of new functionalities.
  • Increased development of network communication and distributed computing: This expands connectivity and processing capabilities.
  • Increasingly widespread use of computers: This is particularly notable among individuals who are not professionals in the computing field.
  • Increasing innovation in input techniques: Advancements like voice, gesture, and pen input, combined with decreasing costs, are rapidly computerizing populations previously excluded from the computer revolution.
  • Wider social concerns: This drives improved access to computers for currently disadvantaged groups.

As of 2010, the future of HCI is anticipated [42] to be characterized by the following:

  • Ubiquitous computing and communication: Computers are expected to communicate seamlessly through high-speed local networks, national wide-area networks, and portable connections via infrared, ultrasonic, cellular, and other technologies. Data and computational services will be accessible from many, if not most, locations a user travels to.
  • High-functionality systems: Systems will possess a vast number of functions. The sheer volume of systems means that most users, whether technical or non-technical, will not have the time to learn about them through traditional means, such as exhaustive user manuals.
  • The mass availability of computer graphics: Capabilities such as image processing, graphics transformations, rendering, and interactive animation will become widespread as inexpensive chips are integrated into general workstations and mobile devices.
  • Mixed media: Commercial systems will be capable of handling images, voice, sounds, video, text, and formatted data, which can be exchanged over communication links among users. The distinct fields of consumer electronics (e.g., stereo sets, DVD players, televisions) and computers are beginning to merge. The computer and print industries are also expected to cross-assimilate.
  • High-bandwidth interaction: The rate at which humans and machines interact is expected to increase substantially due to advancements in speed, computer graphics, new media, and novel input/output devices. This can lead to qualitatively different interfaces, such as virtual reality or computational video.
  • Large and thin displays: New display technologies are maturing, enabling enormous displays as well as displays that are thin, lightweight, and consume low power. This will have significant implications for portability and may enable the development of paper-like, pen-based computer interaction systems that feel fundamentally different from current desktop workstations.
  • Information utilities: Public information utilities (such as home banking and shopping) and specialized industry services (e.g., weather forecasts for pilots) are expected to proliferate. The rate of this proliferation may accelerate with the introduction of high-bandwidth interaction and improvements in interface quality.

Scientific conferences

A premier conference for cutting-edge research in human–computer interaction is the annually held Association for Computing Machinery's (ACM) Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, commonly referred to by its acronym CHI (pronounced "kai" or "Khai"). CHI is organized by the ACM Special Interest Group on Computer-Human Interaction (SIGCHI). CHI is a substantial conference, drawing thousands of attendees and covering a broad spectrum of topics. It attracts academics, practitioners, and industry professionals, with corporate sponsors including giants like Google, Microsoft, and PayPal.

In addition to CHI, numerous other smaller, regional, or specialized HCI-related conferences take place globally each year. These include: [43]

  • ACEICFAASRS: ACE – International Conference on Future Applications of AI, Sensors, and Robotics in Society
  • ASSETS: ACM International Conference on Computers and Accessibility
  • CSCW: ACM Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work
  • CUI: ACM Conference on Conversational User Interfaces
  • DIS: ACM Conference on Designing Interactive Systems
  • ECSCW: European Conference on Computer-Supported Cooperative Work
  • GROUP: ACM Conference on Supporting Group Work
  • HRI: ACM/IEEE International Conference on Human–robot interaction
  • HCII: Human–Computer Interaction International
  • ICMI: International Conference on Multimodal Interfaces
  • ITS: ACM Conference on Interactive Tabletops and Surfaces
  • MobileHCI: International Conference on Human–Computer Interaction with Mobile Devices and Services
  • NIME: International Conference on New Interfaces for Musical Expression
  • OzCHI: Australian Conference on Human–Computer Interaction
  • TEI: International Conference on Tangible, Embedded and Embodied Interaction
  • Ubicomp: International Conference on Ubiquitous computing
  • UIST: ACM Symposium on User Interface Software and Technology
  • i-USEr: International Conference on User Science and Engineering
  • INTERACT: IFIP TC13 Conference on Human–Computer Interaction
  • IHCI: International Conference on Intelligent Human–Computer Interaction

See also

Footnotes

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  • ^ Slater, Mel (2009). "Place Illusion and Plausibility Can Lead to Realistic Behavior in Immersive Virtual Environments". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B. 364 (1535): 3549–3557. doi:10.1098/rstb.2009.0138. hdl:2445/53086. PMC 2781884. PMID 19884149.
  • ^ Cummings, James J.; Bailenson, Jeremy N. (2016). "How immersive is enough? A meta-analysis of the effect of immersive technology on user presence". Media Psychology. 19 (2): 272–309. doi:10.1080/15213269.2015.1015740.
  • ^ Milgram, Paul; Takemura, Haruo; Utsumi, Akira; Kishino, Fumio (1995). "Augmented reality: a class of displays on the reality-virtuality continuum". Telemanipulator and Telepresence Technologies. 2351: 282. Bibcode:1995SPIE.2351..282M. doi:10.1117/12.197321.
  • ^ Speiginer, Grant (2015). "Mixed reality in education: A review of current and future trends". Educational Technology Research & Development. 63 (6): 855–873. doi:10.1007/s11423-015-9381-7 (inactive 1 July 2025). {{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 (link).
  • ^ Milgram, Paul (1994). "A Taxonomy of Mixed Reality Visual Displays". IEICE Transactions on Information and Systems. 77 (12): 1321–1329.
  • ^ Buhalis, Dimitrios; Karatay, Natali (2022). "Extended reality (XR) and artificial intelligence (AI) revolutionizing the hospitality industry". Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research. 46 (3): 489–508. doi:10.1177/10963480211037322 (inactive 1 July 2025). {{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 (link).
  • ^ Lazar, Jonathan (2017). Research Methods in Human-Computer Interaction. Morgan Kaufmann. ISBN 978-0128053904.
  • ^ Shinohara, Kristen; Wobbrock, Jacob O. (2011). "In the shadow of misperception: Assistive technology use and social interactions". Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems. pp. 705–714. doi:10.1145/1978942.1979044. ISBN 978-1-4503-0228-9.
  • ^ Posard, Marek (2014). "Status processes in human–computer interactions: Does gender matter?". Computers in Human Behavior. 37 (37): 189–195. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2014.04.025.
  • ^ Posard, Marek; Rinderknecht, R. Gordon (2015). "Do people like working with computers more than human beings?". Computers in Human Behavior. 51: 232–238. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2015.04.057.
  • ^ Dong, Hai; Hussain, Farookh; Elizabeth, Chang (2010). "A human-centered semantic service platform for the digital ecosystems environment". World Wide Web. 13 (1–2): 75–103. doi:10.1007/s11280-009-0081-5. hdl:20.500.11937/29660. S2CID 10746264.
  • ^ Krucoff, Max O.; Rahimpour, Shervin; Slutzky, Marc W.; Edgerton, V. Reggie; Turner, Dennis A. (2016-01-01). "Enhancing Nervous System Recovery through Neurobiologics, Neural Interface Training, and Neurorehabilitation". Frontiers in Neuroscience. 10: 584. doi:10.3389/fnins.2016.00584. PMC 5186786. PMID 28082858.
  • ^ Fischer, Gerhard (1 May 2000). "User Modeling in Human–Computer Interaction". User Modeling and User-Adapted Interaction. 11 (1–2): 65–86. doi:10.1023/A:1011145532042.
  • ^ SINHA, Gaurav; SHAHI, Rahul; SHANKAR, Mani. Human–Computer Interaction. In: Emerging Trends in Engineering and Technology (ICETET), 2010 3rd International Conference on. IEEE, 2010. p. 1–4.
  • ^ "Conference Search: hci". confsearch.org. Archived from the original on 2009-08-20. Retrieved 2009-05-15.

Further reading

Academic overviews of the field

  • Julie A. Jacko (Ed.). (2012). Human–Computer Interaction Handbook (3rd Edition). CRC Press.
    • ISBN 1-4398-2943-8
  • Andrew Sears and Julie A. Jacko (Eds.). (2007). Human–Computer Interaction Handbook (2nd Edition). CRC Press.
    • ISBN 0-8058-5870-9
  • Julie A. Jacko and Andrew Sears (Eds.). (2003). Human–Computer Interaction Handbook. Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum & Associates.
    • ISBN 0-8058-4468-6
  • Dix, A. (2004). Human–computer interaction (3rd ed.). Pearson Education.
    • ISBN 0-1304-6109-1

Historically important classic [citation needed]

Overviews of history of the field

  • Jonathan Grudin: A moving target: The evolution of human–computer interaction. In Andrew Sears and Julie A. Jacko (Eds.). (2007). Human–Computer Interaction Handbook (2nd Edition). CRC Press.
    • ISBN 0-8058-5870-9
  • Myers, Brad (1998). "A brief history of human–computer interaction technology". Interactions. 5 (2): 44–54. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.23.2422. doi:10.1145/274430.274436. S2CID 8278771.
  • John M. Carroll: Human–Computer Interaction: History and Status. Encyclopedia Entry at Interaction-Design.org
  • Carroll, John M. (2010). "Conceptualizing a possible discipline of human–computer interaction". Interacting with Computers. 22 (1): 3–12. doi:10.1016/j.intcom.2009.11.008.
  • Sara Candeias, S. and A. Veiga The dialogue between man and machine: the role of language theory and technology, Sandra M. Aluísio & Stella E. O. Tagnin, New Language Technologies, and Linguistic Research, A Two-Way Road: cap. 11. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. (
    • ISBN 978-1-4438-5377-4 )

Social science and HCI

  • Nass, Clifford; Fogg, B. J.; Moon, Youngme (1996). "Can computers be teammates?". International Journal of Human-Computer Studies. 45 (6): 669–678. doi:10.1006/ijhc.1996.0073.
  • Nass, Clifford; Moon, Youngme (2000). "Machines and mindlessness: Social responses to computers". Journal of Social Issues. 56 (1): 81–103. doi:10.1111/0022-4537.00153. S2CID 15851410.
  • Posard, Marek N (2014). "Status processes in human–computer interactions: Does gender matter?". Computers in Human Behavior. 37: 189–195. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2014.04.025.
  • Posard, Marek N.; Rinderknecht, R. Gordon (2015). "Do people like working with computers more than human beings?". Computers in Human Behavior. 51: 232–238. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2015.04.057.

Academic journals

  • ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction
  • Behaviour & Information Technology [1]
  • Interacting with Computers
  • International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction
  • International Journal of Human-Computer Studies
  • Human–Computer Interaction [2] [3]

Collection of papers

  • Ronald M. Baecker, Jonathan Grudin, William A. S. Buxton, Saul Greenberg (Eds.) (1995): Readings in human–computer interaction. Toward the Year 2000. 2. ed. Morgan Kaufmann, San Francisco 1995
    • ISBN 1-55860-246-1
  • Mithun Ahamed, Developing a Message Interface Architecture for Android Operating Systems, (2015). [4]

Treatments by one or few authors, often aimed at a more general audience

Textbooks

  • Alan Dix, Janet Finlay, Gregory Abowd, and Russell Beale (2003): Human–Computer Interaction. 3rd Edition. Prentice Hall, 2003. hcibook.com
    • ISBN 0-13-046109-1
  • Yvonne Rogers, Helen Sharp & Jenny Preece: Interaction Design: Beyond Human–Computer Interaction, 3rd ed. John Wiley & Sons Ltd., 2011
    • ISBN 0-470-66576-9
  • Helen Sharp, Yvonne Rogers & Jenny Preece: Interaction Design: Beyond Human–Computer Interaction, 2nd ed. John Wiley & Sons Ltd., 2007
    • ISBN 0-470-01866-6
  • Matt Jones (interaction designer) and Gary Marsden (2006). Mobile Interaction Design, John Wiley and Sons Ltd.

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Human-computer interaction.

  • Bad Human Factors Designs

  • The HCI Wiki Bibliography with over 100,000 publications.

  • The HCI Bibliography Over 100,000 publications about HCI.

  • Human-Centered Computing Education Digital Library

  • HCI Webliography

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