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SøRen Kierkegaard

Søren Kierkegaard

Søren Aabye Kierkegaard (5 May 1813 – 11 November 1855) was a Danish theologian, philosopher, poet, and social critic, widely acknowledged as the inaugural figure of existentialism. His prolific writings delved into the complexities of organized religion, Christianity, morality, ethics, psychology, the nature of love, and the philosophy of religion. He was known for his masterful use of metaphor, irony, and parables. A central theme in his philosophical output was the experience of living as a "single individual," emphasizing the paramount importance of authenticity, personal choice, commitment, and the universal duty of love. Kierkegaard championed concrete human experience over abstract theorizing, a stance that set him apart from many of his philosophical contemporaries.

His theological explorations were deeply rooted in Socratic Christian ethics, the role of the institution of the Church, the inherent limitations of purely objective proofs of Christianity, the concept of the infinite qualitative distinction between humanity and God, and the individual's subjective, faith-driven relationship with the God-Man, Jesus Christ. A significant portion of his work was dedicated to examining the nuances of Christian love. Kierkegaard was notably critical of the state-sanctioned, institutionalized form of Christianity, particularly as practiced by the Church of Denmark, which he saw as a form of Caesaropapism. His psychological investigations focused on the emotional landscape of individuals confronting life's pivotal decisions. Unlike the atheistic existentialism later championed by figures like Jean-Paul Sartre, Kierkegaard's philosophical project was firmly situated within the framework of Christian existentialism.

Kierkegaard's early literary endeavors were characterized by the use of pseudonyms, a technique he employed to present a spectrum of distinct, often interacting, viewpoints. Through these pseudonymous personas, he meticulously explored intricate philosophical problems from varied perspectives. He published his "Upbuilding Discourses" under his own name, dedicating them to the "single individual" seeking to grasp the deeper meaning of his writings. He famously stated, "Science and scholarship want to teach that becoming objective is the way. Christianity teaches that the way is to become subjective, to become a subject." While scientists sought knowledge through observation, Kierkegaard vehemently rejected the notion that observation alone could unlock the mysteries of the spiritual realm.

Key concepts that permeate Kierkegaard's thought include the distinction between "subjective and objective truths," the figure of the knight of faith, the recollection and repetition dichotomy, the experience of angst, the concept of the infinite qualitative distinction, the understanding of faith as a passion, and the framework of the three stages on life's way. Kierkegaard wrote in Danish, and initially, his work found a receptive audience primarily within Scandinavia. However, by the dawn of the 20th century, his writings began to be translated into major European languages, including French and German. By the mid-20th century, his philosophical and theological contributions had exerted a profound influence on Western thought, theology, and culture at large.

Early Years (1813–1836)

Kierkegaard was born into a prosperous family in Copenhagen, the seventh and youngest child. His mother, Ane Sørensdatter Lund Kierkegaard (1768–1834), had previously worked as a maid before marrying his father, Michael Pedersen Kierkegaard (1756–1838). Ane was described as a quiet, unassuming woman, lacking formal education, yet her granddaughter, Henriette Lund, noted that she "wielded her scepter with delight, cosseted them [Søren and his brother Peter], and protected them like a hen her chicks." It is also recorded that Peter Christian Kierkegaard later remarked that his brother preserved many of their mother's words in his writings. Michael Kierkegaard, on the other hand, was a successful wool merchant from Jutland. He was characterized as a "very stern man, to all appearances dry and prosaic, but under his 'rustic cloak' demeanor he concealed an active imagination which not even his great age could blunt." He also harbored a keen interest in philosophy, frequently hosting intellectuals at his home and demonstrating a particular devotion to the rationalist philosophy of Christian Wolff. Kierkegaard, in his youth, followed his father's philosophical leanings, and Michael's adherence to Wolffian rationalism significantly shaped his son's early intellectual development. Additionally, Søren found pleasure in the comedies of Ludvig Holberg, the writings of Johann Georg Hamann and Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, and the works of Edward Young and Plato. The figure of Socrates, encountered through Plato's dialogues, would prove to be a seminal influence, particularly on Kierkegaard's later engagement with irony and his characteristic use of indirect communication.

Kierkegaard was known for his contemplative walks through the narrow, winding streets of 19th-century Copenhagen, where horse-drawn carriages were a rarity. In 1848, he reflected: "I had real Christian satisfaction in the thought that, if there were no other, there was definitely one man in Copenhagen whom every poor person could freely accost and converse with on the street; that, if there were no other, there was one man who, whatever the society he most commonly frequented, did not shun contact with the poor, but greeted every maidservant he was acquainted with, every manservant, every common laborer." His frequented paths led him past Our Lady's Church, where Bishop Mynster preached, and towards the Royal Theatre, the stage for the celebrated performances of Fru Heiberg.

Upon the death of his father, Michael Kierkegaard, on August 9, 1838, Søren had lost both his parents and all his siblings except for his brother Peter, who later attained the position of Bishop of Aalborg in the Danish State Lutheran Church. The intellectual influences that shaped Kierkegaard's early life included figures such as Christian Wolff, Ludvig Holberg, Johann Georg Hamann, Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, Plato, and Socrates.

Speculative interpretations of anecdotes found in Kierkegaard's unpublished journals, particularly within a draft of a story titled "The Great Earthquake," have led some early scholars to suggest that Michael Kierkegaard harbored a belief that he had incurred God's wrath, and that none of his children would survive him. This perceived divine punishment was attributed by Michael to his own past transgressions, potentially including curses uttered against God's name in his youth or the impregnation of Ane Sørensdatter Lund out of wedlock. While five of his seven children predeceased him, both Søren and his brother Peter outlived their father. Peter went on to serve as bishop in Aalborg. Julia Watkin posited that Michael's early affiliation with the Moravian Church might have contributed to a profound awareness of the gravity of sin within him.

From 1821 to 1830, Kierkegaard attended the School of Civic Virtue, Østre Borgerdyd Gymnasium, located at that time in Klarebodeme. Here, he received instruction in subjects such as Latin, Greek, and history. During his tenure at the school, he was characterized as "very conservative," embodying a disposition to "honour the King, love the church and respect the police." He reportedly engaged in frequent altercations with his peers and maintained an ambivalent relationship with his instructors. Subsequently, he pursued theological studies at the University of Copenhagen. He expressed a lack of enthusiasm for historical works, found philosophy unsatisfying, and was disinclined towards "Speculation." He articulated his core need as needing "to get clear about 'what am I to do', not what I must know," desiring to "lead a completely human life and not merely one of knowledge." Kierkegaard eschewed the role of a philosopher in the conventional, particularly Hegelian, sense, and harbored no desire to preach a diluted or compromised version of Christianity. He held the conviction, inherited from his father, that one could achieve one's will, and his father's life had not disproven this theory.

One of the earliest physical descriptions of Kierkegaard comes from Hans Brøchner, who attended a wedding party for Kierkegaard's brother Peter in 1836. Brøchner recalled: "I found [his appearance] almost comical. He was then twenty-three years old; he had something quite irregular in his entire form and had a strange coiffure. His hair rose almost six inches above his forehead into a tousled crest that gave him a strange, bewildered look." Another recollection comes from Kierkegaard's niece, Henriette Lund (1829–1909), who described him in his youth as "of a slight and delicate appearance. He went around in a coat the color of red cabbage, and his father usually called him 'the Fork,' because of his precocious tendency to make satirical remarks. Even though there was a serious, almost strict tone in the Kierkegaard home, I still have the impression that there was room for youthful liveliness, though perhaps of a more sober, homemade sort than is usual today. In the same way the house was also open, with an old-fashioned kind of hospitality." He was also noted for being "quaintly attired, slight and small."

Kierkegaard's mother was described by a grandchild as "a nice little woman with an even and happy disposition." She is notably absent from Kierkegaard's published works. Ane Kierkegaard passed away on July 31, 1834, at the age of 66, possibly from typhus. His father died on August 8, 1838, at the age of 82. On August 11, Kierkegaard wrote: "My father died on Wednesday (the 8th) at 2:00 a.m. I so deeply desired that he might have lived a few years more... Right now I feel there is only one person (E. Boesen) with whom I can really talk about him. He was a 'faithful friend.'" His nephew, Troels Frederik Lund, played a crucial role in providing biographical details to scholars regarding Søren Kierkegaard. Lund was a close associate of Georg Brandes and Julius Lange. An anecdote concerning Kierkegaard's father can be found within Kierkegaard's journals.

Journals

According to Samuel Hugo Bergmann, "Kierkegaard's journals are one of the most important sources for an understanding of his philosophy." Kierkegaard meticulously documented his thoughts, observations, and reflections in his journals, amassing over 7,000 pages. The entirety of his Danish journals, collectively known as Journalen, was published in thirteen volumes, comprising twenty-five separate bindings, including indices. The inaugural English edition of these journals was curated by Alexander Dru in 1938. The literary style of the journals is described as "literary and poetic."

Kierkegaard initially sought to confide in his fiancée, Regine Olsen, but ultimately deemed this impossible. Instead, he designated "my reader, that single individual" as his confidant. He explored the fundamental question of whether a spiritual confidant could truly exist, stating in his Concluding Postscript: "With regard to the essential truth, a direct relation between spirit and spirit is unthinkable. If such a relation is assumed, it actually means that the party has ceased to be spirit."

Kierkegaard's journals served as the origin of numerous aphorisms attributed to him. The following passage, dated August 1, 1835, is perhaps his most frequently cited aphorism and a cornerstone for existentialist studies:

"What I really need is to get clear about what I must do, not what I must know, except insofar as knowledge must precede every act. What matters is to find a purpose, to see what it really is that God wills that I shall do; the crucial thing is to find a truth which is truth for me, to find the idea for which I am willing to live and die."

While his journals offer valuable insights into his life and work, Kierkegaard deliberately obscured certain aspects of his thought. Abrupt shifts in his reasoning, repetitive writing patterns, and peculiar turns of phrase were among the strategies he employed to deliberately mislead his readers. Consequently, his journals have been subject to a wide array of interpretations. Nevertheless, Kierkegaard was convinced of the future significance of his journals, writing in December 1849: "Were I to die now the effect of my life would be exceptional; much of what I have simply jotted down carelessly in the Journals would become of great importance and have a great effect; for then people would have grown reconciled to me and would be able to grant me what was, and is, my right."

Regine Olsen and Graduation (1837–1841)

A pivotal element in Kierkegaard's life, widely considered to have profoundly influenced his philosophical and theological output, was his broken engagement to Regine Olsen (1822–1904).

Kierkegaard and Olsen first met on May 8, 1837, and experienced an immediate mutual attraction. Kierkegaard documented his idealistic sentiments regarding his love for her in his journals. Following the successful completion of his theological examinations in July 1840, Kierkegaard formally proposed to Olsen on September 8. However, he soon found himself grappling with disillusionment regarding his future prospects. He terminated the engagement on August 11, 1841, although it is generally accepted that both individuals harbored deep affection for each other. In his journals, Kierkegaard alluded to his belief that his inherent "melancholy" rendered him unsuitable for marriage, yet the precise reasons behind his decision to break off the engagement remain a subject of speculation.

It was during this period that Kierkegaard also dedicated himself to the composition of a dissertation. Upon its submission in June 1841, a faculty panel acknowledged the considerable intellect displayed in his work, while also critiquing its informal tone. Nevertheless, Kierkegaard received permission to proceed with its defense. He presented his defense of On the Concept of Irony with Continual Reference to Socrates on September 29, 1841, a defense that lasted for seven and a half hours. As the title indicates, the thesis centered on the concept of irony and its relationship to Socrates. The influence of Kierkegaard's close friend, Poul Martin Møller, who had passed away in 1838, is evident in the thematic focus of this work. Kierkegaard officially graduated from the University of Copenhagen on October 20, 1841, earning a Magister degree in philosophy. His inheritance, amounting to approximately 31,000 rigsdaler, provided him with the financial means to support his scholarly pursuits and personal expenses.

Authorship (1843–1846)

Kierkegaard published a portion of his significant works under pseudonyms, while others bore his own name. Regardless of the authorship designation, his central theological work, Fear and Trembling, and his magnum opus, Either/Or, stand as pillars of his literary contribution. The use of pseudonyms was a common practice in the early 19th century, enabling authors to articulate viewpoints distinct from their own. Kierkegaard adopted this technique as a deliberate method of conveying indirect communication. By writing under various pseudonyms, each representing potentially contradictory positions, Kierkegaard has been criticized by some for appearing to equivocate on his stances. However, he maintained that all his writings stemmed from a profound commitment to the service of Christianity. His first book, penned under the pseudonym "Johannes Climacus" (named after John Climacus), was written between 1841 and 1842. This work, De omnibus dubitandum est (Latin for "Everything must be doubted"), was not published until after his death.

Kierkegaard's Works

Fear and Trembling

Kierkegaard's seminal work, Either/Or, was published on February 20, 1843. A significant portion of this book was composed during Kierkegaard's sojourn in Berlin, where he meticulously took notes on Schelling's Philosophy of Revelation. Either/Or comprises essays on literary and music criticism, alongside a collection of romantic-style aphorisms, all contributing to his overarching theme of examining the reflective and philosophical underpinnings of faith. The book, edited by "Victor Eremita," purports to contain the papers of an unknown "A" and "B," which the pseudonymous editor claimed to have discovered within a hidden drawer of his secretary. Eremita encountered difficulties in organizing "A"'s papers due to their non-linear nature, while "B"'s contributions were presented in a more structured manner. Both of these pseudonymous figures are portrayed as individuals striving to attain a religious disposition. Each character approaches the concept of first love from distinct aesthetic and ethical perspectives. The book essentially presents an argument concerning faith and marriage, concluding with a brief discourse advising the characters to cease their debate. Eremita finds "B," a judge, to be the more persuasive voice. Kierkegaard consistently emphasized the "how" of Christianity and the "how" of engaging with texts, rather than merely the "what."

Three months after the publication of Either/Or, on May 16, 1843, Kierkegaard released Two Upbuilding Discourses, 1843. He continued this practice of publishing discourses alongside his pseudonymous works. These discourses are now collected as Eighteen Upbuilding Discourses. The initial English translation by David F. Swenson in the 1940s titled them the Edifying Discourses. However, in 1990, Howard V. and Edna H. Hong produced a new translation, renaming them the Upbuilding Discourses. The term "upbuilding" aligns more closely with Kierkegaard's philosophical trajectory after 1846, when he authored works such as Works of Love. An upbuilding or edifying discourse differs from a sermon in that a sermon is typically delivered to a congregation, whereas a discourse can be a private reflection or a dialogue among several individuals. The core aim of such a discourse is to be "upbuilding," meaning to foster growth and edification in others or oneself, rather than to tear down. Kierkegaard himself stated: "Although this little book (which is called 'discourses', not sermons, because its author does not have authority to preach, 'upbuilding discourses', not discourses for upbuilding, because the speaker by no means claims to be a teacher) wishes to be only what it is, a superfluity, and desires only to remain in hiding."

On October 16, 1843, Kierkegaard published three additional books focusing on love and faith, alongside several more discourses. Fear and Trembling was released under the pseudonym Johannes de Silentio. Repetition explores the psychological state of a young man grappling with anxiety and depression stemming from his perceived obligation to sacrifice his love for a girl (Regine Olsen) to God. He seeks to understand himself through the nascent field of psychology, with Constantin Constantius, the pseudonymous author of the book, acting as the psychologist. Concurrently, he published Three Upbuilding Discourses, 1843 under his own name, which specifically addressed how love can be employed to conceal aspects of oneself or others. These three books, all released on the same day, exemplify Kierkegaard's method of indirect communication.

Kierkegaard questioned whether an individual could definitively discern if something was a benevolent gift from God, concluding that "it does not depend, then, merely upon what one sees, but what one sees depends upon how one sees; all observation is not just a receiving, a discovering, but also a bringing forth, and insofar as it is that, how the observer himself is constituted is indeed decisive." He proposed that God's love, much like our own affections at times, is imparted indirectly.

Throughout 1844, Kierkegaard continued his output of upbuilding discourses, publishing two, three, and four more collections, mirroring his production in 1843. These discourses focused on the individual's potential path to knowing God. While theologians, philosophers, and historians were actively engaged in debates concerning God's existence, Kierkegaard viewed such direct discourse as potentially beneficial for these academic circles but ultimately unhelpful for the "single individual" earnestly seeking to become a Christian. He consistently addressed his writings to "that single individual whom I with joy and gratitude call my reader." For Kierkegaard, the individual must actively apply what is understood, lest it be lost. He posited that reflection could only take one so far before the imagination began to alter the substance of thought. He argued that love, much like faith and patience, is cultivated through practice.

In the same year, he authored several more pseudonymous works: Philosophical Fragments, Prefaces, and The Concept of Anxiety. He concluded the year with Four Upbuilding Discourses, 1844. Kierkegaard employed indirect communication in Philosophical Fragments and direct communication in the others. He contended that the question of God's existence should not be treated as a matter of differing opinions among groups, regardless of the number of proofs offered. Instead, he asserted that the responsibility for making the fruit of the Holy Spirit a tangible reality rested with the single individual, as love and joy remained mere possibilities until actualized. While Christendom sought to definitively establish God's attributes, Kierkegaard opposed such attempts. He viewed his personal experience with Regine Olsen as a disaster, yet paradoxically, it proved beneficial from his unique perspective.

Kierkegaard articulated the principle that "each generation has its own task and need not trouble itself unduly by being everything to previous and succeeding generations." In an earlier work, he stated, "to a certain degree every generation and every individual begins his life from the beginning," and in another, "no generation has learned to love from another, no generation is able to begin at any other point than the beginning," and "no generation learns the essentially human from a previous one." He further elaborated in 1850: "those true Christians who in every generation live a life contemporaneous with that of Christ have nothing whatsoever to do with Christians of the preceding generation, but all the more with their contemporary, Christ. His life here on earth attends every generation, and every generation severally, as Sacred History..." Yet, in 1848, he also wrote, "The whole generation and every individual in the generation is a participant in one's having faith."

He expressed strong opposition to the Hegelian concept of mediation, which he believed introduced a "third term" that interposed itself between the single individual and the object of their desire. In 1844, Kierkegaard wrote, "If a person can be assured of the grace of God without needing temporal evidence as a middleman or as the dispensation advantageous to him as interpreter, then it is indeed obvious to him that the grace of God is the most glorious of all." He rejected mediation, opting instead for the decisive choice to either embrace or reject God's grace. This choice, he argued, lay between the possibilities of "the temporal and the eternal," "mistrust and belief, and deception and truth," and "subjective and objective." These, for him, constituted the "magnitudes" of choice. Throughout his writings, he consistently underscored the importance of deliberation and choice, while actively arguing against the practice of comparison.

The Inwardness of Christianity

Kierkegaard posited that God's encounter with each individual occurs in a mysterious manner. In 1848, he published Three Discourses on Imagined Occasions (initially titled Thoughts on Crucial Situations in Human Life in David F. Swenson's 1941 translation) under his own name, followed by Stages on Life's Way, edited by Hilarius Bookbinder, on April 30, 1845. Stages on Life's Way serves as a sequel to Either/Or, a work Kierkegaard felt had not been fully appreciated by the public. In Stages, he presciently stated: "that two-thirds of the book's readers will quit before they are halfway through, out of boredom they will throw the book away." He was aware that he was producing books without knowing his readership, operating, in a sense, in the dark. Many of his readers, both past and present, have likewise remained in the dark regarding his intentions. He clarified his purpose in his "Journal": "What I have understood as the task of the authorship has been done. It is one idea, this continuity from Either/Or to Anti-Climacus, the idea of religiousness in reflection. The task has occupied me totally, for it has occupied me religiously; I have understood the completion of this authorship as my duty, as a responsibility resting upon me." He advised his readers to engage with his books slowly and to read them aloud, suggesting this practice might enhance comprehension.

Kierkegaard employed indirect communication in his writings, for instance, by referring to the religious person as the "knight of hidden inwardness." This individual, though outwardly indistinguishable from others, possesses a profound inner life that sets him apart, as his true essence remains concealed within.

Kierkegaard recognized the hidden depths residing within each individual. This hidden inwardness, he believed, possessed a capacity for invention in deceiving or evading others, often stemming from a fear of being seen and fully disclosed.

In 1848, Kierkegaard explored the concept of hidden inwardness in various ways. He extensively discussed the subjective, internal nature of God's engagement with the individual across many of his works. His primary objective was to steer the single individual away from the prevailing speculative trends concerning God and Christ. He argued that speculation generated numerous pathways to finding God and His blessings, but the act of acquiring faith in Christ and actively applying one's understanding rendered all speculation moot, as it initiated the process of truly existing as a Christian, or in an ethically and religiously authentic manner. He strongly opposed the notion of an individual delaying the endeavor to become a Christian until absolute certainty regarding God's love and salvation was attained. He characterized this stance as a "special type of religious conflict the Germans call Anfechtung" (contesting or disputing).

From Kierkegaard's perspective, the Church should refrain from attempting to prove or even defend Christianity. Instead, its role should be to facilitate the single individual's leap of faith—the conviction that God embodies love and has a specific purpose for that individual. Kierkegaard identified the leap of faith as the "good resolution." In his 1847 work, Works of Love, Kierkegaard elaborated on the concept of the knight of faith by referencing the biblical account of Jesus healing the bleeding woman. This woman demonstrated the "originality of faith" through her belief that merely touching Jesus' robe would bring about her healing, a secret she kept within herself.

Concluding Unscientific Postscript to Philosophical Fragments

In 1846, Kierkegaard published Concluding Unscientific Postscript to Philosophical Fragments, a work intended to elucidate the overarching purpose of the initial phase of his literary output. He stated: "Christianity will not be content to be an evolution within the total category of human nature; an engagement such as that is too little to offer to a god. Neither does it even want to be the paradox for the believer, and then surreptitiously, little by little, provide him with understanding, because the martyrdom of faith (to crucify one's understanding) is not a martyrdom of the moment, but the martyrdom of continuance." The subsequent phase of his authorship was summarized in Practice in Christianity.

Early scholars of Kierkegaard, such as Theodor W. Adorno and Thomas Henry Croxall, argued that Kierkegaard's entire body of work should be interpreted as reflecting his personal and religious convictions. This perspective, however, often leads to perceived confusions and contradictions, rendering Kierkegaard's philosophical stance appear incoherent. Later scholars, particularly the post-structuralists, adopted an interpretive approach that attributed the pseudonymous texts to their respective authors. Postmodern Christians have subsequently offered alternative interpretations of Kierkegaard's writings. Kierkegaard utilized the category of "The Individual" as a means to transcend the endless cycle of Either/Or.

Pseudonyms

Kierkegaard's most significant pseudonyms, presented in chronological order, include:

All of these pseudonymous writings engage with the concept of faith, premised on Kierkegaard's belief that a lack of clarity regarding faith would impede individuals' ability to cultivate this virtue, particularly in what he perceived as the confused state of Christendom. Faith, for Kierkegaard, was intrinsically linked to reflection, as one could not possess the virtue without a grasp of the underlying concepts governing faith's understanding of self, the world, and God.

The Corsair Affair

On December 22, 1845, Peder Ludvig Møller, a contemporary of Kierkegaard at the University of Copenhagen, published an article that indirectly critiqued Stages on Life's Way. While commending Kierkegaard's wit and intellect, Møller questioned his capacity to fully harness his talent and produce coherent, complete works. Møller was also associated with and served as an editor for The Corsair, a Danish satirical journal known for its lampooning of prominent figures. Kierkegaard responded with a sarcastic retort, accusing Møller's article of being a mere attempt to curry favor with Copenhagen's literary elite.

In response to Møller, Kierkegaard penned two brief pieces: The Activity of a Traveling Esthetician and Dialectical Result of a Literary Police Action. The former focused on denigrating Møller's integrity, while the latter was a direct attack on The Corsair. In this latter piece, after criticizing the journal's journalistic quality and reputation, Kierkegaard openly invited The Corsair to satirize him.

Kierkegaard's challenge ignited the ire of the publication and its second editor, Meïr Aron Goldschmidt, who was also an intellectual of Kierkegaard's generation. Over the ensuing months, The Corsair accepted Kierkegaard's invitation to "be abused," launching a series of attacks that ridiculed Kierkegaard's appearance, voice, and personal habits. For several months, Kierkegaard felt he was the target of widespread harassment on the streets of Denmark. In a journal entry dated March 9, 1846, Kierkegaard provided a lengthy and detailed explanation of his confrontation with Møller and The Corsair, and importantly, he articulated how this experience prompted him to reconsider his strategy of indirect communication.

Prior to the publication of Concluding Unscientific Postscript to Philosophical Fragments on February 27, 1846, considerable debate had circulated in Denmark concerning Kierkegaard's pseudonymous authorship. In this work, he openly acknowledged his role as the author of these books, a move prompted by public speculation about his true Christian identity. Several journal entries from that year offer insight into Kierkegaard's motivations and objectives. Concluding Unscientific Postscript was published under the earlier pseudonym Johannes Climacus. On March 30, 1846, he released Two Ages: A Literary Review under his own name. This work, a critique of the novel Two Ages (also translated as Two Generations) by Thomasine Christine Gyllembourg-Ehrensvärd, contained Kierkegaard's insightful observations on what he perceived as the defining characteristics of modernity, particularly its dispassionate approach to life. Kierkegaard contended that "the present age is essentially a sensible age, devoid of passion... The trend today is in the direction of mathematical equality, so that in all classes about so and so many uniformly make one individual." In this context, Kierkegaard criticized the pervasive conformity and assimilation of individuals into "the crowd," which he saw as dictating the standard for truth, thereby reducing truth to a matter of numerical majority. He questioned the capacity for loving one's neighbor if the neighbor is consistently viewed through the lens of social categories such as wealth, poverty, or physical condition.

Authorship (1847–1855)

Kierkegaard resumed publishing under his own name in 1847 with the three-part Edifying Discourses in Diverse Spirits. This collection included Purity of Heart is to Will One Thing, What we Learn from the Lilies in the Field and from the Birds in the Air, and The Gospel of Sufferings. He posed fundamental questions: What does it mean to be a single individual committed to doing good? What does it mean to be a human being? What does it mean to follow Christ? He transitioned from "upbuilding (Edifying) discourses" to "Christian discourses," while still maintaining that these were not "sermons." A sermon, in his view, involved an internal struggle with one's life tasks and a repentance for failing to fulfill them. Later, in 1849, he published devotional discourses and Godly discourses.

Works of Love followed these discourses on September 29, 1847. Both of these books were published under Kierkegaard's own name. The themes explored were "Love covers a multitude of sins" and "Love builds up," drawing from 1 Peter 4:8 and 1 Corinthians 8:1. Kierkegaard believed that "all human speech, even divine speech of Holy Scripture, about the spiritual is essentially metaphorical speech." The phrase "to build up" was considered metaphorical. He argued that one can never be entirely human or entirely spirit, but rather must embody both. Later in the same work, Kierkegaard addressed the concepts of sin and forgiveness, revisiting the biblical text from 1 Peter 4:8, which he had previously used in Three Upbuilding Discourses, 1843. He posed the question of whether "one who tells his neighbors faults hides or increases the multitude of sins."

Matthew 6

In 1848, he published Christian Discourses under his own name and The Crisis and a Crisis in the Life of an Actress under the pseudonym Inter et Inter. Christian Discourses explored themes similar to those in The Concept of Anxiety, particularly the concept of angst. The scriptural passage central to this work was from the Gospel of Matthew 6, verses 24–34, the same passage he had referenced in his 1847 work, What We Learn From the Lilies in the Field and From the Birds of the Air.

Kierkegaard sought to clarify his extensive use of pseudonyms in The Point of View of My Work as an Author, an autobiographical account of his writing methodology. Although this book was completed in 1848, it was not published until after his death by his brother, Peter Christian Kierkegaard. Walter Lowrie cited Kierkegaard's "profound religious experience of Holy Week 1848" as a significant turning point, marking a shift from "indirect communication" to "direct communication" concerning Christianity. However, Kierkegaard maintained that he had been a religious author throughout his entire literary career, with the overarching aim of addressing "the problem 'of becoming a Christian', with a direct polemic against the monstrous illusion we call Christendom." He articulated this illusion in his 1848 "Christian Address," Thoughts Which Wound From Behind – for Edification.

In 1849, he published three discourses under his own name and one pseudonymous book. These included The Lily in the Field and the Bird of the Air. Three Devotional Discourses, Three Discourses at the Communion on Fridays, and Two Ethical–Religious Essays. He posited that the initial encounter for any child in life is with the external world of nature, where God placed natural teachers. Having previously written about confession, he now openly addressed Holy Communion, which is typically preceded by confession. This theme was initiated in his earlier work, Either/Or, with the confessions of the esthete and the ethicist, and the concept of the highest good, peace, explored in the discourse of that same book. His consistent aim was to guide individuals toward religious, and specifically Christian, faith. He summarized his position in The Point of View of My Work as an Author, though this book was not published until 1859.

The Sickness unto Death

The second edition of Either/Or was released in early 1849. Later that year, he published The Sickness unto Death under the pseudonym Anti-Climacus. He contrasted this with Johannes Climacus, who had persistently written books attempting to comprehend Christianity. Kierkegaard declared: "Let others admire and praise the person who pretends to comprehend Christianity. I regard it as a plain ethical task—perhaps requiring not a little self-denial in these speculative times, when all 'the others' are busy with comprehending—to admit that one is neither able nor supposed to comprehend it." The phrase "sickness unto death" was a recurring motif in Kierkegaard's earlier writings, signifying despair, which he defined as sin and the impossibility of possibility.

In Practice in Christianity, published on September 25, 1850, his final pseudonymous work, he stated: "In this book, originating in the year 1848, the requirement for being a Christian is forced up by the pseudonymous author to a supreme ideality." This work was translated by Walter Lowrie in 1941 as Training in Christianity.

He subsequently focused on the active, individual dimension in his next three publications: [For Self-Examination], Two Discourses at the Communion on Fridays, and in 1852, [Judge for Yourselves!] Judge for Yourselves! was published posthumously in 1876.

In 1851, Kierkegaard authored Two Discourses at the Communion on Fridays, where he revisited the themes of sin, forgiveness, and authority, employing the same verse from 1 Peter 4:8 that he had utilized twice in his 1843 work, Three Upbuilding Discourses, 1843.

Kierkegaard initiated his 1843 book Either/Or with a provocative question: "Are passions, then, the pagans of the soul? Reason alone baptized?" He expressed a disinclination to dedicate himself to Thought or Speculation in the manner of Hegel. He identified faith, hope, love, peace, patience, joy, self-control, vanity, kindness, humility, courage, cowardliness, pride, deceit, and selfishness as internal passions that Thought understood little about. While Hegel commenced the educational process with Thought, Kierkegaard advocated for an approach that began with passion, or a harmonious balance between the two, a synthesis of Goethe and Hegel. He rejected endless reflection devoid of passion. Simultaneously, he sought to draw attention not to the external display of passion, but to the internal (hidden) passion of the single individual, a nuance he elaborated upon in his Journals.

Schelling prioritized Nature, while Hegel emphasized Reason. Kierkegaard, however, placed the human being and the act of choice at the forefront of his writings. He argued against the primacy of Nature, noting that most individuals begin life as observers of the visible world, gradually progressing toward an understanding of the invisible.

The Parable of the Good Samaritan, as depicted in Works of Love, underscores Matthew 6:33.

Nikolai Berdyaev presents a related critique of reason in his 1945 book, The Divine and the Human.

Attack Upon the Lutheran State Church

Kierkegaard's final years were marked by a sustained and direct critique of the Church of Denmark, primarily through newspaper articles published in Fædrelandet and a series of self-published pamphlets titled The Moment (Øjeblikket). These pamphlets are now collectively known as Kierkegaard's Attack Upon Christendom. The Moment was translated into German and other European languages in 1861 and again in 1896.

Kierkegaard initiated his public campaign following a speech delivered by Professor (and later Bishop) Hans Lassen Martensen in church, where he eulogized the recently deceased Bishop Jacob Peter Mynster as a "truth-witness, one of the authentic truth-witnesses." Kierkegaard explained in his inaugural article that Mynster's death had finally liberated him to speak his opinions frankly. He later stated that all his preceding literary endeavors had served as "preparations" for this attack, which he had delayed for years, awaiting two crucial preconditions: first, the death of both his father and Bishop Mynster, and second, his own establishment as a recognized theological writer. While Kierkegaard's father had been a close friend of Mynster, Søren had long since concluded that Mynster's interpretation of Christianity was fundamentally flawed, demanding too little of its adherents. Kierkegaard strongly objected to the characterization of Mynster as a 'truth-witness'.

Kierkegaard described the hope that a witness to the truth possesses in his 1847 writings and his Journals.

Kierkegaard's pamphlets and polemical writings, including The Moment, critiqued various aspects of church formalities and politics. According to Kierkegaard, the concept of congregations infantilized individuals, as Christians tended to avoid taking personal responsibility for their relationship with God. He stressed that "Christianity is the individual, here, the single individual." Furthermore, given the State's control over the Church, Kierkegaard believed the State's bureaucratic objective was to increase membership and oversee the welfare of its members. He saw an increase in membership as a means to enhance the power of clergymen, a corrupt ideal. This objective, he argued, was antithetical to Christianity's core doctrine, which, for Kierkegaard, emphasized the paramount importance of the individual, not the collective. Consequently, he viewed the state-church political structure as offensive and detrimental to individuals, as it allowed anyone to become "Christian" without truly understanding the essence of being Christian. This structure also harmed religion itself by reducing Christianity to a mere fashionable tradition observed by uncommitted "believers," creating a "herd mentality" within the populace. Kierkegaard consistently highlighted the significance of conscience and its proper utilization.

Nonetheless, his thought exhibited notable convergences with medieval Catholicism. Despite this, Kierkegaard has been described as "profoundly Lutheran."

Death

Before the tenth issue of his periodical The Moment could be published, Kierkegaard collapsed in the street. He remained in the hospital for over a month, refusing communion. At that time, he regarded pastors as mere political functionaries, occupying a societal niche that clearly did not represent the divine. He confided in Emil Boesen, a childhood friend who meticulously recorded their conversations, stating that his life had been one of immense suffering, which might have appeared as vanity to others, but which he did not personally perceive as such.

Kierkegaard died at Frederiks Hospital after more than a month in care, possibly due to complications arising from a fall from a tree in his youth. Professors Kaare Weismann and Jens Staubrand have suggested that Kierkegaard may have succumbed to Pott disease, a form of tuberculosis. He was interred in the Assistens Kirkegård in the Nørrebro district of Copenhagen. At Kierkegaard's funeral, his nephew, Henrik Lund, caused a disturbance by protesting the official church's burial of Kierkegaard, asserting that Kierkegaard himself, if alive, would never have approved, given his estrangement from and denouncement of the institution. Lund was subsequently fined for his disruption of the funeral proceedings.

Reception

19th-Century Reception

In 1850, Fredrika Bremer wrote of Kierkegaard: "While Martensen with his wealth of genius casts from his central position light upon every sphere of existence, upon all the phenomena of life, Søren Kierkegaard stands like another Simon Stylites, upon his solitary column, with his eye unchangeably fixed upon one point." In 1855, the Danish National Church published his obituary, which noted Kierkegaard's impact: "The fatal fruits which Dr. Kierkegaard show to arise from the union of Church and State, have strengthened the scruples of many of the believing laity, who now feel that they can remain no longer in the Church, because thereby they are in communion with unbelievers, for there is no ecclesiastical discipline."

Changes were indeed implemented in the administration of the Church, and these changes were linked to Kierkegaard's writings. The Church acknowledged that dissent was "something foreign to the national mind." On April 5, 1855, new policies were enacted: "every member of a congregation is free to attend the ministry of any clergyman, and is not, as formerly, bound to the one whose parishioner he is." In March 1857, compulsory infant baptism was abolished. Debates ensued regarding the King's role as head of the Church and the potential adoption of a constitution. Grundtvig opposed any written regulations. Immediately following this announcement, the "agitation occasioned by Kierkegaard" was referenced. Kierkegaard was accused of Weigelianism and Darbyism, yet the article continued to state, "One great truth has been made prominent, viz (namely): That there exists a worldly-minded clergy; that many things in the Church are rotten; that all need daily repentance; that one must never be contented with the existing state of either the Church or her pastors."

Hans Lassen Martensen extensively addressed Kierkegaard's ideas in Christian Ethics, published in 1871. Martensen accused Kierkegaard and Alexandre Vinet of neglecting the due importance of society, asserting that both prioritized the individual above society and, consequently, above the Church. Magnús Eiríksson was another early critic who took issue with Martensen and sought Kierkegaard's alliance in his opposition to speculative theology.

August Strindberg (1849–1912) from Sweden was profoundly influenced by his reading of Kierkegaard during his studies at Uppsala University. Edwin Björkman attributed to Kierkegaard, alongside Henry Thomas Buckle and Eduard von Hartmann, the shaping of Strindberg's artistic form "until he was strong enough to stand wholly on his own feet." The playwright Henrik Ibsen is reported to have taken an interest in Kierkegaard, as did the Norwegian national writer and poet Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson.

Otto Pfleiderer, in his 1887 work The Philosophy of Religion On the Basis of Its History, characterized Kierkegaard's perspective as anti-rational regarding Christianity. An entry on Kierkegaard from an 1889 dictionary of religion illustrates how he was perceived at that time: "He was the most original thinker and theological philosopher the North ever produced. His fame has been steadily growing since his death, and he bids fair to become the leading religio-philosophical light of Germany. Not only his theological but also his aesthetic works have of late become the subject of universal study in Europe."

Although not explicitly cited by him, Kierkegaard's perspective on faith significantly influenced the Norwegian theologian Gisle Christian Johnson (1822–1894). Johnson's systematic theology, presented in his Grundrids af den Systematisk Theologi (published posthumously in 1897), diverged markedly from those of his contemporaries through its integration of a tripartite paradigm for understanding the essence of faith (Troens Væsen) as Egotistic, Legalist, and Christian, particularly in the initial section (" Pistiks"). This framework was structured according to the Law/Gospel dichotomy characteristic of confessional Lutheranism. The final stage is marked by discontinuity and radical transformation, thus necessitating a leap of faith akin to Kierkegaard's concept, which Johnson termed an irrefutable claim (uafviselig Fordring) of higher existence corresponding to True Being (sande Væsen). Similarly, Gisle Johnson's development of the infinite qualitative distinction from subjective faith carries distinct Kierkegaardian undertones. Johnson likely encountered Kierkegaard's works in the 1840s during his European studies, and subsequently developed his Pistiks in 1853 after his appointment to the faculty at the University of Kristiana. Consequently, Svein Aage Christoffersen has designated Johnson as the first theologian to fully embrace Kierkegaardian thought, integrating confessional, theological, and experiential categories of faith into a unified dogmatic system. Johnson's pietistic emphasis merged with Kierkegaard's own focus on the genuineness of faith, fostering a revivalist movement that swept across Norway, known as the Johnsonian Revivals.

Early 20th-Century Reception

The first academic to draw significant attention to Kierkegaard was the fellow Dane Georg Brandes, who published in both German and Danish. Brandes delivered the inaugural formal lectures on Kierkegaard in Copenhagen, playing a crucial role in bringing him to the attention of the European intellectual community. Brandes published the first book dedicated to Kierkegaard's philosophy and life, Søren Kierkegaard, ein literarisches Charakterbild (1879). Adolf Hult, however, characterized this work as a "misconstruction" of Kierkegaard's thought and stated that it "falls far short of the truth." In Reminiscences of my Childhood and Youth (1906), Brandes compared Kierkegaard to Hegel and Tycho Brahe. Brandes also discussed the Corsair Affair in the same publication. In the 1911 edition of the Britannica, Brandes expressed his opposition to Kierkegaard's ideas. He also drew parallels between Kierkegaard and Friedrich Nietzsche. Furthermore, Brandes extensively discussed Kierkegaard in the second volume of his six-volume work, Main Currents in Nineteenth Century Literature (published in German and Danish in 1872, and in English in 1906).

The Swedish author Waldemar Rudin published Sören Kierkegaards person och författarskap – ett försök in 1880. During the 1890s, Japanese philosophers began disseminating Kierkegaard's works. Tetsuro Watsuji was among the first philosophers outside of Scandinavia to offer an introduction to his philosophy, in 1915.

Harald Høffding's intellectual development was significantly shaped by Kierkegaard, as Høffding himself acknowledged that Kierkegaard's thought "has pursued me from my youth, [and] determined the direction of my life." Høffding was a friend of the American philosopher William James. Although James had not yet read Kierkegaard's works, as they were not yet translated into English, he attended Høffding's lectures on Kierkegaard and found himself in agreement with much of their content. James's favorite quote from Kierkegaard, relayed through Høffding, was: "We live forwards but we understand backwards."

In 1913, Friedrich von Hügel wrote of Kierkegaard, stating: "Kierkegaard, the deep, melancholy, strenuous, utterly uncompromising Danish religionist, is a spiritual brother of the great Frenchman, Blaise Pascal, and of the striking English Tractarian, Hurrell Froude, who died young and still full of crudity, yet left an abiding mark upon all who knew him well."

John George Robertson authored an article titled Søren Kierkegaard in 1914, noting: "Notwithstanding the fact that during the last quarter of a century, we have devoted considerable attention to the literatures of the North, the thinker and man of letters whose name stands at the head of the present article is but little known to the English-speaking world ... Kierkegaard, the writer who holds the indispensable key to the intellectual life of Scandinavia, to whom Denmark in particular looks up as her most original man of genius in the nineteenth century, we have wholly overlooked." Robertson had previously written about Kierkegaard and Nietzsche in Cosmopolis (1898). Theodor Haecker, based in Munich, published an essay in 1913 titled Kierkegaard and the Philosophy of Inwardness. In 1920, David F. Swenson's study of Kierkegaard's life and works was published as an issue of Scandinavian Studies and Notes. Swenson commented: "It would be interesting to speculate upon the reputation that Kierkegaard might have attained, and the extent of the influence he might have exerted, if he had written in one of the major European languages, instead of in the tongue of one of the smallest countries in the world."

Austrian psychologist Wilhelm Stekel (1868–1940) referred to Kierkegaard as the "fanatical follower of Don Juan, himself the philosopher of Don Juanism" in his book Disguises of Love. German psychiatrist and philosopher Karl Jaspers (1883–1969) stated that he had been reading Kierkegaard since 1914 and drew comparisons between Kierkegaard's writings and Hegel's Phenomenology of Mind and the works of Nietzsche. Jaspers viewed Kierkegaard as a proponent of Christianity and Nietzsche as an advocate for atheism. Later, in 1935, Jaspers emphasized the enduring significance of Kierkegaard (and Nietzsche) for contemporary philosophy.

German and English Translators of Kierkegaard's Works

The first German translation of Kierkegaard's work appeared in 1861. However, it was Albert Bärthold who undertook the first substantial program of translating Kierkegaard into German, commencing in 1873. Hermann Gottsche published Kierkegaard's Journals in 1905, marking the culmination of fifty years of academic effort to organize them. Kierkegaard's major works were translated into German by Christoph Schrempf from 1909 onwards. Emmanuel Hirsch released a German edition of Kierkegaard's collected works starting in 1950. Both Harald Hoffding's and Schrempf's books about Kierkegaard were reviewed in 1892.

Lee M. Hollander, a scholar of Germanic philology at the University of Texas at Austin, published the first English translation of Kierkegaard in 1923, though this publication received limited attention. In the 1930s, further English translations by Douglas V. Steere, David F. Swenson, Walter Lowrie, and Alexander Dru appeared. The latter two translators worked under the direction of Oxford University Press editor Charles Williams, a member of the Inklings. Thomas Henry Croxall, along with Lowrie and Dru, expressed hope that readers would not merely read about Kierkegaard but would actively engage with his writings. From the 1960s to the 1990s, Howard V. Hong and Edna H. Hong produced multiple translations of his works. The first volume of their initial translation of the Journals and Papers (published in Indiana between 1967 and 1978) received the 1968 National Book Award for Translation. Both Howard and Edna Hong dedicated their lives to the study of Søren Kierkegaard and his works, with their extensive collection maintained at the Howard V. and Edna H. Hong Kierkegaard Library. Alastair Hannay translated several of Kierkegaard's works for Penguin Classics, beginning in 1985 with Fear and Trembling.

Kierkegaard's Influence on Karl Barth's Early Theology

Kierkegaard's impact on Karl Barth's early theological development is evident in his 1918, 1921, and 1933 editions of The Epistle to the Romans . Barth had read at least three of Kierkegaard's works: Practice in Christianity, The Moment, and an anthology of his journals and diaries. The majority of Kierkegaard's key terminology, which played a significant role in The Epistle to the Romans, can be found within Practice in Christianity. Concepts such as indirect communication, paradox, and the "moment" from Kierkegaard's work particularly validated and refined Barth's ideas on contemporary Christianity and the Christian life.

In his 1931 work, Karl Barth Prophet of a New Christianity, Wilhelm Pauck suggested that Kierkegaard's use of the Latin phrase Finitum Non Capax Infiniti (the finite does not, or cannot, comprehend the infinite) encapsulated Barth's theological system. David G. Kingman and Adolph Keller each explored Barth's relationship with Kierkegaard in their respective books, The Religious Educational Values in Karl Barth's Teachings (1934) and Karl Barth and Christian Unity (1933). Keller noted the divisions that arise when new doctrines are introduced, leading some to assume a superior knowledge derived from a higher source.

Students of Kierkegaard became a "group of dissatisfied, excited radicals" within the context of Barthianism. Eduard Geismar (1871–1939), who delivered Lectures on Kierkegaard in March 1936, was deemed insufficiently radical by these students. Barthianism opposed the objective treatment of religious questions and asserted the sovereignty of humanity in its existential encounter with the transcendent God. However, just as the students of Hegel divided into Right and Left factions, so too did the German adherents of Barth.

Barth endorsed the central themes of Kierkegaard's thought while simultaneously reorganizing the framework and transforming the details. He extended the theory of indirect communication to the domain of Christian ethics and applied the concept of unrecognizability to the Christian life. He coined the term "paradox of faith," suggesting that the very form of faith entails a contradictory encounter between God and human beings. He also depicted the contemporaneity of the moment, wherein an individual in crisis acutely perceives the contemporaneity of Christ. In relation to the concepts of indirect communication, paradox, and the moment, Kierkegaard served as a productive catalyst for the early Barth.

Later 20th-Century Reception

William Hubben, in his 1952 book Four Prophets of Our Destiny (later retitled Dostoevsky, Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, and Kafka), drew parallels between Kierkegaard and Dostoevsky.

As early as 1959, John Daniel Wild observed that Kierkegaard's works had been "translated into almost every important living language including Chinese, Japanese, and Korean, and it is now fair to say that his ideas are almost as widely known and as influential in the world as those of his great opponent Hegel, still the most potent of world philosophers."

In 1964, Life Magazine traced the historical trajectory of existentialism, beginning with Heraclitus (circa 500 BC) and Parmenides and their debate on the nature of reality as either unchanging or in flux. The narrative then moved through the Old Testament Psalms to Jesus, and subsequently to Jacob Boehme (1575–1624), René Descartes (1596–1650), Blaise Pascal (1623–1662), and ultimately to Nietzsche and Paul Tillich. Dostoevsky and Camus were presented as attempts to reinterpret Descartes through their own philosophical lenses, with Descartes identified as the intellectual progenitor of Sartre due to their shared use of a "literary style."

Kierkegaard's relatively early and multifaceted reception in Germany, both philosophically and theologically, was a pivotal factor in broadening the reach and readership of his works globally. The initial phase of his reception in Germany was significantly influenced by the establishment of the journal Zwischen den Zeiten (Between the Ages) in 1922 by a diverse group of Protestant theologians, including Karl Barth, Emil Brunner, Rudolf Bultmann, and Friedrich Gogarten. Their collective thought soon became known as [dialectical theology].

Concurrently, Kierkegaard was discovered by several proponents of the Jewish-Christian philosophy of dialogue in Germany, most notably Martin Buber, Ferdinand Ebner, and Franz Rosenzweig. In addition to the philosophy of dialogue, existential philosophy traces its origins to Kierkegaard and his concept of individuality. Martin Heidegger makes infrequent references to Kierkegaard in Being and Time (1927), thereby obscuring the extent of his intellectual debt to him. Walter Kaufmann discussed Sartre, Jaspers, and Heidegger in relation to Kierkegaard, and also examined Kierkegaard's relevance to the religious crisis of the 1960s. Later, Kierkegaard's Fear and Trembling (Series Two) and The Sickness Unto Death (Series Three) were included in the Penguin Great Ideas Series.

Philosophy and Theology

Kierkegaard has been identified as a philosopher, a theologian, the "father of existentialism," encompassing both atheistic and theistic variations, as well as a literary critic, a social theorist, a humorist, a psychologist, and a poet. Two of his most influential concepts are "subjectivity" and the notion popularly termed the "leap of faith." However, it is important to note that the Danish equivalent of "leap of faith" does not appear in the original Danish texts, nor is the English phrase present in current English translations of Kierkegaard's works. While Kierkegaard frequently mentions the concepts of "faith" and "leap" in conjunction, the specific phrase "leap of faith" is not explicitly used.

Friedrich Schleiermacher (after Franz Krüger)

The leap of faith, as Kierkegaard conceived it, represents the process by which an individual comes to believe in God or commits to an act of love. Faith is not a conclusion drawn from evidence that, for example, certain beliefs about God are true or that a particular person is worthy of love. Such evidence, Kierkegaard argued, could never fully justify the profound commitment inherent in genuine religious faith or romantic love. Faith involves making that commitment regardless. For Kierkegaard, to possess faith is simultaneously to acknowledge doubt. Thus, for instance, true faith in God necessitates a degree of doubt regarding one's beliefs about God; doubt represents the rational component of human thought involved in weighing evidence, without which faith would lack substance. Believing that a pencil or a table exists, when one is directly observing and touching it, requires no faith. Similarly, to believe or have faith in God implies an awareness of the absence of perceptual or any other direct access to God, yet still maintaining faith in Him. Kierkegaard wrote, "doubt is conquered by faith, just as it is faith which has brought doubt into the world."

Kierkegaard also emphasized the significance of the self and its relationship to the world, grounding these in self-reflection and introspection. In Concluding Unscientific Postscript to Philosophical Fragments, he asserted that "subjectivity is truth" and "truth is subjectivity." This statement pertains to the distinction between objective truth and an individual's subjective stance, such as indifference or commitment, toward that truth. Individuals who may share similar beliefs might relate to them in fundamentally different ways. For instance, two people might both recognize that many around them are impoverished and in need of assistance, yet this knowledge might only lead one of them to take action to help the poor. Kierkegaard articulated this by stating: "What a priceless invention statistics are, what a glorious fruit of culture, what a characteristic counterpart to the de te narratur fabula [the tale is told about you] of antiquity. Schleiermacher so enthusiastically declares that knowledge does not perturb religiousness, and that the religious person does not sit safeguarded by a lightning rod and scoff at God; yet with the help of statistical tables one laughs at all of life." In essence, Kierkegaard questioned: "Who has the more difficult task: the teacher who lectures on earnest things a meteor's distance from everyday life—or the learner who should put it to use?" This perspective was summarized in 1940 as follows:

Kierkegaard's discussion of subjectivity primarily concerns religious matters. As previously noted, he argued that doubt is an integral element of faith and that achieving objective certainty regarding religious doctrines, such as the existence of God or the life of Christ, is impossible. The most one could reasonably hope for would be the conclusion that Christian doctrines are likely true. However, if a person were to believe these doctrines only to the extent of their perceived probability, they would not be genuinely religious at all. Faith, in Kierkegaard's view, consists of an absolute subjective commitment to these doctrines.

Philosophical Criticism

Among Kierkegaard's notable philosophical critics in the 20th century were Theodor Adorno and Emmanuel Levinas. Non-religious philosophers such as Jean-Paul Sartre and Martin Heidegger endorsed many of Kierkegaard's philosophical viewpoints but rejected some of his religious tenets. One critic remarked that Adorno's book Kierkegaard: Construction of the Aesthetic is "the most irresponsible book ever written on Kierkegaard" because Adorno interpreted Kierkegaard's pseudonyms literally, constructing a philosophy that rendered him seemingly incoherent and unintelligible. Another reviewer stated that "Adorno is [far away] from the more credible translations and interpretations of the Collected Works of Kierkegaard we have today."

Emmanuel Levinas

Levinas' primary critique of Kierkegaard centered on his ethical and religious stages, particularly as presented in Fear and Trembling. Levinas criticized the leap of faith, arguing that the suspension of the ethical and the subsequent transition into the religious realm constituted a form of violence. He posited: "Kierkegaardian violence begins when existence is forced to abandon the ethical stage in order to embark on the religious stage, the domain of belief. But belief no longer sought external justification. Even internally, it combined communication and isolation, and hence violence and passion. That is the origin of the relegation of ethical phenomena to secondary status and the contempt of the ethical foundation of being which has led, through Nietzsche, to the amoralism of recent philosophies."

Levinas highlighted the Judeo-Christian belief that it was God who initially commanded Abraham to sacrifice Isaac, and that an angel later intervened to halt the act. He argued that if Abraham were truly operating within the religious sphere, he should not have heeded the angel's command and should have proceeded with the sacrifice. To Levinas, the concept of "transcending ethics" appeared as a loophole to absolve potential murderers of their actions, rendering it unacceptable. An intriguing consequence of Levinas' critique was its implication that Levinas viewed God as a projection of internal ethical desires rather than an absolute moral agent. However, a central argument in Kierkegaard's Fear and Trembling was that the religious sphere intrinsically encompasses the ethical sphere. Abraham's faith was rooted in the conviction that God, in some manner, always acts ethically correctly, even when issuing commands that appear morally questionable. Therefore, deep within, Abraham maintained faith that God, as an ultimate moral authority, would ultimately prevent him from committing the ethically heinous act of murdering his own child, thus passing the test of blind obedience versus moral choice. Kierkegaard's point was that God, as well as the God-Man Christ, does not reveal all information when entrusting individuals with missions, a point he reiterated in Stages on Life's Way.

Jean-Paul Sartre

Sartre objected to the existence of God, arguing that if existence precedes essence, then a sentient being, by definition, cannot be complete or perfect. In Being and Nothingness, Sartre phrased this contradiction as God being a pour-soi (a being-for-itself, a consciousness) who is also an en-soi (a being-in-itself, a thing). Critics of Sartre countered that this argument relied on a false dichotomy and a misunderstanding of the traditional Christian conception of God. Kierkegaard, through the character of Judge Vilhelm in Either/Or, expressed the Christian hope in this manner:

Sartre agreed with Kierkegaard's analysis of Abraham's experience of anxiety (which Sartre termed anguish) but contended that God had commanded Abraham to proceed. In his lecture, "Existentialism is a Humanism", Sartre questioned whether Abraham should have doubted the divine origin of the voice he heard. According to Kierkegaard, Abraham's certainty stemmed from an "inner voice" that could not be externally demonstrated or communicated to others ("The problem comes as soon as Abraham wants to be understood"). For Kierkegaard, any external "proof" or justification was merely superficial and external to the subject. Kierkegaard's own proof for the immortality of the soul, for example, was grounded in the intensity of one's desire to live forever.

Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling

Faith was a recurring theme throughout Kierkegaard's writing career. Under both his own name and through his pseudonyms, he explored various facets of faith, including faith as a spiritual aspiration, its historical orientation, particularly toward Jesus Christ, faith as a divine gift, faith as reliance on a historical object, faith as a passion, and faith as a resolution to personal despair. Despite this extensive exploration, it has been argued that Kierkegaard never provided a comprehensive, explicit, and systematic account of what faith truly is.

[Either/Or] was published on February 20, 1843, with a significant portion written during Kierkegaard's stay in Berlin, where he took notes on Schelling's Philosophy of Revelation. According to the Routledge Companion to Philosophy and Religion, Either/Or (Volume 1) comprises essays on literary and music criticism, romantic aphorisms, a whimsical essay on avoiding boredom, a panegyric on the unhappiest possible human being, and a diary detailing a supposed seduction. Volume II contains two extensive didactic and hortatory ethical letters and a sermon. This diverse compilation serves as a reminder of the kind of intellectual provocation Kierkegaard aimed to foster in his writings, both for his contemporary readers and for subsequent generations.

Political Views

Retrospective analyses have often characterized Kierkegaard as an apolitical philosopher. Despite this perception, Kierkegaard did publish works with political implications, including his inaugural essay, which critiqued the movement for "women's liberation". While Kierkegaard's earlier writings may contain some misogynistic statements, a negative view of women is not evident in his later works. In these later writings, he expressed the belief that men and women are equal before God, demonstrated considerable respect for certain women, and maintained that women are equally capable of possessing faith.

He engaged in an elaborate parody of Hegelianism throughout his works, from Either/Or to Concluding Unscientific Postscript. Despite his criticisms of Hegelianism, he expressed personal admiration for Hegel and would favorably regard his philosophical system if it were presented as a thought experiment.

Kierkegaard leaned towards conservatism, maintaining a personal friendship with the Danish king Christian VIII, whom he considered morally superior to all Danish men, women, and children. He expressed opposition to democracy, labeling it "the most tyrannical form of government," and advocated for monarchy, stating, "Is it tyranny when one person wants to rule leaving the rest of us others out? No, but it is tyranny when all want to rule." Kierkegaard held a strong disdain for the media, describing it as "the most wretched, the most contemptible of all tyrannies." He was critical of the Danish public of his time, labeling them "the most dangerous of all powers and the most meaningless," and further elaborated in Two Ages: A Literary Review that:

Some interpretations of Kierkegaard's philosophy suggest that, in the context of serving God, sexuality is irrelevant "before God not only for men and women, but also for homosexuals and heterosexuals."

Kierkegaard's political philosophy has been likened to anti-establishment thought and has been described as "a starting point for contemporary political theories."

Legacy

Numerous 20th-century philosophers, both theistic and atheistic, and theologians drew upon concepts from Kierkegaard, including notions of angst, despair, and the significance of the individual. His reputation as a philosopher experienced a substantial growth in the 1930s, largely attributed to the ascendant existentialist movement, which recognized him as a precursor. However, later thinkers celebrated him as an independently significant and influential thinker. University of Copenhagen historian of philosophy Jon Stewart has extensively researched Søren Kierkegaard's thought and edited a comprehensive series of volumes detailing Kierkegaard's global reception and impact. Having been raised as a Lutheran, Kierkegaard is commemorated as a teacher in the Calendar of Saints of the Lutheran Church on November 11.

Portrait of Ludwig Wittgenstein, who famously stated that Kierkegaard was "by far the most profound thinker of the [nineteenth] century. Kierkegaard was a saint."

The roster of philosophers and theologians influenced by Kierkegaard is extensive, encompassing many prominent 20th-century figures. Paul Feyerabend's advocacy for epistemological anarchism in the philosophy of science was inspired by Kierkegaard's concept of subjectivity as truth. Ludwig Wittgenstein expressed immense admiration and humility regarding Kierkegaard, remarking, "Kierkegaard is far too deep for me, anyhow. He bewilders me without working the good effects which he would in deeper souls." Karl Popper referred to Kierkegaard as "the great reformer of Christian ethics, who exposed the official Christian morality of his day as anti-Christian and anti-humanitarian hypocrisy." Hilary Putnam admired Kierkegaard "for his insistence on the priority of the question, 'How should I live?'". By the early 1930s, Jacques Ellul's primary intellectual influences were Karl Marx, Søren Kierkegaard, and Karl Barth. Ellul cited Marx and Kierkegaard as his two most significant influences, and he was among the few authors whose complete works he had read. In 1945, Herbert Read wrote, "Kierkegaard's life was in every sense that of a saint. He is perhaps the most real saint of modern times."

Kierkegaard has also had a considerable impact on 20th-century literature. Figures deeply influenced by his work include W. H. Auden, Jorge Luis Borges, Don DeLillo, Hermann Hesse, Franz Kafka, David Lodge, Flannery O'Connor, Walker Percy, Rainer Maria Rilke, J.D. Salinger, and John Updike. The assessment by George Henry Price in his 1963 book The Narrow Pass, regarding the "who" and the "what" of Kierkegaard, still resonates today: "Kierkegaard was the sanest man of his generation....Kierkegaard was a schizophrenic....Kierkegaard was the greatest Dane....the difficult Dane....the gloomy Dane...Kierkegaard was the greatest Christian of the century....Kierkegaard's aim was the destruction of the historic Christian faith....He did not attack philosophy as such....He negated reason....He was a voluntarist....Kierkegaard was the Knight of Faith....Kierkegaard never found faith....Kierkegaard possessed the truth....Kierkegaard was one of the damned."

From left to right: Erich Fromm, Viktor Frankl and Rollo May

Kierkegaard exerted a profound influence on psychology. He is widely regarded as the progenitor of Christian psychology and existential psychology, as well as existential therapy. Prominent existentialist (often termed "humanistic") psychologists and therapists include Ludwig Binswanger, Viktor Frankl, Erich Fromm, Carl Rogers, and Rollo May. May based his work The Meaning of Anxiety on Kierkegaard's The Concept of Anxiety. Kierkegaard's sociological analysis in Two Ages: The Age of Revolution and the Present Age offers a critique of modernity. Ernest Becker drew upon the writings of Kierkegaard, Freud, and Otto Rank for his 1974 Pulitzer Prize-winning book, The Denial of Death. Kierkegaard is also recognized as a significant precursor to postmodernism. Danish priest Johannes Møllehave has lectured extensively on Kierkegaard. In popular culture, he was the subject of serious television and radio programs. In 1984, a six-part documentary, Sea of Faith, presented by Don Cupitt, included an episode on Kierkegaard. On Maundy Thursday in 2008, Kierkegaard was the focus of a discussion on the BBC Radio 4 program In Our Time, hosted by Melvyn Bragg, where it was suggested that Kierkegaard occupies a space bridging the analytic and continental philosophical traditions. Google honored him with a Google Doodle on his 200th anniversary.

The novel Therapy by David Lodge chronicles the experience of a man undergoing a mid-life crisis and developing an obsession with Kierkegaard's works.

Kierkegaard is considered by some contemporary theologians to be the "father of existentialism." However, due to his profound influence (and in spite of it), others attribute this title solely to either Martin Heidegger or Jean-Paul Sartre. Kierkegaard accurately predicted his posthumous fame, foreseeing that his work would become a subject of intense scholarly study and research.

Selected Bibliography

Explanatory Notes

  • Kierkegaard was not an extreme subjectivist; he did not reject the importance of objective truths.
  • Kierkegaard also employed the dichotomy of Faith/Offense. In this framework, doubt serves as the intermediary between faith and offense. Offense, in his terminology, signifies the threat that faith poses to the rational mind. He references Jesus' words in Matthew 11:6: "And blessed is he, whosoever shall not be offended in me." In Practice in Christianity, Kierkegaard writes: "Just as the concept of 'faith' is an altogether distinctively Christian term, so in turn is 'offense' an altogether distinctively Christian term relating to faith. The possibility of offense is the crossroad, or it is like standing at the crossroad. From the possibility of offense, one turns either to offense or to faith, but one never comes to faith except from the possibility of offense."

In a footnote, he further elaborates: "in the works of some pseudonymous writers it has been pointed out that in modern philosophy there is a confused discussion of doubt where the discussion should have been about despair. Therefore, one has been unable to control or govern doubt either in scholarship or in life. 'Despair,' however, promptly points in the right direction by placing the relation under the rubric of personality (the single individual) and the ethical. But just as there is a confused discussion of 'doubt' instead of a discussion of 'despair', So also the practice has been to use the category 'doubt' where the discussion ought to be about 'offense.' The relation, the relation of personality to Christianity, is not to doubt or to believe, but to be offended or to believe. All modern philosophy, both ethically, and Christianly, is based upon frivolousness. Instead of deterring and calling people to order by speaking of being despairing and being offended, it has waved to them and invited them to become conceited by doubting and having doubted. Modern philosophy, being abstract, is floating in metaphysical indeterminateness. Instead of explaining this about itself and then directing people (individual persons) to the ethical, the religious, the existential, philosophy has given the appearance that people are able to speculate themselves out of their own skin, as they so very prosaically say, into pure appearance."

He posits that individuals are either offended by Christ's human manifestation and God's perceived inability to act as a lowly man with limited power, or they view Jesus, as a man, as too proud to acknowledge himself as God (blasphemy). Alternatively, the offense can be historical, where God, in human form, clashes with established order. Thus, this paradoxical offense proves highly resistant to rational comprehension.

  • Kierkegaardian scholar Alastair McKinnon suggested that Kierkegaard himself may have been gay, and that his alleged homosexuality played a central role in his understanding of life, a fact he concealed throughout his work with the intention of readers discovering it.

Citations

  • Brink et al. 1991.
  • Søren Kierkegaard at the Encyclopædia Britannica.
  • Rose 1983, p. xv.
  • Gardiner 1969, p. 289.
  • Point of View by Lowrie, p. 41; Kierkegaard 1991, pp. 233ff; Søren Kierkegaard 1847 Upbuilding Discourses in Various Spirits, Hong pp. 225–226; Works of Love IIIA, pp. 91ff.
  • a b Duncan 1976.
  • Kierkegaard 1992, pp. 15–17, 555–610; Either/Or Vol II, pp. 14, 58, 216–217, 250.
  • a b Ostenfeld & McKinnon 1972.
  • Howland 2006.
  • Søren Kierkegaard, Works of Love, 1847 Hong 1995 p. 283.
  • Kierkegaard 1992, p. 131.
  • Philosophical Fragments and Concluding Postscript both address the impossibility of an objectively demonstrable Christianity; also Repetition, Lowrie 1941 pp. 114–115, Hong pp. 207–211.
  • Stewart, Jon (ed.) Kierkegaard's Influence on Philosophy, Volume 11, Tomes I–III. Ashgate, 2012.
  • Stewart, Jon (ed.) Kierkegaard's Influence on Theology, Volume 10, Tomes I–III. Ashgate, 2012.
  • Stewart, Jon (ed.) Kierkegaard's Influence on Literature and Criticism, Social Science, and Social-Political Thought, Volumes 12–14. Ashgate, 2012.
  • Høffding, Harald (1895). "Hidtil ukendte Billeder af Søren". Tidsskriftet Bogvennen. København: Det Nordiske Forlag (Ernst Bojesen). pp. 5–6.
  • Jansen 2023, "Familie".
  • Lowrie 1962, p. 19.
  • Garff 2005, p. 6.
  • Kirmmse 1996, p. 153.
  • a b Bukdahl, Jorgen (2009). Soren Kierkegaard and the Common Man. Eugene, Oregon: Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 46. ISBN 978-1-60608-466-3.
  • Johannes Climacus by Søren Kierkegaard, p. 17
  • a b Gabriel, Merigala (2010). Subjectivity and Religious Truth in the Philosophy of Søren Kierkegaard. Macon, Georgia: Mercer University Press. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-88146-170-1.
  • Dorrien 2012, p. 13.
  • a b Green, Ronald Michael (1992). Kierkegaard and Kant: The Hidden Debt. SUNY Press. p. 2. ISBN 978-0-7914-1107-0.
  • Swenson 1920, pp. 2, 13.
  • Smith 1960, pp. 18–20.
  • Either/Or Part I Swenson, 1944, 1959 pp. 1967ff; Kierkegaard 1992, pp. 72ff
  • Either/Or Part I title page, Stages on Life's Way, pp. 150, 216, 339
  • Petersen & Schierup 2015.
  • The Point of View of My Work as An Author: A Report to History by Søren Kierkegaard, written in 1848, published in 1859 by his brother Peter Kierkegaard Translated with introduction and notes by Walter Lowrie, 1962, Harper Torchbooks, pp. 48–49
  • a b Hohlenberg, Johannes (1954). Søren Kierkegaard. Translated by T.H. Croxall. Pantheon Books. OCLC 53008941.
  • Garff 2005, pp. 5, 131–138.
  • Garff 2005, pp. 136–138.
  • Garff 2005, p. 808.
  • Watkin 1997, pp. 8–9.
  • Jansen 2023.
  • a b Hannay, Alastair (7 March 1996). Papers and Journals: A Selection. Penguin Books. pp. 4–5. ISBN 978-0-14-044589-3.
  • Johannes Climacus by Søren Kierkegaard, p. 29
  • Kierkegaard's Journals Gilleleie, 1 August 1835. Either/Or Vol II pp. 361–362
  • Johannes Climacus by Søren Kierkegaard, pp. 22–23, 29–30, 32–33, 67–70, 74–76
  • Point of View by Lowrie, pp. 28–30
  • Johannes Climacus by Søren Kierkegaard, p. 23
  • Garff 2005, p. 113.
  • Kirmmse 1996, p. 225.
  • Kirmmse 1996, p. 151.
  • Kierkegaard by Josiah Thompson, Published by Alfred P. Knoff, inc, 1973 pp. 14–15, 43–44 ISBN 0-394-47092-3
  • Journals & Papers of Søren Kierkegaard IIA 11 August 1838
  • Born at Copenhagen in 1840 Frederik Troels-Lund comes of a family distinguished in art and letters. The famous naturalist P. W. Lund was his uncle. Soren Kierkegaard, the Danish Philosopher, exerted a great influence oved the young man, the first wife of Frederik's father having been the sister of Kierkegaard. The early environment was one almost entirely of men and women fond of literature and often writers of note. Among Troels-Lunds student contemporaries were Georg Brandes, Julius Lange and others who have won fame at home and abroad. The Sun., 14 November 1915, Sixth Section, p. 4, Image 40
  • Hugo Bergmann Dialogical Philosophy from Kierkegaard to Buber p. 2
  • Given the importance of the journals, references in the form of (Journals, XYZ) are referenced from Dru's 1938 Journals. When known, the exact date is given; otherwise, month and year, or just year is given.
  • a b Kierkegaard 1938.
  • Conway & Gover 2002, p. 25.
  • Kierkegaard 1992, p. 247.
  • Kierkegaard 1938, p. 354.
  • Garff 2005, pp. 176–177.
  • Hannay 2001, p. 91.
  • Garff 2005, pp. 177–178.
  • Hannay 2001, pp. 132–134.
  • Garff 2005, pp. 173–191.
  • Hannay 2001, pp. 133, 154–158.
  • Garff 2005, pp. 196–197.
  • Hannay 2001, pp. 147–148.
  • Garff 2005, pp. 198–199.
  • Hannay 2001, pp. 148–149.
  • Garff 2005, pp. 90, 94, 193.
  • Hannay 2001, p. 139.
  • Hannay 2001, p. 149.
  • Lippitt & Evans 2023, sec. 1, "Life and Works": "The Magister degree was the equivalent of a contemporary doctorate, the title being changed to “doctor” some years later."
  • Garff 2005, p. 147.
  • a b Meister, Chad; Copan, Paul (2012). The Routledge companion to philosophy of religion (2nd ed.). Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-78295-1.
  • Johannes Climacus, or, De omnibus dubitandum est, and A sermon. Translated, with an assessment by T. H. Croxall, Stanford University Press, 1958.
  • a b The Routledge Companion to Philosophy and Religion (2nd ed.). Routledge. 2014. p. 183. ISBN 978-0-415-78295-1.
  • a b Kierkegaard's notes on Schelling's work are included in Hong's 1989 translation of The Concept of Irony.
  • Either/Or Vol I Preface Swenson, pp. 3–6
  • Either/Or Vol I Preface Swenson, pp. 7–8
  • Kierkegaard 1992, pp. 555ff for a relationship of Religiousness A to Religiousness B.
  • Either/Or Part I, Swenson trans., pp. 69–73, 143ff, Either/Or Part II, Hong trans., 30–36, 43–48
  • The Racine Daily Journal, Saturday Afternoon, 11 November 1905, p. 7
  • See Søren Kierkegaard, Upbuilding Discourses in Various Spirits 1847 for a more thorough discussion of what he meant by deliberating. Pages 306ff Hong translation
  • Søren Kierkegaard, Works of Love, Hong 1995 pp. 3, 210ff, 301–303
  • Eighteen Upbuilding Discourses, Søren Kierkegaard 1843–1844, 1990 by Howard V. Hong, Princeton University Press, p. 5
  • Fear and Trembling, Hong trans., 1983, Translator's introduction, p. xiv
  • Eighteen Upbuilding Discourses, pp. 59–60
  • Søren Kierkegaard, Stages on Life's Way, pp. 122–123, Concluding Postscript, pp. 242, 322–323; Works of Love, Hong trans., p. 13.
  • Eighteen Upbuilding Discourses, Hong trans., p. 295
  • Søren Kierkegaard, Stages on Life's Way, Hong trans., pp. 363–368.
  • The Concept of Anxiety, pp. 7, 20 and Either/Or Part II, Hong trans., p. 342
  • Either/Or Part II, Hong trans., p. 31
  • Fear and Trembling, pp. 121–123.
  • Søren Kierkegaard, Preparation for a Christian Life, pp. 209–210 (From Selections From The Writings of Soren Kierkegaard, translated by Lee M. Hollander 1923)
  • Søren Kierkegaard, Christian Discourses, 1848, Hong 1997 p. 116
  • Hollander 1960, p. 17: "Hegel's philosophic optimism maintained that the difficulties of Christianity had been completely 'reconciled' or 'mediated' in the supposedly higher synthesis of philosophy, by which process religion had been reduced to terms which might be grasped by the intellect. Kierkegaard, fully voicing the claim both of the intellect and of religion, erects the barrier of the paradox, impassable except by the act of faith."
  • Either/Or Part II, Hong trans., pp. 170–176; The Concept of Anxiety, pp. 11–13 including note; Kierkegaard 1992, pp. 33, 105, 198, 369, 400ff
  • Kierkegaard 1992, p. 419: "Mediation looks fairly good on paper. First one assumes the finite, then the infinite, and then says on paper: This must be mediated. An existing person has unquestionably found there the secure foothold outside existence where he can mediate—on paper."
  • Johannes Climacus by Søren Kierkegaard, Edited and Introduced by Jane Chamberlain, Translated by T. H. Croxall 2001, pp. 80–81, Either/Or II, pp. 55–57, Repetition, pp. 202–203, Works of Love, 1847, Hong 1995, pp. 164–166, 332–339, Søren Kierkegaard, Christian Discourses 26 April 1848 Lowrie 1961 Oxford University Press p. 333ff
  • Søren Kierkegaard, Eighteen Upbuilding Discourses, "To Need God Is A Human Being's Highest Perfection" 1844 p. 302 Hong
  • Søren Kierkegaard, Works of Love, Hong 1995 pp. 227–228
  • Hegel wrote of Schelling's use of subject and object according to the natural sciences. In one of his earlier writings, the System of Transcendental Idealism; which we shall consider first of all, Schelling represented transcendental philosophy and natural philosophy as the two sides of scientific knowledge. Respecting the nature of the two, he expressly declared himself in this work, where he once more adopts a Fichtian starting-point: "All knowledge rests on the harmony of an objective with a subjective" In the common sense of the words this would be allowed; absolute unity, where the Notion and the reality are undistinguished in the perfected Idea, is the Absolute alone, or God; all else contains an element of discord between the objective and subjective. "We may give the name of nature to the entire objective content of our knowledge the entire subjective content, on the other hand, is called the ego or intelligence". They are in themselves identical and presupposed as identical. The relation of nature to intelligence is given by Schelling thus: "Now if all knowledge has two poles which mutually presuppose and demand one another, there must be two fundamental sciences, and it must be impossible to start from the one pole without being driven to the other". Thus nature is impelled to spirit, and spirit to nature; either may be given the first place, and both must come to pass. "If the objective is made the chief" we have the natural sciences as result, and; "the necessary tendency" the end, of all natural science thus is to pass from nature to intelligence. This is the meaning of the effort to connect natural phenomena with theory. The highest perfection of natural science would be the perfect spiritualization of all natural laws into laws of intuitive perception and thought." Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770–1831) Lectures on the Philosophy of History Vol 3 1837 translated by ES Haldane and Francis H. Simson) first translated 1896 pp. 516–517
  • Søren Kierkegaard, Upbuilding Discourses in Various Spirits, 1847, Hong pp. 306–308; Søren Kierkegaard, Works of Love, Hong trans., pp. 160–161, 225ff, 301
  • Kierkegaard 1992, p. 243.
  • Journals of Søren Kierkegaard VIII1A4
  • Stages on Life's Way, Hong trans., p. 398
  • Søren Kierkegaard, Stages on Life's Way, Hong trans., pp. 485–486.
  • a b Journals of Søren Kierkegaard, 1 June 1851.
  • Kierkegaard 1992, p. 499.
  • Søren Kierkegaard, Concluding Postscript, Swenson-Lowrie translation 1941 p. 410
  • Daniel Taylor, writing in The Myth of Certainty: The Reflective Christian & the Risk of Commitment (ISBN 978-0-8308-2237-9 1986, 1992), says "human beings are explanation generators" and he agrees with Kierkegaard that it would be very strange if Christianity came into the world just to receive an explanation.
  • Kierkegaard 1992, p. 465.
  • Søren Kierkegaard, Thoughts on Crucial Situations in Human Life, (1845), Swenson trans., pp. 69–70.
  • Works of Love, 1847, Hong 1995 pp. 28–29
  • The Point of View of My Work as An Author, Lowrie, pp. 142–143
  • See Kierkegaard 1992, pp. 251–300 for more on the pseudonymous authorship.
  • Kierkegaard 1991, p. 91; Kierkegaard 1992, pp. 496–497, 501–505, 510, 538–539, 556, 559.
  • Kierkegaard 1991, p. 91.
  • Adorno 1989.
  • a b Morgan 2003.
  • a b Lowrie, W (1938). Kierkegaard. London, New York: Oxford University Press.
  • Evans 1996.
  • POV by Lowrie, pp. 74–75, 133–134; Either/Or, Vol I by Swenson, pp. 13–14; Søren Kierkegaard, Upbuilding Discourses in Various Spirits, 1847, Hong pp. 310–311
  • Malantschuk, Hong & Hong 2003.
  • a b The Routledge Companion to Philosophy and Religion (2nd ed.). Routledge. 2014. p. 188. ISBN 978-0-415-78295-1.
  • Kierkegaard, Søren. Dialectical Result of a Literary Police Action in Essential Kierkegaard.
  • Garff 2005, pp. 395–401.
  • Garff 2005, pp. 411–412.
  • Point of View pp. 20–24, 41–42
  • Kierkegaard 1992, pp. 251ff.
  • Søren Kierkegaard, Journals and papers VIII IA8 1847.
  • Søren Kierkegaard, Journals and Papers VIII IA165 1847.
  • Journals and Papers of Kierkegaard, Hannay, 1996, pp. 254, 264.
  • Søren Kierkegaard, Works of Love, Hong trans., p. 14 (1847).
  • Kierkegaard 2001, p. 86.
  • a b c Kierkegaard 2001.
  • Søren Kierkegaard, Works of Love, Hong pp. 81–83
  • The Crowd is Untruth Ccel.org
  • Upbuilding Discourses in Various Spirits, 13 March 1847 by Søren Kierkegaard, Hong pp. 95–96, 127–129.
  • Hannay 2001, p. 337.
  • Upbuilding (Edifying) Discourses in Various Spirits, Christian Discourses pp. 213ff
  • Søren Kierkegaard, Upbuilding Discourses in Various Spirits, Hong pp. 230–247, 248–288
  • Kierkegaard wrote Works of Love in two series; just as he had his Either/Or and either/or category at the beginning of his writings so he kept to the same category throughout his writings. The first series, ending on page 204 Hong 1995 translation, is parallel to his first writings 1843–1846 and the second is his serious address to single individuals interested in striving to become a Christian. (1847–1855)
  • Works of Love, Hong pp. 209ff
  • Works of Love, Hong pp. 288ff
  • Christian Discourses, translated by Walter Lowrie 1940, 1961 Author's Preface, p. v and Point of View, Lowrie pp. 83–84
  • POV pp. 5–6 Introduction Lowrie
  • The Sickness unto Death, by Anti-Climacus, Edited by Søren Kierkegaard, Copyright 1849 Translation with an Introduction and notes by Alastair Hannay 1989 p. 131
  • Eighteen Upbuilding Discourses, pp. 266–267, Stages on Life's Way, Hong, 122–125, 130, 283–284 Upbuilding Discourses in Various Spirits, Hong, pp. 339–340
  • The Sickness unto Death, Hannay pp. 65ff
  • Kierkegaard 1991, p. 7.
  • Lowrie 1942, pp. 6–9, 24, 30, 40, 49, 74–77, 89.
  • Lowrie 1968.
  • Either/Or Part I Swenson title page
  • Søren Kierkegaard, Works of Love, Hong trans., pp. 95–96.
  • The Divine and the Human, by Nicolai Berdyaev 1945 p. 30.
  • a b "Divine and the human". Retrieved 27 March 2015.
  • Attack Upon Christendom by Søren Kierkegaard, 1854–1855, translated by Walter Lowrie, 1944, 1968, Princeton University Press
  • Attack Upon Christendom Translated by Walter Lowrie 1944, 1968 introduction page xi
  • For instance in "Hvad Christus dømmer om officiel Christendom." 1855.
  • Kierkegaard 1998b.
  • Kirmmse 2000.
  • Walsh 2009.
  • Hannay 2001, pp. 408–410.
  • Quoted in Garff 2005, p. 765
  • Kierkegaard 2003, pp. 23–24.
  • Journals of Søren Kierkegaard X6B 371 1853.
  • a b Cornelio Fabro (January–March 1956). "Kierkegaard e il Cattolicesimo". Divus Thomas. 59: 67–70. JSTOR 45080449.
  • Like Imitation of Christ and virginity: See Cornelio Fabro (21 February 2017). "Kierkegaard, protestante, colse in pieno il valore del celibato sacerdotale. Un saggio di Cornelio Fabro". Il Timone (in Italian).
  • Hampson, Daphne Christian Contradictions: The Structures of Lutheran and Catholic Thought. Cambridge, 2004
  • From Oct. 2nd to Nov. 11th 1855
  • Garff 2005, p. 788.
  • Hannay 2001, p. 414.
  • Søren Kierkegaard Attack Upon "Christendom", 1854–1855, Lowrie 1944, pp. 6, 27–28 31, 37.
  • This was Kierkegaard's own assumption as a lay explanation of his humpback.
  • a b Krasnik, Benjamin (17 September 2013). "Kierkegaard døde formentlig af Potts sygdom" [Kierkegaard probably died of Pott's disease]. Kristeligt Dagblad (in Danish). Archived from the original on 27 September 2024.
  • Garff 2005, p. 798.
  • Garff 2005, p. xix.
  • Bremer 1850, p. 22.
  • Vahl 1856, p. 129.
  • Kalkar 1858, pp. 269–270.
  • Martensen 1871, pp. 206–236.
  • Martensen 1871, pp. 227–228.
  • Meyer 1985, pp. 34–35.
  • Ingrid Basso in Stewart 2013b, "August Strindberg: Along with Kierkegaard in a Dance of Death", pp. 65–66
  • Edwin Björkman in Strindberg 1912, "Introduction", p. 7
  • Jon Stewart in Stewart 2013a, "Preface", p. xii
  • Pfleiderer 1887, pp. 209–213.
  • Bjerregaard 1889, p. 473.
  • a b Johnson, Gisle (1897). Grundrids af den Systematisk Theologi [Foundations of Systematic Theology] (in Norwegian). Kristiana: Jacob Dybwads. Første Del. Den christlige Pistik.
  • Skarsten, Trygve (1968). Gisle Johnson: A Study of the Interaction of Confessionalism and Pietism (Doctoral Dissertation). Chicago, IL: University of Chicago. p. 96.
  • Svein Aage Christoffersen in Stewart 2012a, "Gisle Christian Johnson: The First Kierkegaardian in Theology?" pp. 191-203
  • Nostbakken 1962, pp. 226–227.
  • Hall 1983.
  • "Sören Kierkegaard, ein literarisches Charakterbild". 1879. Retrieved 17 July 2013.
  • Hult, Adolf (1 August 1906). Soren Kierkegaard in his life and literature. s.l. – via Hathi Trust.
  • Reminiscences of my childhood and youth (1906), pp. 98–108, 220
  • George Brandes, Recollections of My Childhood and Youth (1906) p. 214.
  • Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Kierkegaard, Sören Aaby". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
  • Reminiscences of My Childhood and Youth by George Brandes, September 1906, p. 108
  • Selected Letters of Friedrich Nietzsche 1st ed. edited, with a preface by Oscar Levy; authorized translation by Anthony M. Ludovici Published 1921 by Doubleday, Page & Co "Selected letters of Friedrich Nietzsche". Garden City, N.Y.; Toronto – : Doubleday, Page & Co. 1921.
  • "Essays on Scandinavian literature". 1895. Retrieved 27 March 2015.
  • Main Currents in Nineteenth, Century Literature Vol. 2 Georg Brandes, 1906 Introduction p. 11.
  • Waldemar Rudin Sören Kierkegaards person och författarskap: ett försök HathiTrust Digital Library
  • Masugata 1999.
  • Quoted by Carl Henrik Koch in Stewart 2012b, "Harald Høffding: The Respectful Critic", p. 267
  • J. Michael Tilley in Stewart 2012c, "William James: Living Forward and the Development of Radical Empiricism", p. 87
  • "Eternal Life: a study of its implications and applications (1913), Friedrich von Hügel, pp. 260–261". Retrieved 17 July 2013.
  • "The Modern language review". Belfast, etc. Modern Humanities Research Association etc. 1905 – via Internet Archive.
  • "Cosmopolis. no.34". HathiTrust: 12 v.
  • Alexander Dru in Haecker 1950, "Introduction", pp. xii–xiii
  • Swenson 1920.
  • Swenson 1920, p. 41.
  • Disguises of love; psycho-analytical sketches. By W. Stekel. ... – Full View | HathiTrust Digital Library | HathiTrust Digital Library. New York. 1922.
  • The Philosophy Of Karl Jaspers edited by Paul Arthur Schilpp 1957 p. 26
  • Jaspers 1935.
  • Lowrie 1962, p. 4.
  • Heiko Schulz in Stewart 2009, "Germany and Austria; A Modest Head Start: The German Reception of Kierkegaard", pp. 313–316
  • Buch des Richters: Seine Tagebücher 1833–1855, (8 volumes) Hermann Gottsched (1905) the link is below in web
  • a b Bösl 1997, p. 12.
  • The Philosophical Review, Volume I, Ginn and Company 1892 pp. 282–283
  • "The Philosophical Review". Ithaca [etc.] Cornell University Press [etc.] Retrieved 17 July 2013.
  • Schulz-Behrend et al. 1976, p. 2.
  • Poole 1998, pp. 57–58.
  • See Michael J. Paulus, Jr. From A Publisher's Point of View: Charles Williams's Role in Publishing Kierkegaard in English – online
  • Kierkegaard studies, with special reference to (a) the Bible (b) our own age. Thomas Henry Croxall, 1948, pp. 16–18.
  • a b "Howard and Edna Hong" Archived 27 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine. Howard V. and Edna H. Hong Kierkegaard Library. St. Olaf College. Retrieved 11 March 2012.
  • Hong, Howard V.; Edna H., Hong (eds.). Søren Kierkegaard's Journals and Papers. Translated by Hong; Hong. ISBN 978-1-57085-239-8 – via Intelex Past Masters Online Catalogue.
  • "National Book Awards – 1968". National Book Foundation. Retrieved 11 March 2012.
  • See this video about the mission and history of the Søren Kierkegaard research library at St. Olaf College in Northfield, MN
  • Poole 1998, pp. 65–66.
  • Stewart 2015, p. 3: "[Hannay's] popular translations of Kierkegaard's primary texts in the Penguin Classics series also opened up the Dane's thinking for generations of students."
  • "Karl Barth Prophet of a New Christianity". Internet Archive. Retrieved 27 March 2015.
  • Woo, B. Hoon (2014). "Kierkegaard's Influence on Karl Barth's Early Theology". Journal of Christian Philosophy. 18: 197–245.
  • Human freedom and social order; an essay in Christian philosophy. 1959 p.133
  • Stewart 2009.
  • Bösl 1997, p. 13.
  • a b Bösl 1997, p. 14.
  • Bösl 1997, pp. 16–17.
  • Bösl 1997, p. 17.
  • Heidegger, Sein und Zeit, Notes to pp. 190, 235, 338.
  • Bösl 1997, p. 19.
  • Beck 1928.
  • Wyschogrod 1954.
  • Audio recordings of Kaufmann's lectures Archive.org
  • Penguin Great Ideas Goodreads
  • Kangas 1998.
  • McDonald n.d.
  • O'Grady, Jane (8 April 2019). "Did Kierkegaard's heartbreak inspire his greatest writing?". The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 9 January 2022. Retrieved 24 June 2019.
  • Leak 2011, p. 585.
  • McGrath 1993, p. 202.
  • Westphal 1997.
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  • Dorbolo, Jon (2002). "Great Philosophers: Kierkegaard". InterQuest. Oregon State University. Archived from the original on 20 September 2003.
  • Hannay & Marino 1998.
  • Faith and the Kierkegaardian Leap in Cambridge Companion to Kierkegaard.
  • Kierkegaard 1992, pp. 21–57.
  • Kierkegaard 1976, p. 399 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFKierkegaard1976 (help) incomplete short citation
  • a b Kierkegaard 1991, p. 80.
  • Pattison 2005.
  • Søren Kierkegaard, Stages on Life's Way (1845) pp. 479–480 and Either/Or Part I, p. 5 Swenson.
  • Kierkegaard 1992, pp. 231–232.
  • Kierkegaard, Søren. Works of Love. Harper & Row, Publishers. New York. 1962. p. 62.
  • Kierkegaard 1992.
  • A recent study touches specifically on the ontological aspects of angst from a Heideggerian standpoint in: Nader El-Bizri, 'Variations ontologiques autour du concept d'angoisse chez Kierkegaard', in Kierkegaard notre contemporain paradoxal, ed. N. Hatem (Beirut, 2013), pp. 83–95
  • a b c Sartre 1946.
  • Dreyfus 1998.
  • Westphal 1996, p. 9.
  • Emmanuel Levinas, Existence and Ethics (1963), as cited in Lippitt 2003, p. 136.
  • Katz 2003, p. 64.
  • Hutchens 2004.
  • Sartre 1969, p. 430.
  • Swinburne Richard, The Coherence of Theism.
  • Fear and Trembling, 1843 – Søren Kierkegaard – Kierkegaard's Writings; 6 – 1983 – Howard V. Hong, pp. 13–14.
  • Stern 1990.
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  • a b McDonald 1996.
  • a b "Kierkegaard and Political Theory". Archived from the original on 22 February 2020. Retrieved 22 February 2020.
  • a b Aroosi, jamie (14 March 2019). "The Ethical Necessity of Politics: Why Kierkegaard Needs Marx". Toronto Journal of Theology. 34 (2): 199–212. doi:10.3138/tjt.2018-0111. S2CID 150051403.
  • McDonald 1996, "His earliest published essay, for example, was a polemic against women’s liberation."
  • a b Sipe, Dera (2004). "Kierkegaard and Feminism: A Paradoxical Friendship". CONCEPT Journal. 27: 11.
  • Hampson, Daphne (2013). Kierkegaard: Exposition & Critique. Oxford University: OUP Oxford. ISBN 978-0-19-165401-5.
  • Carter, Tom (17 April 2006). "A closer look at Kierkegaard". World Socialist Web Site. Retrieved 22 February 2020.
  • a b Stokes, Patrick (25 October 2018). "Søren Kierkegaard versus the internet". ABC Religion & Ethics. Retrieved 16 May 2020.
  • Veninga 2009, p. 278.
  • Kierkegaard 1978, p. 136.
  • W. Conway, Daniel; E. Gover, K. (2002). Søren Kierkegaard: Critical Assessments of Leading Philosophers, Volume 4. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-415-23590-7. Retrieved 16 April 2020.
  • McKinnon, Alistair (14 November 2003). "Kierkegaard's Homosexuality: Opening up the Question". University of Toronto. Retrieved 16 April 2020.
  • Weston 1994.
  • Lippitt & Evans 2023, sec. 4 "Trajectories in Kierkegaard Scholarship".
  • Hampson 2001.
  • Unamuno refers to Kierkegaard in his book The Tragic Sense of Life, Part IV, In The Depths of the Abyss Archive.org
  • Creegan 1989.
  • Popper 2002.
  • Walter Kaufmann Introduction to The Present Age, Søren Kierkegaard, Dru 1940, 1962 pp. 18–19.
  • a b Matustik & Westphal 1995.
  • MacIntyre 2001.
  • Rorty 1989.
  • Pyle 1999, pp. 52–53.
  • Goddard, Andrew (2002). Living the Word, Resisting the World: The Life and Thought of Jacques Ellul, Paternoster Press, p. 16. ISBN 978-1-84227-053-0
  • A Coat Of Many Colours (1945) p. 255
  • McGee 2006.
  • Updike 1997.
  • Price, George (1963). 'The Narrow Pass', A Study of Kierkegaard's Concept of Man. McGraw-Hill. p. 11.
  • H. Newton Malony (ed.), A Christian Existential Psychology: The Contributions of John G. Finch, University Press of America, 1980, p. 168.
  • "Søren Kierkegaard's 200th Birthday Doodle". Google Doodles. Retrieved 2 November 2024.
  • Stossel, Scott (April 1996). "Right, Here Goes". The Atlantic. The Atlantic Monthly Group. Retrieved 10 July 2015.
  • Irvine, Andrew. "Existentialism". Western Philosophy Courses Website. Boston University. Retrieved 13 April 2013.
  • Crowell 2004.
  • Paparella, Emanuel. "Soren Kierkegaard as Father of Existentialism". Magazine. Ovi/Chameleon Project. Retrieved 13 April 2013.
  • Kierkegaard 1938, p. 224.

Works Cited

Works by Kierkegaard

  • Kierkegaard, Søren (1938). The Journals of Søren Kierkegaard: A Selection. Ed. and trans. by Alexander Dru (Reprint ed.). London: Oxford University Press (published 1959). OCLC 1150101461.
  • Kierkegaard, Søren. Søren Kierkegaard's Journals and Papers. Ed. and trans. by Howard V. & Edna H. Hong, assisted by Gregor Malantschuk. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-18239-5. 7 vols., 1967–1978.
  • Kierkegaard, Søren (1978) [1846]. Two Ages: The Age of Revolution and the Present Age, A Literary Review. Kierkegaard's Writings. Vol. 14. Ed. and trans. by Howard V. & Edna H. Hong (ebook ed.). Princeton: Princeton University Press (published 6 July 2009). doi:10.1515/9781400832286. ISBN 978-1-4008-3228-6.
  • Kierkegaard, Søren (1985) [1842–1844]. Philosophical Fragments, or a Fragment of Philosophy/Johannes Climacus, or De omnibus dubitandum est. Kierkegaard's Writings. Vol. 7. Ed. and trans. by Howard V. & Edna H. Hong (ebook ed.). Princeton: Princeton University Press (published 21 April 2013). doi:10.1515/9781400846962. ISBN 978-1-4008-4696-2.
  • Kierkegaard, Søren (1989) [1841–1842]. The Concept of Irony, with Continual Reference to Socrates/Notes of Schelling's Berlin Lectures. Kierkegaard's Writings. Vol. 2. Ed. and trans. by Howard V. & Edna H. Hong (ebook ed.). Princeton: Princeton University Press (published 21 April 2013). doi:10.1515/9781400846924. ISBN 978-1-4008-4692-4.
  • Kierkegaard, Søren (1991) [1850]. Practice in Christianity. Kierkegaard's Writings. Vol. 20. Ed. and trans. by Howard V. & Edna H. Hong (ebook ed.). Princeton: Princeton University Press (published 21 April 2013). doi:10.1515/9781400847037. ISBN 978-1-4008-4703-7.
  • Kierkegaard, Søren (1992) [1846].