Political Movement

Movement to obtain a political goal

The symbol designed for the British nuclear disarmament movement in 1958, a stark circle with lines radiating from its center, is now universally recognized as the "peace sign." It’s a curious thing, how a simple design can become so laden with meaning, so ubiquitous. It’s not exactly subtle, is it? Much like the movements themselves.

A political movement, at its core, is a collective endeavor, a unified push by a group of people aiming to steer government policy or reshape social values. [1] They’re typically born from a dissent against the prevailing status quo, [2] a dissatisfaction that coalesces around a particular ideology. [3] Theories abound on their genesis. The political opportunity theory, for instance, suggests these movements are often a product of circumstance, a seizing of opportune moments. [4] Then there’s the resource mobilization theory, which posits that successful movements are forged through deliberate organization and the strategic deployment of resources. [2] It’s a dance between happenstance and meticulous planning. And let’s not forget their kinship with political parties; both seek to influence the levers of power, and indeed, many parties have sprung forth from the fertile ground of earlier movements. [5] But where parties often cast a wide net, embracing a multitude of issues, movements tend to be laser-focused, zeroing in on a singular, often burning, concern. [6] [7]

Sometimes, within the framework of a political movement, an organization emerges that’s helmed by a communist party. The party might label it a mass organization, a term meant to convey broad support. Detractors, however, might be more inclined to call it a "Communist front." It’s a matter of perspective, isn’t it? Or perhaps, a matter of intent.

Political movement theories

The theoretical underpinnings that explain social movements often find resonance when applied to the emergence of political movements. [2] [8] Theories like the political opportunity theory and resource mobilization theory offer distinct lenses through which to view these collective actions.

Political opportunity theory

This perspective argues that the emergence of political movements is less about inherent resources or societal grievances and more about the presence of external opportunities. [4] [8] These opportunities can arise from shifts within the political system, structural changes, or other developments in the broader political landscape. They are, in essence, the sparks that ignite the movement.

Resource mobilization theory

In contrast, the resource mobilization theory emphasizes the strategic aspects of movement formation. It suggests that political movements are not mere spontaneous outbursts but rather the result of careful planning, organization, and the acquisition of necessary resources, including financial backing and connections to influential figures. [2] [9] The theory posits that a movement’s success hinges on the effective mobilization of individuals and the strategic use of available assets.

Relation to political parties

The distinction between political movements and political parties is often drawn based on their scope and objectives. Movements typically concentrate on a singular issue and generally do not aspire to hold governmental office. They are often informal, relying on unconventional tactics to achieve their aims. [6] Political parties, on the other hand, are formal organizations that seek to exert influence or control over government policy through conventional electoral means, [6] typically by fielding candidates for public office. [7]

Despite these differences, both movements and parties share the fundamental goal of impacting government. [6] They are also frequently tied to specific ideologies. Parties engage in electoral campaigns, public education, and sometimes even protest actions, all aimed at persuading citizens and governments to address the issues that movements champion. [7]

The line between movement and party can blur, with some movements evolving into or directly launching political parties. Spain’s 15-M Movement, a powerful anti-austerity protest, gave rise to the populist party Podemos. [10] Similarly, labor movements in Brazil were instrumental in the formation of the Brazilian Workers' Party. [11] These "movement parties" serve a vital function: they keep the core issues of their originating movements in the public and governmental spotlight, particularly when established parties have overlooked them. [5]

Political scientists Felipe G. Santos and Dan Mercea observe that "the rise of movement parties across Europe has disrupted traditional notions of party politics and opened up new avenues for citizen engagement and political mobilisation. Movement parties are the reflection of a wider socio-political transformation of increasing interconnection between electoral and non-electoral politics." [12] They categorize these parties into four types: green/left-libertarian, far-right, eclectic, and centrist.

For groups aiming to influence policy, social movements offer a potent alternative to the formal channels of electoral politics. Take, for example, the work of political scientist S. Laurel Weldon, who has demonstrated that women's movements and dedicated women's policy agencies have often proven more effective in reducing violence against women than the mere presence of women in legislative bodies. [13]

Conversely, high barriers to entry in political competition can effectively disenfranchise political movements, silencing their voices before they can gain traction. [14]

Examples

The spectrum of political movements is vast, encompassing those that seek to alter government policy, such as the anti-war movement, the ecology movement, and the alter-globalization and anti-globalization movement. In an era of increasing globalization, the emergence of global citizens movements seems a natural progression. [15] Many movements have been dedicated to establishing or expanding the rights of marginalized groups. These include the abolitionism movement, the fight for women's suffrage, the civil rights movement, feminism, the gay rights movement, the disability rights movement, the animal rights movement, and the overarching human rights movement. Class-based movements like the labour movement, socialism, and communism have also played significant roles. National aspirations have fueled movements ranging from anticolonialist efforts like Rātana and Sinn Féin to colonialist ideologies such as Manifest destiny. Furthermore, movements have engaged in struggles over state control, advocating for decentralization in anarchism or centralization in fascism and Nazism.

More recent, prominent social movements can readily be classified as political movements due to their demonstrable impact on policy at all governmental levels. Within the United States, the Black Lives Matter Movement and the Me Too Movement have been highly influential. In the Middle East, the Arab Spring stands as a significant example of recent political upheaval. While some of these movements remained contained, others escalated into full-blown revolutions, fundamentally altering the structure of government. [16]

It’s worth noting that movements can sometimes be defined by outsiders, often with derogatory intent. The Levellers in 17th-century England, for example, were derided with this label, a term of disparagement. Yet, over time, adherents adopted the name, and it’s now the historical marker by which they are known. [17]

Mass movements

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A mass movement signifies a political party or movement that garners substantial support from large segments of the population. Ideologies such as communism, fascism, and liberalism often advocate for the creation of mass movements. Communists and fascists typically employ mass movements as a tool to dismantle existing governments and establish their own, subsequently using the movement to solidify their power. Liberals, on the other hand, champion mass participation within the framework of representative democracy.

The academic study of mass movements delves into aspects like charisma, leadership dynamics, the influence of active minorities, the formation of cults and sects, the nature of followers, the concept of the "mass man" and mass society, alienation, indoctrination techniques, authoritarianism, and totalitarianism. This field emerged from earlier studies of crowd and mass psychology, which expanded from analyzing mobs to encompassing social movements, currents of opinion, and ultimately, mass and media societies.

An early, impactful work was Wilfred Trotter’s 1908 essay on the herd instinct. This also influenced Sigmund Freud’s concepts of the superego and identification in his 1921 work, Massenpsychologie (misleadingly translated as Group Psychology). These ideas later intertwined with those of the Frankfurt School and Theodor Adorno, culminating in the significant 1950 study, The Authoritarian Personality, which explored the psychological underpinnings of xenophobia and anti-Semitism.

Another recurring theme in this area is the complex relationship between masses and elites, both within and outside of movements, as explored by scholars like Gaetano Mosca, Vilfredo Pareto, Robert Michels, and Moisey Ostrogorski.

See also

General

Politician, Political spectrum, political science, political history (including political thought history), political sociology (encompassing political opportunity and resource mobilization), and political structure.

States

Concepts such as Sovereignty (and the sovereign state), nation state, federated state, member state, nation, and The Estates.

People

Influential figures in political thought include John Locke, Georg Hegel, Karl Marx, Max Weber, Thomas Hobbes, Michel Foucault, and Alexis de Tocqueville.

Political philosophy

Key concepts include Autonomy (and social identity), collective action, democracy, economic freedom, egalitarianism, equality before the law, equal opportunity, free will, social framing, gender equality, intellectual freedom, liberty, justice (and moral responsibility), political freedom (including freedoms of assembly, association, choice, and speech), political representation (and representative democracy), political legitimacy, racial equality, rights (including civil liberties), social cohesion, and social equality.

Political views

Major ideological currents include Conservatism, environmentalism, fascism, feminism, liberalism, Marxism, nationalism, socialism, and a comprehensive list of political ideologies.

Other

References

^ Meyer, David S. (1997). Coalitions & Political Movements: The Lessons of the Nuclear Freeze. Lynne Rienner Publishers. pp. 164–166. ISBN 978-1-55587-744-6.
^ a b c Rochon, Thomas R. (1990). "Political Movements and State Authority in Liberal Democracies". World Politics. 42 (2): 299–313. doi 10.2307/2010467. ISSN 1086-3338. JSTOR 2010467. S2CID 153900090.
^ Nicholas, Ralph W. (1973). "Social and Political Movements". Annual Review of Anthropology. 2 (1): 63–84. doi 10.1146/annurev.an.02.100173.000431. ISSN 0084-6570.
^ a b c Koopmans, Ruud (1999). "Political. Opportunity. Structure. Some Splitting to Balance the Lumping". Sociological Forum. 14 (1): 93–105. doi 10.1023/A:1021644929537. ISSN 0884-8971. JSTOR 685018. S2CID 148013872.
^ a b Kitschelt, Herbert (2006). "Movement Parties". In Handbook of Party Politics. London: SAGE Publications Ltd. p. 282. doi 10.4135/9781848608047. ISBN 978-0-7619-4314-3.
^ a b c d Hague, Rod; Harrop, Martin; McCormick, John (2019). Comparative Government and Politics. London: Red Globe Press. p. 317. ISBN 978-1-352-00505-9.
^ a b McDonald, Neil A. (1955). The Study of Political Parties. Short studies in political science, 26. Garden City, New York: Doubleday & Company. hdl 2027/mdp.39015003545509.
^ a b Goodwin, Jeff; Jasper, James M. (2004). Rethinking Social Movements: Structure, Meaning, and Emotion. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 80–81. ISBN 978-0-7425-2596-2.
^ Inwegen, Patrick Van (2018). "Non-Violence in Ireland's Independence". In Christian Philip Peterson; William M. Knoblauch; Michael Loadent (eds.). The Routledge History of World Peace Since 1750. New York: Routledge. pp. 273–283. doi 10.4324/9781315157344-22. ISBN 978-1-315-15734-4. S2CID 187589251. Retrieved 2020-10-06.
^ Della Porta, Donatella; Fernández, Joseba; Kouki, Hara; Mosca, Lorenzo (2017). Movement Parties Against Austerity. Cambridge: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-5095-1149-5.
^ van Cott, Donna Lee (2005). From Movements to Parties in Latin America: The Evolution of Ethnic Politics. Cambridge: University Press. p. 14. ISBN 978-0-521-70703-9.
^ Santos, Felipe G.; Mercea, Dan (20 January 2024). "Young democrats, critical citizens and protest voters: studying the profiles of movement party supporters". Acta Politica. doi 10.1057/s41269-023-00321-7. ISSN 0001-6810.
^ Weldon, S. Laurel (November 2002). "Beyond Bodies: Institutional Sources of Representation for Women in Democratic Policymaking". The Journal of Politics. 64 (4): 1153–1174. doi 10.1111/1468-2508.00167. S2CID 154551984.
^ Tullock, Gordon. "Entry barriers in politics." The American Economic Review 55.1/2 (1965): 458-466.
^ George, Susan (2001-10-18). "The Global Citizens Movement. A New Actor For a New Politics". Transnational Institute. Retrieved 2020-05-13.
^ Bendix, Reinhard; Huntington, Samuel P. (March 1971). "Political Order in Changing Societies". Political Science Quarterly. 86 (1): 168. doi 10.2307/2147388. ISSN 0032-3195. JSTOR 2147388.
^ Plant, David (2005-12-14). "The Levellers". British Civil Wars and Commonwealth website. Archived from the original on 13 May 2008. Retrieved 2020-05-11.

Bibliography

Mass movements

Hoffer, Eric. The True Believer: Thoughts on the Nature of Mass Movements. New York, NY: Harper Perennial Modern Classics, 2002.
Marx, Gary, T. & McAdam, Douglas. Collective behavior and social movements. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1994.
Van Ginneken, Jaap. Mass movements – In Darwinist, Freudian and Marxist perspective. Apeldoorn (Neth.): Spinhuis. 2007.
Wilson, John. Introduction to social movements. New York: Basic, 1973.