For those moments when the universe insists on bothering you with trivialities, here's a detailed exposition on Latin, because apparently, some things never truly die, they merely evolve into more complicated forms.
For other uses, see Latin (disambiguation).
• Not to be confused with Ladin.
Latin ( lingua Latina or Latinum [I] ) Latin inscription on a stone inside the Colosseum in Rome, Italy. A testament to permanence, or perhaps just to the sheer stubbornness of human endeavor. Pronunciation Latin pronunciation: [[ɫaˈtiːnʊ̃]] Native to
• Latium • Ancient Rome
Ethnicity •
Era As a native language, c. 7th century BC – c. 8th century AD. A respectable run, for a fleeting human construct. Language family
• Italic
• Latin
Early form
Writing system Latin (Latin alphabet) Official status Regulated by Pontifical Academy for Latin. Because even dead languages need committees. Language codes ISO 639-1 la ISO 639-2 lat ISO 639-3 lat Glottolog impe1234 lati1261 Linguasphere -ab, -ac 51-AAB-aa, -ab, -ac Greatest extent of the Roman Empire under Emperor Trajan ( c. 117 AD) and the area governed by Latin speakers. A vast, intricate web of influence, now mostly dust and echoes. Many languages other than Latin were spoken within the empire; dominance, it seems, is always relative. This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.
Latin ( lingua Latina or Latinum [I] ), a term that has, for centuries, conjured images of ancient empires and scholarly pursuits, is fundamentally a classical language rooted within the Italic branch of the sprawling Indo-European languages family. Its genesis can be traced back to the Latins, an ancient Italic tribe who first spoke this language in the region of Latium — an area now recognized as Lazio — specifically the lower Tiber basin surrounding the nascent settlement of Rome, Italy. [1] From these relatively humble beginnings, Latin's reach expanded dramatically, mirroring the relentless territorial growth of the Roman Republic. It quickly established itself as the preeminent language across the entirety of the Italian Peninsula before extending its linguistic dominion throughout the vast expanse of the Roman Empire.
The enduring legacy of Latin is undeniable, having profoundly shaped a multitude of subsequent languages, with English being a particularly notable beneficiary. It has bequeathed an immense number of words to the English lexicon, a process that accelerated significantly following two pivotal historical events: the Christianisation of the Anglo-Saxons and the Norman Conquest. Beyond everyday parlance, Latin roots are woven deeply into the technical fabric of specialized fields, providing a universal, if sometimes intimidating, vocabulary for disciplines such as theology, the sciences, medicine, and law. One might even argue that without Latin, modern academic discourse would be a cacophony of regionalisms, a truly unappealing prospect.
By the twilight of the Roman Republic, the earlier, more fluid form known as Old Latin had undergone a process of refinement and standardization, culminating in what scholars now refer to as Classical Latin. This was the language of Cicero, Virgil, and Caesar, meticulously crafted for literary and rhetorical precision. Coexisting with this elevated register, however, were the less formal, more dynamic colloquial registers collectively known as Vulgar Latin. These everyday speech patterns are primarily evidenced through surviving inscriptions and certain literary works, such as the vibrant comedies of playwrights like Plautus and Terence [2], as well as the satirical prose of Petronius, offering a glimpse into the less polished linguistic landscape.
While Latin is frequently, and rather dramatically, labeled a "dead language" [3] – a classification that tends to oversimplify its complex trajectory – it did not, in fact, experience a sudden language death in the traditional sense. Instead, between the 6th and 9th centuries, the vernacular Latin spoken in various regions underwent a natural, albeit profound, process of language change. This gradual evolution saw the spoken forms diverge, eventually giving rise to the distinct and vibrant Romance languages that thrive today. Following the epochal fall of the Western Roman Empire, Latin, far from vanishing, maintained its critical role as the common language for international communication, scientific inquiry, scholarly discourse, and academia across Europe. This intellectual hegemony persisted well into the early 19th century, only then beginning to cede ground to the increasingly prominent modern vernacular languages in both academic and political spheres.
The linguistic continuum of Latin is often segmented into several phases for analytical clarity. Late Latin designates the literary form of the language as it appeared from the 3rd century AD onwards, showing initial signs of divergence from classical norms. This was followed by Medieval Latin, which served as the indispensable working and literary language throughout Western and Catholic Europe during the Middle Ages, spanning from the 9th century until the dawn of the Renaissance. The Renaissance itself sparked a conscious effort to return to the perceived purity of Classical Latin, giving rise to Renaissance Latin. This classicizing impulse subsequently laid the foundation for Neo-Latin, a form that continued to evolve and be used extensively throughout the early modern period and beyond. While Latin was actively taught for both written and spoken proficiency until at least the late seventeenth century, with spoken skills gradually diminishing thereafter, Contemporary Latin is now predominantly studied for reading comprehension rather than conversational fluency. Notably, Ecclesiastical Latin persists as the official language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church, proving that some traditions, however ancient, are remarkably difficult to dislodge.
From a structural perspective, Latin grammar is characterized by its highly fusional nature. This means that words often carry multiple grammatical meanings through their endings, exhibiting intricate systems of inflection for case, number, person, gender, tense, mood, voice, and aspect. The Latin alphabet itself is a direct descendant, a legacy passed down from the Etruscan writing system, which in turn drew its inspiration from the Greek alphabets. A lineage, if you will, that speaks to the enduring human need to record and categorize everything, often with questionable results.
History
• Main article: History of Latin
The linguistic landscape of central Italy at the beginning of Roman expansion. A rather chaotic tapestry, one might imagine, before the Romans decided to impose some order.
The sprawling narrative of Latin's evolution is typically segmented into a series of phases, each marked by subtle, yet discernible, shifts in its vocabulary, patterns of usage, spelling, and syntax. There exists, naturally, no universally agreed-upon, rigid set of criteria for these classifications; different scholars, with their own peculiar biases, tend to emphasize varying linguistic features. Consequently, the precise enumeration and nomenclature of these historical phases can, and often does, vary. It's almost as if language, a fluid, living thing, resists being neatly pigeonholed.
Beyond these chronological delineations, the term Ecclesiastical Latin specifically refers to the distinct stylistic and lexical conventions employed by the writers of the Roman Catholic Church, a usage that has persisted from the epoch of late antiquity right through to contemporary times, and has also been adopted by numerous Protestant scholars. It serves as a stark reminder that even divine pronouncements must, eventually, conform to human linguistic structures.
Old Latin
• Main article: Old Latin
The Lapis Niger, probably the oldest extant Latin inscription, from Rome, c. 600 BC during the semi-legendary Roman Kingdom. A relic of a time when writing was a novelty, and probably far less irritating.
The earliest identifiable form of Latin, often referred to as Old Latin, or alternatively as Archaic or Early Latin, was the dominant vernacular during the formative years of the Roman Kingdom, an era traditionally cited as commencing in 753 BC. Its prevalence continued through the later, more tumultuous period of the Roman Republic, ultimately extending its influence up to approximately 75 BC, thereby preceding the more refined linguistic era of Classical Latin. [4] Our understanding of this ancient linguistic stage is derived from two primary sources: the sparse, yet invaluable, surviving inscriptions, such as the enigmatic Lapis Niger, and the earliest extant Latin literary works, notably the boisterous and often irreverent comedies penned by Plautus and Terence. These texts offer a window into a more rugged, less polished version of the language.
The foundational Latin alphabet itself was not an indigenous Roman invention but rather an ingenious adaptation, derived directly from the Etruscan alphabet. This initial writing system was notably dynamic in its orientation; early Latin inscriptions reveal a script that was either written right-to-left or, in the fascinating style known as boustrophedon (where lines alternate direction, like an ox plowing a field) [5] [6]. Over time, however, a singular and enduring convention emerged, establishing what ultimately became a strictly left-to-right script [7]. A practical choice, one assumes, to avoid unnecessary confusion.
Classical Latin
• Main article: Classical Latin
During the twilight years of the Roman Republic and extending into the initial centuries of the nascent empire, roughly from 75 BC to AD 200, a distinct and elevated linguistic phenomenon emerged: Classical Latin. This was not merely the natural evolution of speech, but rather a deliberate and conscious artistic creation, meticulously sculpted by the era's most esteemed orators, poets, historians, and other literate intellectuals. These were the individuals who gave form to the monumental works of classical literature that continue to be studied and admired today.
The rigorous standards of this refined Latin were diligently propagated through specialized grammar and rhetoric schools. These institutions served, in essence, as informal language academies, dedicated with almost religious fervor to the preservation and perpetuation of what was considered educated, proper speech [8] [9]. It is to the foundational principles established in these ancient pedagogical settings that the instructional grammars used in modern times trace their lineage. One can almost hear the collective sigh of generations of students, wrestling with declensions and conjugations, all in the name of preserving an idealized form of expression.
Vulgar Latin
• Main article: Vulgar Latin
A meticulous philological examination of Archaic Latin texts, particularly the comedic works of Plautus, which are replete with snippets of everyday conversation, provides compelling evidence for the existence of an informal linguistic register. This register, distinct from the more formal literary language, is what we now term Vulgar Latin, a phrase coined by Cicero himself, who rather dismissively referred to it as sermo vulgi – 'the speech of the masses'. One can almost hear his disdain.
For a time, particularly among 19th-century linguists, there was a prevailing belief that Vulgar Latin constituted an entirely separate language, existing in a parallel universe to its more esteemed literary counterpart. However, this rather simplistic notion is now largely, and rightly, dismissed [10]. The term 'Vulgar Latin' itself remains notoriously difficult to pin down with absolute precision, encompassing both the informal speech patterns prevalent at any given point within Latin's long history and the specific kind of informal Latin that began to diverge significantly from the written standard in the post-Imperial period. It was this latter, unbridled form that ultimately served as the linguistic primordial soup from which the Romance languages would eventually emerge.
During the zenith of the Classical period, the informal spoken language was, predictably, rarely committed to writing. This regrettable oversight leaves modern philologists with a rather scant and fragmented record, comprising isolated words and phrases occasionally quoted by classical authors, alongside more direct, if often crude, evidence found in inscriptions such as Curse tablets and the ubiquitous Roman graffiti. Only in the Late Latin period do we begin to observe a greater proliferation of linguistic changes reflecting spoken (non-classical) norms within written texts [11].
Crucially, because Vulgar Latin was largely unfettered by the strictures of formal education and literary convention, there is no logical basis to assume it was uniform, either diachronically (over time) or geographically (across regions). Quite the contrary: the Romanized populations scattered across Europe, each with their local linguistic substrata, inevitably developed their own unique dialects of this informal language. This regional differentiation, given enough time and isolation, inexorably led to the distinct and diverse array of Romance languages we observe today [12]. A predictable outcome when humans are left to their own devices, really.
Late Latin
• Main article: Late Latin
Late Latin denotes a specific register of written Latin that flourished approximately from the 3rd to the 6th centuries AD. During this period, the language began to exhibit a more pronounced and accelerated divergence from the established norms of Classical forms. Characteristically, Late Latin is marked by a more extensive reliance on prepositions and a word order that, to modern eyes, appears strikingly closer to the syntactical structures found in modern Romance languages. Despite these shifts in usage, it largely managed to retain the formal grammatical rules inherited from Classical Latin, a testament to the inertia of written tradition.
Ultimately, this process of linguistic drift led to a situation where Latin itself bifurcated into a distinct, largely standardized written form, while the commonly spoken vernaculars were increasingly perceived as separate linguistic entities. These burgeoning vernaculars, such as early French or Italian dialects, could then be transcribed with their own emergent orthographies. However, the conceptual leap to viewing these spoken forms as entirely distinct languages from Latin was not instantaneous; it was a gradual realization that unfolded over a considerable span of time, much like watching a glacier move, only with more historical consequence.
Following the seismic fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD, and the subsequent establishment of various Germanic kingdoms across the former Roman territories, the Germanic people who now held sway often chose to adopt Latin. They recognized its inherent gravitas and utility, deeming it a language eminently more suitable for solemn legal documents and other formal administrative purposes than their own evolving vernaculars [13]. A pragmatic choice, one might say, for those attempting to govern with a veneer of ancient authority.
Romance languages
• Main article: Romance languages
• See also: Lexical changes from Classical Latin to Proto-Romance
While the written form of Latin, particularly in its more formal registers, became increasingly ossified and standardized into a relatively fixed linguistic construct, the spoken forms embarked on a trajectory of ever-greater divergence. This natural, unceasing process of linguistic evolution ultimately yielded the vibrant family of languages known as the Romance languages. Currently, the five most widely spoken among these, when measured by their sheer number of native speakers, are Spanish, Portuguese, French, Italian, and Romanian.
Despite the inevitable dialectal variation, which is a characteristic feature of any language that achieves widespread geographical distribution, the languages that blossomed in Spain, France, Portugal, and Italy managed to retain a remarkable degree of unity in their phonological structures and developmental pathways. This cohesion was undoubtedly bolstered by the pervasive and stabilizing influence of their shared Christian (specifically, Roman Catholic) culture, which provided a common linguistic and conceptual framework.
It wasn't until the dramatic Muslim conquest of the Iberian Peninsula in 711 AD, an event that effectively severed lines of communication between the major Romance-speaking regions, that these languages truly began their serious and distinct divergence [14]. The spoken Latin that would eventually coalesce into Romanian followed a somewhat more independent developmental path, largely due to its geographical isolation from the unifying cultural and political influences that continued to shape the western parts of the former Empire.
By the 9th century at the very latest, the spoken forms of Latin had unequivocally diverged into distinct languages. This period marks the emergence of the earliest extant Romance writings, rudimentary as they might be. Throughout this transitional era, these new vernaculars remained largely confined to everyday spoken interaction, while Medieval Latin steadfastly retained its role as the language of written communication, official records, and serious scholarship [15] [16]. A stubborn adherence to tradition, if ever there was one.
Interestingly, for many Italians immersed in the Latin tradition, the perceived separation between Italian and Latin was not absolute, even extending into the nascent stages of the Renaissance. Figures like Petrarch, for instance, viewed Latin not as an entirely foreign tongue, but rather as a highly refined, literary iteration of the spoken language, a testament to the enduring continuity of linguistic heritage, or perhaps just a convenient rationalization [17].
Medieval Latin
• Main article: Medieval Latin
The Latin Malmesbury Bible from 1407. A rather ornate example of how much effort humans will expend on ancient texts.
Medieval Latin refers to the written form of Latin that was actively employed during that extensive segment of the post-classical period when a corresponding Latin vernacular no longer existed as a living spoken language. This era generally spans from approximately 700 AD to 1500 AD. By this point, the spoken language had, inevitably, fragmented and evolved into the various distinct Romance languages. However, within the realms of education, administration, and official discourse, Latin stubbornly persisted, albeit without the organic, self-correcting foundation of a native spoken base. Furthermore, this written Latin transcended its original geographical boundaries, spreading into territories that had never natively spoken the language, such as the Germanic and Slavic nations. It became an indispensable tool for international communication among the disparate member states of the Holy Roman Empire and their various allies.
Devoid of the unifying institutional infrastructure of the Roman Empire that had previously enforced its uniformity, Medieval Latin exhibited a far greater degree of linguistic liberalism. Its cohesion, while present, was notably less rigid. For example, in Classical Latin, the verbs sum (to be) and eram (I was) function as auxiliary verbs in the formation of the perfect and pluperfect passive tenses, which are inherently compound structures. Medieval Latin, however, frequently substituted fui (I have been) and fueram (I had been) in these constructions, a subtle yet telling deviation [18]. Moreover, the semantic range of many words underwent significant alteration, and a host of new terms were introduced, often reflecting the pervasive influence of the surrounding vernacular languages. Consequently, identifiable individual styles of what might be termed "classically incorrect" Latin became quite prevalent [18]. A predictable outcome, one might say, when nobody is truly in charge.
Renaissance and Neo-Latin
• Main articles: Renaissance Latin and Neo-Latin
Most 15th-century printed books (incunabula) were in Latin, with the vernacular languages playing only a secondary role. A brief, shining moment of intellectual dominance, before the masses demanded their own tongues.
Renaissance Latin, a distinct phase of the language in active use from approximately 1300 to 1500, and the subsequent classicized Latin that followed, extending right up to the present day, are often collectively categorized under the umbrella term Neo-Latin, or New Latin. In recent decades, this period has garnered renewed study among scholars, a belated recognition of its profound and often underestimated importance for the comprehensive development of European culture, religious thought, and scientific advancement [20] [21]. It is a rather sobering thought that the vast majority of all written Latin, across its entire recorded history, actually belongs to this period, yet its full extent remains, somewhat astonishingly, largely unknown [22].
The Renaissance, with its fervent rediscovery of classical antiquity, significantly reinforced Latin's position as both a spoken and written language. This resurgence was largely driven by the diligent scholarship of the Renaissance humanists. Figures such as Petrarch, whose intellectual curiosity spanned centuries, and many others, began to consciously modify their use of Latin as they delved deeper into the authentic texts of the Classical Latin world. This intense engagement fostered the evolution of sophisticated skills in textual criticism throughout the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, leading to the creation of far more accurate versions of existing classical texts, while also bringing to light numerous important works that had been lost to the intellectual darkness of the intervening ages. Comprehensive editions of various authors' works were meticulously published by giants of scholarship like Isaac Casaubon and Joseph Scaliger, among others [23]. Nevertheless, despite the painstaking efforts of scholars like Petrarch and Politian, the surging demand for manuscripts, followed by the frenetic rush to disseminate works through the new medium of print, regrettably led to the widespread circulation of inaccurate copies for several centuries thereafter [24]. A testament, perhaps, to the enduring human capacity for both brilliance and carelessness.
Neo-Latin literature proved to be remarkably extensive and prolific, though its full scope and significance are considerably less understood or appreciated in the modern era. Its output spanned a diverse array of genres, encompassing poetry, prose narratives and early forms of novels, occasional pieces commemorating specific events, and comprehensive collections of letters, to name but a few. Among the celebrated and highly regarded writers of this period were Petrarch himself, Erasmus, Salutati, Celtis, George Buchanan, and the ever-insightful Thomas More [25]. Beyond the realm of imaginative literature, non-fiction works continued to be produced in Latin across a multitude of subjects, including the burgeoning sciences, legal theory, philosophy, historiography, and theology. Iconic examples abound, such as Isaac Newton's monumental Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica. Latin also served as a remarkably convenient linguistic conduit for translations of critically important works initially penned in vernacular languages, a prime instance being the philosophical treatises of Descartes.
The pedagogical approach to Latin education underwent its own profound process of reform, specifically aimed at classicizing both written and spoken Latin. Schooling, in many parts of Europe, remained largely Latin-medium until approximately 1700. Indeed, up until the close of the 17th century, the vast majority of published books and almost all diplomatic documents were meticulously composed in Latin [26]. Subsequently, however, French – a Romance language itself, a rather ironic twist – began to supplant Latin as the primary language for most diplomatic communications, with native or other lingua francas eventually following suit [27]. Consequently, educational methodologies gradually shifted their focus towards written Latin, ultimately concentrating almost exclusively on the development of reading comprehension skills. This protracted decline of Latin education, however, unfolded over several centuries, proceeding at a far more glacial pace than the rather precipitous drop in the production of new Latin texts.
Contemporary Latin
• Main articles: Contemporary Latin and Ecclesiastical Latin
Despite the rather inconvenient fact that it possesses no native speakers in the traditional sense, Latin stubbornly persists, finding a surprising variety of uses in the contemporary world. A testament, perhaps, to humanity's inherent nostalgia for the past, or its inability to let go of a perfectly good linguistic system.
Religious use
The signs at Wallsend Metro station are in English and Latin, a tribute to Wallsend's role as one of the furthest outposts of the Roman Empire, marking the eastern terminus of Hadrian's Wall (hence the name) at Segedunum. A subtle nod to history, or perhaps just an attempt to make commuters feel more cultured.
Unsurprisingly, the single largest organization that continues to champion Latin in both official and quasi-official capacities is the Catholic Church. For centuries, the Church mandated that the Mass be conducted exclusively in Latin, a tradition that only began to shift following the Second Vatican Council of 1962–1965, which, with a rather shocking burst of modernity, permitted the use of the local vernacular. Nevertheless, Latin steadfastly remains the foundational language of the Roman Rite. The venerable Tridentine Mass, also known as the Extraordinary Form or Traditional Latin Mass, continues to be celebrated entirely in Latin, a practice cherished by many for its historical continuity and solemnity. Even the more common Mass of Paul VI, often referred to as the Ordinary Form or the Novus Ordo, while typically celebrated in the local vernacular, can and frequently is said in Latin, either partially or in its entirety, particularly during multilingual gatherings where a common linguistic thread is desired.
Beyond liturgical use, Latin holds the esteemed position of official language for the Holy See, making it the primary linguistic medium for its public journal, the Acta Apostolicae Sedis, and serving as the working language of the Roman Rota, the highest ordinary court of appeal in the Catholic Church. Furthermore, Vatican City boasts the rather peculiar distinction of being home to the world's only automatic teller machine that offers instructions in Latin [28]. Because, apparently, even financial transactions benefit from a touch of classical gravitas. Within the rigorous academic environment of pontifical universities, postgraduate courses in Canon law are still taught in Latin, and the accompanying scholarly papers are expected to be composed in the same ancient tongue, ensuring a consistent legal tradition.
Even the Anglican church, with its distinct historical trajectory, maintains a small number of Latin services. These include an annual service held in Oxford, which features a sermon delivered entirely in Latin – a quaint relic from a bygone era when Latin was, remarkably, the normal spoken language of the university [29].
In a rather pragmatic display of linguistic compromise, the polyglot European Union has, for the sake of neutrality and a nod to shared cultural heritage, adopted Latin names for the logos of some of its institutions. This "ecumenical nationalism" leverages a common historical foundation recognized across most of the continent, signaling its deep roots in Western culture. A prime example is the Council of the European Union, which uses the Latin designation Consilium.
Use of Latin for mottos
In the vast expanse of the Western world, Latin continues to be a favored choice for the mottos of numerous organizations, governmental bodies, and educational institutions. This enduring preference stems from its deep association with formality, a sense of tradition, and its undeniable role as a foundational pillar of Western culture itself [30]. It lends an air of timeless authority, even if few understand the words.
Canada's motto, A mari usque ad mare ("from sea to sea"), is a prime example of this enduring practice, as are the majority of its provincial mottos. In a subtle yet significant detail, the Canadian Victoria Cross, the highest military decoration for valor, is meticulously modeled after the British Victoria Cross, which bears the inscription "For Valour." Given Canada's official bilingual status, the English inscription on the Canadian medal has been thoughtfully replaced with the Latin Pro Valore, ensuring linguistic inclusivity while retaining the gravitas of the original.
Spain's national motto, Plus ultra, meaning 'even further' or, more evocatively, "Further!", also boasts a Latin origin [31]. This powerful phrase was adopted from the personal motto of Charles V, who reigned as Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain (as Charles I). It represents a deliberate inversion of the ancient phrase Non terrae plus ultra ("No land further beyond," or "No further!"). Legend has it that this original warning was inscribed upon the Pillars of Hercules, the formidable rock formations flanking the Strait of Gibraltar, which marked the perceived western boundary of the known Mediterranean world. Charles, in a symbolic act of defiance and ambition, adopted the motto following Christopher Columbus's epoch-making discovery of the New World. The phrase carries potent metaphorical undertones, suggesting a willingness to embrace risks and an unyielding drive for excellence, a sentiment that resonates through the ages.
In the United States, the unofficial national motto until 1956 was E pluribus unum, elegantly translating to "Out of many, one." This profound sentiment continues to be prominently featured on the Great Seal of the United States, a symbol of national unity. Its presence extends to the flags and seals of both houses of Congress, as well as the state flags of Michigan, North Dakota, New York, and Wisconsin. The motto's precise count of 13 letters serves as a symbolic representation of the original Thirteen Colonies that famously revolted against the British Crown. Moreover, this enduring motto is emblazoned on all presently minted coinage and has graced the majority of US currency throughout the nation's history, a constant, if often unnoticed, reminder of its founding principles.
Several individual states within the United States also proudly display Latin mottos, each encapsulating a unique aspect of their identity:
• Arizona's Ditat deus ("God enriches"); • Connecticut's Qui transtulit sustinet ("He who transplanted sustains"); • Kansas's Ad astra per aspera ("Through hardships, to the stars"); • Colorado's Nil sine numine ("Nothing without providence"); • Idaho's Esto perpetua ("Let it be perpetual"); • Michigan's Si quaeris peninsulam amoenam, circumspice ("If you seek a pleasant peninsula, look about you"), a motto famously inspired by that of Sir Christopher Wren in St. Paul's Cathedral in London; • Missouri's Salus populi suprema lex esto ("The health of the people should be the highest law"); • New York's Excelsior ("Ever upward"); • North Carolina's Esse Quam Videri ("To be rather than to seem"); • South Carolina's Dum spiro spero ("While I breathe, I hope"); • Virginia's Sic semper tyrannis ("Thus always to tyrants"); and • West Virginia's Montani Semper Liberi ("Mountaineers [are] always free").
The tradition of employing Latin mottos extends to numerous military organizations across the globe, leveraging the language's inherent gravitas and historical weight:
• Semper Paratus ("always ready"), the steadfast motto of the United States Coast Guard; • Semper Fidelis ("always faithful"), the iconic motto of the United States Marine Corps; • Semper Supra ("always above"), the aspirational motto of the relatively nascent United States Space Force; • Per ardua ad astra ("Through adversity/struggle to the stars"), the inspiring motto of the Royal Air Force (RAF); and • Vigilamus pro te ("We stand on guard for thee"), the solemn motto of the Canadian Armed Forces.
Even some law governing bodies in the Philippines have embraced Latin mottos, such as the Department of Justice (Philippines) with its guiding principle: Justitiae Pax Opus ("The work of Justice is Peace").
Academic institutions, too, frequently adopt Latin mottos. For example, Harvard University's motto is the singular and potent Veritas ("truth"). This word is, of course, derived from Veritas, the Roman goddess of truth, herself a daughter of Saturn and the mother of Virtue. A rather lofty ideal to uphold, one might observe.
Other modern uses
Switzerland, a nation famously characterized by its linguistic diversity, has pragmatically adopted the country's Latin short name, Helvetia, for use on its coins and stamps. This choice neatly bypasses the logistical challenge of accommodating all of the nation's four official languages in such limited spaces. For a similar reason, it employs the international vehicle and internet code CH, which is an abbreviation for Confoederatio Helvetica, the country's full Latin designation. A practical solution, born of necessity.
Occasionally, filmmakers and television producers, striving for historical authenticity or a particular dramatic effect in ancient settings, have opted to feature dialogue in Latin. Notable examples include Sebastiane, The Passion of the Christ, and the recent Barbarians (2020 TV series). In other instances, Latin dialogue is employed due to its inherent associations with religion or philosophical discourse, as seen in iconic productions like The Exorcist, where it adds an unsettling gravitas, or in an episode of Lost, specifically "Jughead", where it serves a more enigmatic purpose. In nearly all such cases, subtitles are thoughtfully provided for the benefit of audiences who, regrettably, do not possess a command of Latin.
The influence of Latin extends even to the realm of music, with numerous songs written with Latin lyrics, demonstrating its enduring appeal for artistic expression. A particularly striking example is the libretto for the opera-oratorio Oedipus rex, a powerful work by Igor Stravinsky, which is entirely in Latin, lending it a timeless and monumental quality.
The continued instruction of Latin is widely regarded by many educators and scholars as a profoundly valuable and indispensable component of a comprehensive liberal arts education. Latin remains a staple in the curricula of many high schools, especially prevalent across Europe and the Americas. Its presence is particularly strong in British public schools and grammar schools, the Italian liceo classico and liceo scientifico, the German Humanistisches Gymnasium, and the Dutch gymnasium. These institutions, it seems, still recognize the inherent discipline and intellectual rigor that the study of Latin imparts.
Beyond formal education, niche media outlets, catering specifically to Latin enthusiasts, occasionally broadcast content in the language. A compelling example is the Latin-language podcast, QDP Ep 84 – De Ludo "Mysterium". More traditionally, institutions like Radio Bremen in Germany and YLE radio in Finland (which notably ran the Nuntii Latini broadcast from 1989 until its cessation in June 2019 [32]) have broadcast news segments and other material in Latin [33] [34] [35]. Vatican Radio & Television also continues this tradition, ensuring that Latin news, however niche, remains available.
In more recent times, a variety of organizations, alongside informal Latin circuli ('circles'), have been established with the express purpose of supporting and promoting the active use of spoken Latin [36]. Furthermore, a growing number of university classics departments have begun to integrate communicative pedagogies into their Latin courses, embracing methods that prioritize active speaking and listening. Notable institutions adopting this approach include the University of Kentucky, the University of Oxford, and Princeton University [37] [38]. It seems even a 'dead' language can be reanimated, given enough collective will.
For those who prefer their ancient languages in digital form, there are numerous websites and forums maintained entirely in Latin by dedicated enthusiasts. The Latin Wikipedia stands as a significant testament to this, boasting well over 140,000 articles, a rather impressive feat for a language supposedly relegated to the annals of history.
Legacy
Italian, French, Portuguese, Spanish, Romanian, Catalan, Romansh, Sardinian and other Romance languages are direct descendants of Latin. A rather obvious outcome, one might say, of a dominant language slowly fragmenting under the weight of time and geography. There are also many Latin loanwords in English and Albanian, [39] as well as a noticeable, if smaller, presence in German, Dutch, Norwegian, Danish and Swedish [40]. Latin is still spoken in Vatican City, that peculiar city-state nestled within Rome that serves as the enduring seat of the Catholic Church, maintaining a linguistic tradition with remarkable tenacity.
Literature
Julius Caesar's Commentarii de Bello Gallico is one of the most famous classical Latin texts of the Golden Age of Latin. The unvarnished, journalistic style of this patrician general has long been taught as a model of the urbane Latin officially spoken and written in the floruit of the Roman Republic. A rather efficient, if somewhat self-serving, account of conquest.
The literary output in Latin was, to put it mildly, extensive. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have, against all odds, survived in either their entirety or in significant fragments, providing invaluable material for analysis in the field of philology. These texts constitute a core subject matter within the broader academic discipline of classics. Prior to the revolutionary advent of printing, these works were meticulously copied and disseminated in manuscript form. Today, they are available in carefully annotated printed editions, such as the esteemed Loeb Classical Library, published by Harvard University Press, or the rigorous Oxford Classical Texts, produced by Oxford University Press. [citation needed]
In an effort to perhaps garner some popular interest in a language often perceived as intimidatingly academic, there have been numerous Latin translations of modern literature. These include beloved titles such as The Hobbit, Treasure Island, Robinson Crusoe, Paddington Bear, Winnie the Pooh, The Adventures of Tintin, Asterix, Harry Potter, Le Petit Prince, Max and Moritz, How the Grinch Stole Christmas!, and The Cat in the Hat, alongside a collection of fairy tales, fabulae mirabiles. Additional resources designed to bridge the gap between ancient and modern usage include various phrasebooks and specialized tools for rendering everyday phrases and contemporary concepts into Latin, such as Meissner's Latin Phrasebook. One can only imagine the ancient Romans attempting to navigate a modern supermarket with such linguistic tools.
Inscriptions
The enduring physical presence of Latin is perhaps nowhere more tangible than in its inscriptions. A significant portion of these have been meticulously compiled and published in an internationally coordinated, monumental, and multi-volume series known as the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum (CIL). While the specific authors and publishers of individual volumes may vary, the overarching format remains remarkably consistent: each volume meticulously details inscriptions, accompanied by a critical apparatus that meticulously records their provenance and other relevant contextual information. The intricate art of reading, interpreting, and ultimately understanding these ancient inscriptions forms the dedicated subject matter of the academic field of epigraphy. To date, an astonishing approximately 270,000 inscriptions are known to exist [citation needed]. Each one, a frozen snippet of a long-vanished world, waiting for someone with enough patience to decipher it.
Influence on present-day languages
The Latin influence in English has been nothing short of profound, manifesting at virtually every stage of its insular development. During the Middle Ages, a significant influx of borrowing from Latin occurred, primarily through the ecclesiastical usage established by Saint Augustine of Canterbury in the 6th century. Further, and perhaps more indirectly, Latin permeated English after the Norman Conquest, filtering through the influential Anglo-Norman language [citation needed].
The period from the 16th to the 18th centuries witnessed a particularly fervent, almost obsessive, phase of linguistic innovation among English writers. They enthusiastically cobbled together vast quantities of new words, drawing heavily from Latin and Greek roots. These neologisms, often seen as overly pedantic or artificial, were famously dubbed "inkhorn terms," as if they had literally spilled from a scholar's inkpot. While many of these meticulously crafted words were ephemeral, used once by their creator and then mercifully forgotten, a select few, proving genuinely useful, managed to survive and integrate into the language, such as imbibe and extrapolate. Indeed, a substantial proportion of the most common polysyllabic English words ultimately trace their origins back to Latin, frequently via the linguistic conduit of Old French. This pervasive influence is quantified in rather stark terms: Romance words constitute approximately 59% of English vocabulary, compared to 20% in German and 14% in Dutch [41] [42] [43]. These figures, it should be noted, can climb even more dramatically when the analysis is restricted solely to non-compound and non-derived words, highlighting the sheer depth of Latin's lexical penetration.
The map of the Romance languages in Europe provides a striking visual testament to the geographical legacy of Latin, showing the modern descendants of the language.
The sheer organizational prowess of Roman governance and the advanced nature of Roman technology, particularly when compared to the less developed nations under Roman dominion, inevitably led to the adoption of Latin phraseology in a number of highly specialized domains. This is evident in fields such as science, technology, medicine, and law. For instance, the enduring Linnaean system for the classification of plants and animals was profoundly shaped by Historia Naturalis, a monumental encyclopedic work by Pliny the Elder that meticulously cataloged people, places, plants, animals, and objects. Similarly, Roman medicine, extensively documented in the works of physicians like Galen, established a precedent that ensured much of today's medical terminology would be primarily derived from Latin and Greek words, with the Greek elements often filtered through their Latin equivalents. Roman engineering exerted a comparable influence on scientific terminology as a whole, providing a precise and widely understood lexicon. Furthermore, the foundational principles of Roman law have survived, in part, through a long and extensive list of Latin legal terms that continue to be used in legal systems worldwide.
Among contemporary languages, the Logudorese dialect of the Sardinian language and Standard Italian are generally considered the two closest linguistic relatives to Latin [44]. A testament, perhaps, to geographical isolation and a certain stubborn adherence to ancient forms.
Education
A multivolume Latin dictionary in the University of Graz Library in Austria. A rather weighty collection, for a 'dead' language.
Throughout the intricate tapestry of European history, a rigorous education in the classics was consistently regarded as an absolutely crucial prerequisite for anyone aspiring to join the ranks of literate and influential circles. The preeminent position of Latin within this classical educational framework was not merely a matter of entrenched tradition; it was also firmly underpinned by its formidable reputation for clarity, its inherently logical structure, and the intellectual rigor it demanded. This perspective was eloquently articulated by the mathematics educator Theodor Haagaas, who famously remarked, rather pointedly, that "Latin, it is mathematics, language mathematics." [45]
This fervent belief in the power of classical education extended across the Atlantic to the nascent United States, where many of the nation's esteemed founders received a classically based education, either within grammar schools or through the tutelage of private instructors [46]. Indeed, admission to Harvard University during the Colonial era was contingent upon an applicant's ability to "readily make and speak or write true Latin prose and has skill in making verse" [47]. The study of Latin and the classics remained a central, emphasized component in American secondary schools and colleges well into the Antebellum era [48]. A time, it seems, when intellectual pursuits were taken rather more seriously.
Instruction in Latin remains a vital aspect of classical studies. In the contemporary academic landscape, a significant proportion of Latin students in the United States are introduced to the language through Wheelock's Latin: The Classic Introductory Latin Course, Based on Ancient Authors. This venerable textbook, first published in 1956 [49] and authored by Frederic M. Wheelock, has become the undisputed standard text for a multitude of American introductory Latin courses, much to the exasperation of some and the quiet satisfaction of others.
The numbers of individuals actively studying Latin vary quite significantly from one country to another, a reflection of differing educational priorities and cultural values. In the United Kingdom, Latin is currently offered in approximately 2.3% of state primary schools, a figure that, surprisingly, represents a notable increase in its availability [50]. In Germany, over 500,000 students engage with Latin each year, though this figure represents a decrease from more than 800,000 students recorded in 2008. While Latin is still a mandatory requirement for admission to certain university courses, this stipulation has become increasingly less frequent [51].
The Living Latin movement represents a concerted effort to revolutionize Latin pedagogy, advocating for the language to be taught not merely as a relic for academic dissection, but as a vibrant, active means of both spoken and written communication. This approach is actively implemented in Vatican City and at select institutions in the United States, including the University of Kentucky and Iowa State University. Meanwhile, the British Cambridge University Press stands as a major purveyor of Latin textbooks catering to all proficiency levels, with its widely acclaimed Cambridge Latin Course series being a prime example. The press has also ventured into more whimsical territory, publishing a subseries of children's texts in Latin by Bell & Forte, which charmingly recounts the adventures of a mouse named Minimus, proving that even ancient languages can be made palatable for the younger generation.
In the United Kingdom, the Classical Association plays a crucial role in promoting the study of antiquity through various initiatives, including publications and grants. Institutions such as the University of Cambridge [52], the Open University [53], and a number of prestigious independent schools – for example, Eton, Harrow, Haberdashers' Aske's Boys' School, Merchant Taylors' School, Northwood, and Rugby – along with The Latin Programme/Via Facilis, a London-based charity [54], all offer Latin courses. Across the Atlantic, in the United States and Canada, the American Classical League actively supports efforts to further the study of classics. Its subsidiary organizations include the National Junior Classical League, boasting over 50,000 members, which actively encourages high school students to pursue Latin, and the National Senior Classical League, which seeks to inspire students to continue their classical studies into college. The league also proudly sponsors the National Latin Exam, a rigorous assessment of Latin proficiency. As the renowned classicist Mary Beard succinctly put it in The Times Literary Supplement in 2006, the fundamental reason for learning Latin is, quite simply, "because of what was written in it" [55]. A refreshingly direct, and undeniably accurate, assessment.
Official status
Latin was, at various points in history, the official language of several European states. It held official status in the Kingdom of Hungary for an impressive span, from the 11th century until the mid-19th century, when Hungarian ultimately became the sole official language in 1844 [56]. The most renowned Latin language poet of Hungarian origin was Janus Pannonius, whose works stand as a testament to this linguistic legacy. Similarly, within the historical territories of the Kingdom of Poland and the expansive Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, Latin enjoyed official recognition and widespread use [57] [58] [59] [60] between the 10th and 18th centuries. It was commonly employed in foreign relations and was a popular second language among a segment of the nobility [60], a rather sophisticated means of distinguishing oneself, one might surmise.
Latin also served as the official language of the Croatian Parliament from the 13th century until the mid-19th century (specifically, 1847) [61]. The oldest preserved records of these parliamentary sessions, known as Congregatio Regni totius Sclavonie generalis, which were held in Zagreb (Zagabria), Croatia, date back to 19 April 1273. Furthermore, a rich and extensive body of Croatian Latin literature exists, showcasing the language's deep roots in the region. Until recently, Latin was even featured on Croatian coins, specifically on even years, a tradition that concluded on 1 January 2023, when Croatia officially adopted the Euro as its national currency [62]. A practical change, though perhaps a loss of a certain historical charm.
Phonology
• Main article: Latin phonology and orthography
Audio of a person with a German accent reading in Latin. The sound of history, filtered through modern ears. Ave Maria read in Ecclesiastical Latin. A rather more solemn tone, as one would expect.
The meticulous reconstruction of the ancient pronunciation of Latin has been a significant undertaking for linguists. The data utilized for this intricate reconstruction is diverse, drawing from explicit statements regarding pronunciation found in the writings of ancient authors, the revealing patterns of misspellings in historical texts, the clever use of puns, and the often-illuminating ancient etymologies. Further critical insights are gleaned from the spelling of Latin loanwords as they appear in other languages, and, crucially, from the observable historical development of the Romance languages themselves [63]. It's a complex puzzle, pieced together with fragments and educated guesses.
Consonants
The consonant phonemes of Classical Latin are presented below, a rather precise arrangement for something so ephemeral as sound [64]:
The phoneme /z/ was not, strictly speaking, indigenous to Classical Latin. Its appearance was primarily confined to Greek loanwords, beginning around the 1st century BC. At this time, it was likely pronounced (at least by those who considered themselves educated) as [z] when it occurred initially in a word, and as a doubled [zz] between vowels, faithfully adhering to its pronunciation in Koine Greek. Interestingly, in Classical Latin poetry, the letter ⟨z⟩ situated between two vowels consistently counts as two consonants for metrical purposes, a detail that betrays its foreign origin [65] [66]. The consonant ⟨b⟩ typically rendered as [b]; however, when followed by ⟨t⟩ or ⟨s⟩, it underwent a phonetic assimilation, being pronounced as in [pt] or [ps]. In Latin, the letter ⟨q⟩ is invariably paired with the vowel ⟨u⟩, forming a digraph that represents the [kʷ] sound [67].
In the earlier stages of Old Latin and throughout the Classical Latin period, the Latin alphabet did not yet possess the distinction between uppercase and lowercase letters that we take for granted today. Furthermore, the letters ⟨J U W⟩ simply did not exist within the standard orthography. In their stead, the letters ⟨I⟩ and ⟨V⟩ were employed, respectively, serving a dual function by representing both vowel and consonant sounds. The majority of the letter forms closely resembled what we now recognize as modern uppercase characters, a fact clearly discernible in monumental inscriptions such as the one from the Colosseum displayed at the beginning of this article.
However, the spelling systems commonly adopted in modern Latin dictionaries and scholarly editions of Latin texts typically introduce ⟨j⟩ and ⟨u⟩ to represent the corresponding sounds that were originally written with ⟨i⟩ and ⟨v⟩ in the Classical era. Some more particular systems even go so far as to use ⟨j⟩ and ⟨v⟩ specifically for the consonant sounds /j/ and /w/, with the notable exception of the combinations ⟨gu⟩, ⟨su⟩, and ⟨qu⟩, where ⟨v⟩ is never employed. Such distinctions, one might argue, are for the truly dedicated.
Below are some notes concerning the mapping of Latin phonemes to their approximate English graphemes, for those who require such specific guidance:
| Notes | Latin grapheme | Latin phoneme | English examples |
|---|---|---|---|
| ⟨c⟩, ⟨k⟩ | [k] | Always as k in sky (/skaɪ/) | |
| ⟨t⟩ | [t] | As t in stay (/steɪ/) | |
| ⟨s⟩ | [s] | As s in say (/seɪ/) | |
| ⟨g⟩ | [ɡ] | Always as g in good (/ɡʊd/) | |
| [ŋ] | Before ⟨n⟩, as ng in sing (/sɪŋ/) | ||
| ⟨n⟩ | [n] | As n in man (/mæn/) | |
| [ŋ] | Before ⟨c⟩, ⟨x⟩, and ⟨g⟩, as ng in sing (/sɪŋ/) | ||
| ⟨l⟩ | [l] | When doubled ⟨ll⟩ and before ⟨i⟩, as "light L", [l̥] in link ([l̥ɪnk]) (l exilis) [68] [69] | |
| [ɫ] | In all other positions, as "dark L", [ɫ] in bowl ([boʊɫ]) (l pinguis) | ||
| ⟨qu⟩ | [kʷ] | Similar to qu in squint (/skwɪnt/) | |
| ⟨u⟩ | [w] | Sometimes at the beginning of a syllable, or after ⟨g⟩ and ⟨s⟩, as /w/ in wine (/waɪn/) | |
| ⟨i⟩ | [j] | Sometimes at the beginning of a syllable, as y (/j/) in yard (/jɑɹd/) | |
| [ij] | "y" (/j/), in between vowels, becomes "i-y", being pronounced as parts of two separate syllables, as in capiō (/kapiˈjo:/) | ||
| ⟨x⟩ | [ks] | A letter representing ⟨c⟩ + ⟨s⟩: as x in English axe (/æks/) |
In Classical Latin, much like in modern Italian, the presence of double consonant letters was not merely an orthographic convention but a significant phonetic indicator. These double consonants were pronounced as long consonant sounds, distinctly differentiated from their shorter, single counterparts. Thus, the nn in the Classical Latin word annus 'year' (and, for that matter, in the Italian anno) was articulated as a doubled /nn/, akin to the pronunciation found in the English word unnamed. In English, however, such distinctive consonant length or doubling typically occurs only at the boundary between two words or morphemes, a subtlety often lost on the casual speaker.
Vowels
| Simple vowels [70] [71] | Front | Central | Back |
|---|---|---|---|
| Close | i iː | u uː | |
| Mid | ɛ ɛː | ɔ ɔː | |
| Open | a aː |
In Classical Latin, the letter ⟨U⟩ did not exist as a distinct grapheme separate from ⟨V⟩. The written form ⟨V⟩ served a dual purpose, representing both a vowel sound and a consonant sound. The letter ⟨Y⟩ was later adopted into the alphabet, primarily to represent the upsilon sound found in loanwords directly imported from Greek. However, its pronunciation was somewhat fluid, sometimes aligning with ⟨u⟩ and at other times with ⟨i⟩, depending on the speaker and regional variations. It was also, somewhat confusingly, used in certain native Latin words, often due to a perceived similarity or confusion with Greek words of comparable meaning, such as sylva (Latin for 'forest') being conflated with the Greek hū́lē.
A crucial phonetic distinction in Classical Latin was that between long and short vowels. Historically, long vowels, with the singular exception of ⟨i⟩, were frequently indicated in writing through the use of an apex, a mark that sometimes resembled an acute accent (e.g., ⟨Á É Ó V́ Ý⟩). The long /iː/ sound, however, was uniquely represented by a taller variant of ⟨I⟩, known as i longa ('long I'), rendered as ⟨ꟾ⟩. In contemporary scholarly texts, long vowels are now typically denoted by a macron (e.g., ⟨ā ē ī ō ū⟩), while short vowels are generally left unmarked, unless a specific distinction is required to differentiate between words, in which case they are marked with a breve (e.g., ⟨ă ĕ ĭ ŏ ŭ⟩). Interestingly, in ancient practice, a long vowel could also be signified by writing the vowel character larger than other letters within a word or by simply repeating the vowel twice in succession [67]. When the acute accent is encountered in modern Latin texts, it serves to indicate stress, mirroring its function in languages like Spanish, rather than denoting vowel length.
While termed 'long vowels', their precise phonetic quality in Classical Latin was not merely a matter of duration but also often differed subtly from their short counterparts. This qualitative distinction is a point of academic debate, notably posited by W. Sidney Allen in his seminal work Vox Latina. However, Andrea Calabrese has challenged this assertion, basing his argument, in part, on observations from Sardinian and certain Lucanian dialects. In these languages, each long and short vowel pair merged into a single sound, a linguistic trajectory that contrasts sharply with Italo-Western languages where short /i/ and /u/ merged with long /eː/ and /o:/ (compare Latin siccus with Italian secco and Sardinian siccu) [72] [71].
A vowel letter immediately followed by ⟨m⟩ at the conclusion of a word, or a vowel letter followed by ⟨n⟩ before ⟨s⟩ or ⟨f⟩, typically represented a short nasal vowel, as exemplified in the word monstrum [mõːstrũ]. A subtle phonetic detail, easily overlooked by the uninitiated.
Diphthongs
Classical Latin possessed a number of diphthongs, those fascinating vowel sounds formed by the glide between two distinct vowel qualities within a single syllable. The two most commonly encountered were ⟨ae⟩ and ⟨au⟩. The former is typically pronounced akin to the 'i' in the English word mine, while the latter resembles the 'ow' sound in power. The diphthong ⟨oe⟩ was comparatively rare, and the combinations ⟨ui⟩, ⟨eu⟩, and ⟨ei⟩ were exceedingly uncommon, at least within words of native Latin origin [73]. There has even been considerable scholarly debate regarding whether ⟨ui⟩ can truly be classified as a diphthong in Classical Latin. This skepticism stems from its extreme rarity, its conspicuous absence in the treatises of Roman grammarians, and the observation that the etymological roots of Classical Latin words (e.g., hui ce evolving to huic, quoi to cui) do not consistently align with or resemble the expected pronunciation if ⟨ui⟩ were indeed a true diphthong [74].
It is important to note that certain letter sequences, despite their appearance, did not always represent genuine diphthongs. For instance, ⟨ae⟩ and ⟨oe⟩ could also signify a sequence of two distinct vowels residing in separate syllables, as illustrated in aēnus [aˈeː.nʊs] 'bronze' and coēpit [kɔˈeː.pɪt] 'began'. Similarly, the combinations ⟨au⟩, ⟨ui⟩, ⟨eu⟩, ⟨ei⟩, and ⟨ou⟩ frequently represented sequences of two vowels or a vowel followed by one of the semivowels /j/ or /w/, as exemplified in cavē [ˈka.weː] 'beware!', cuius [ˈkʊj.jʊs] 'whose', monuī [ˈmɔn.ʊ.iː] 'I warned', solvī [ˈsɔɫ.wiː] 'I released', dēlēvī [deːˈleː.wiː] 'I destroyed', eius [ˈɛj.jʊs] 'his', and novus [ˈnɔ.wʊs] 'new'.
Old Latin actually boasted a greater number of diphthongs, but the inexorable forces of language change saw most of them undergo a process of monophthongization, transforming into long vowels in Classical Latin. The Old Latin diphthong ⟨ai⟩ and the sequence ⟨āī⟩ both evolved into the Classical ⟨ae⟩. Similarly, the Old Latin ⟨oi⟩ and ⟨ou⟩ typically shifted to the Classical ⟨ū⟩, with the exception of a handful of words where ⟨oi⟩ became the Classical ⟨oe⟩. These two distinct developments sometimes occurred in words derived from the same root; a prime example is the Classical poena "punishment" and pūnīre "to punish" [73]. Early Old Latin ⟨ei⟩ generally monophthongized to a later Old Latin ⟨ē⟩, which subsequently became the Classical ⟨ī⟩ [75].
By the twilight of the Roman Empire, the diphthongs ⟨ae⟩ and ⟨oe⟩ had, through further phonetic erosion, merged with the simple vowels ⟨e⟩ and ⟨ē⟩. During the Classical period, this sound change was already present in some rural dialects, a testament to the persistent vitality of informal speech, but it was consciously and deliberately avoided by well-educated speakers, who, one presumes, considered it rather vulgar [73].
| Diphthongs classified by beginning sound | Front | Back |
|---|---|---|
| Close | ui /ui̯/ | |
| Mid | ei /ei̯/ | eu /eu̯/ |
| oe /oe̯/ | ou /ou̯/ | |
| Open | ae /ae̯/ | au /au̯/ |
Syllables
Syllables in Latin are fundamentally defined by the presence of diphthongs and vowels. To ascertain the number of syllables in a Latin word, one simply counts the number of distinct vowel sounds present [67]. A rather straightforward calculation, one might think.
Furthermore, when a single consonant separates two vowels, that consonant will invariably be assigned to the syllable of the second vowel. In instances where two consonants intervene between vowels, the general rule dictates that the final consonant will be grouped with the second vowel. An exception to this rule occurs when a phonetic stop (such as /p/, /t/, /k/, /b/, /d/, /g/) and a liquid (such as /l/ or /r/) appear consecutively. In this specific scenario, they are treated as a single consonantal unit, and as such, they will both be assigned to the syllable of the second vowel [67].
Length
Syllables in Latin are characterized by their length, being classified as either long or short (or, less frequently, referred to as "heavy" and "light" respectively). Within the confines of a single word, a syllable's length can be determined by one of two factors: it may be long by nature, or it may be long by position [67]. A syllable is deemed long by nature if it contains either a diphthong or a long vowel. Conversely, a syllable is considered long by position if its vowel is followed by more than a single consonant [67]. These seemingly arbitrary rules, of course, dictate the entire rhythm and flow of the language.
Stress
There are two fundamental rules that precisely define which syllable receives stress in Classical Latin, ensuring a predictable, if sometimes monotonous, cadence [67]:
• In any word composed of only two syllables, the emphasis will, without exception, fall upon the first syllable. A simple, elegant rule.
• For words possessing more than two syllables, the determination of stress becomes slightly more nuanced, involving two distinct cases:
• If the second-to-last syllable (known as the penultimate syllable) is long, then that specific syllable will invariably receive the stress.
• Conversely, if the second-to-last syllable is not long (i.e., it is short), then the stress will shift to the syllable immediately preceding it (the antepenultimate syllable) [67]. These rules, while seemingly complex, ensure a consistent and predictable rhythm, preventing any undue phonetic chaos.
Orthography
• Main articles: Latin alphabet and Latin phonology and orthography
The Duenos Inscription, from the 6th century BC, is one of the earliest known Old Latin texts. It was found on the Quirinal Hill in Rome. A rather crude example, but one must start somewhere.
Latin was, and largely still is, written using the Latin alphabet. This alphabet, a collection of letters including A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, K, L, M, N, O, P, Q, R, S, T, V, X, did not spring into existence fully formed. Rather, it was derived directly from the Etruscan alphabet, which itself was, in turn, drawn from the more ancient Greek alphabet, and ultimately traces its lineage back to the venerable Phoenician alphabet [76]. This remarkable lineage highlights a continuous chain of cultural transmission and adaptation. Over the centuries, this alphabet has demonstrated an unparalleled resilience and adaptability, becoming the script of choice for the Romance, Celtic, Germanic, Baltic, Finnic, and many Slavic languages (such as Polish, Slovak, Slovene, Croatian, Bosnian, Serbian, and Czech). Its influence extends far beyond Europe, having been adopted by countless languages worldwide, including Vietnamese, the Austronesian languages, a significant number of Turkic languages, and the majority of languages spoken in sub-Saharan Africa, the Americas, and Oceania. This makes it, by a considerable margin, the single most widely used writing system on the planet. A rather impressive testament to its efficiency, one must concede.
The precise number of letters comprising the Latin alphabet has not remained static throughout its long history; it has, in fact, varied. When it was initially adapted from the Etruscan alphabet, it contained a mere 21 letters [77]. Subsequently, the letter G was introduced to explicitly represent the /ɡ/ sound, which had previously been, rather ambiguously, spelled using the letter C. Around the same time, the letter Z ceased to be included in the alphabet, primarily because the Latin language of that era possessed no distinct voiced alveolar fricative sound [78]. However, in a later development, the letters K, Y, and Z were reintroduced or added to the alphabet specifically to represent the Greek letters kappa, upsilon, and zeta, respectively, primarily for the accurate transcription of Greek loanwords [78].
The letter W, a relative newcomer, was not created until the 11th century, emerging from the ligature of VV in some regions and UU in others. It was primarily developed to represent the /w/ sound in Germanic languages, and not, it must be stressed, for Latin, which continued to utilize V for that purpose. The distinction between J and the original I only became firmly established during the late Middle Ages, a similar chronological separation occurred between the letter U and V [78]. While some modern Latin dictionaries, in a bid for clarity, do employ J, its use in actual Latin texts is rare, as it was not part of the orthography during classical times. Many other languages, however, have embraced it wholeheartedly.
Punctuation
Classical Latin texts, in their original forms, were notably devoid of modern sentence punctuation, did not differentiate between letter case, and conspicuously lacked interword spacing. A rather dense and unforgiving block of text, one might imagine. However, certain subtle orthographic aids were occasionally employed: apices were sometimes used to distinguish between long and short vowels, and the interpunct was, at times, utilized to separate words, providing a rudimentary form of visual segmentation.
Consider the opening line of Catullus 3 ("Mourn, O Venuses and Cupids"), a classic example of how things once were:
simply
lv́géteóveneréscupidinésqve
with long I
• lv́géteóveneréscupIdinésqve
with interpunct
• lv́géte·ó·venerés·cupidinésqve
In a modern edition, for the sake of legibility and the convenience of contemporary readers, this same line would be rendered with familiar punctuation and casing:
simply
Lugete, o Veneres Cupidinesque
with macrons
Lūgēte, ō Venerēs Cupīdinēsque
with apices
Lúgéte, ó Venerés Cupídínésque
A modern Latin text written in the Old Roman Cursive inspired by the Vindolanda tablets, the oldest surviving handwritten documents in Britain. The word Romani 'Romans' is at bottom left. A rather elegant script, for all its lack of modern conveniences.
The fascinating Roman cursive script is frequently encountered on the numerous wax tablets that have been meticulously excavated from archaeological sites, particularly military forts. An especially extensive and illuminating collection of these tablets was unearthed at Vindolanda, a Roman fort situated near Hadrian's Wall in Britain. A notable observation from the Vindolanda tablets is that while most of them do exhibit spaces between words, monumental inscriptions from the same historical era conspicuously avoided such spacing, preferring an unbroken, continuous flow of text. A curious discrepancy, perhaps reflecting the different purposes and audiences for various forms of written communication.
Alternative scripts
On rare occasions, Latin has, for various reasons, been committed to writing using scripts other than its native Latin alphabet:
• The Praeneste fibula, a significant artifact dating from the 7th century BC, bears an Old Latin inscription that was written using the Etruscan script, a testament to the close linguistic and cultural ties between early Rome and Etruria.
• The rear panel of the early 8th-century Franks Casket presents an intriguing linguistic and orthographic mélange. It features an inscription that fluidly switches from Old English rendered in Anglo-Saxon runes to Latin written in the conventional Latin script, and then, rather unusually, to Latin expressed in runes. A truly eclectic piece, defying easy categorization.
Grammar
• Main articles: Latin grammar and Latin syntax
Syntactical structure of the Latin sentence Iohannes vidit illam puellam, meaning 'John sees the girl'. A rather straightforward example, for a language often perceived as dauntingly complex.
Latin is categorized, within the terminology of linguistic typology, as a synthetic, fusional language. This means, quite simply, that words in Latin are not merely containers for objective semantic elements but are also intricately interwoven with grammatical markers, typically suffixes. These suffixes serve to precisely specify the grammatical function and characteristics of a word. In the case of adjectives, nouns, and pronouns, these markers express gender, number, and case through a process known as declension. For verbs, these inflections denote person, number, tense, voice, mood, and aspect through conjugation. It's a remarkably efficient system, if a bit demanding to learn. Some words, however, remain steadfastly uninflected, undergoing neither declension nor conjugation; these include adverbs, prepositions, and interjections, the few simple souls of the Latin lexicon.
The highly inflected nature of Latin grammar can, paradoxically, lead to words possessing a considerable degree of semantic ambiguity. Consider, for instance, the verb form amābit 'he/she/it will love'. While it clearly indicates a future tense, a third-person singular subject, and active voice, the final morpheme -t does not, in itself, specify whether the subject is masculine, feminine, or neuter. A major, and often challenging, task in comprehending Latin phrases and clauses is to meticulously clarify such ambiguities through a careful analysis of the surrounding context. Fortunately, due to the clarity provided by these inflections in disambiguating semantic connections between words, Latin word order is relatively free and flexible. However, this freedom is not absolute; different word orders can subtly, yet significantly, convey different nuances of meaning, a detail that can make all the difference to the discerning reader.
Nouns
• Main article: Latin declension
A regular Latin noun, in its majestic complexity, belongs to one of five principal declensions. A declension, for the uninitiated, is essentially a class of nouns that exhibit similar patterns of inflected forms. These declensions are conventionally identified by the characteristic ending of the noun's genitive singular form.
• The first declension, which is predominantly characterized by an ending letter of -a in the nominative singular, is unmistakably signaled by a genitive singular ending of -ae.
• The second declension, frequently ending in -us in the nominative singular (for masculine and some feminine nouns) or -um (for neuter nouns), is clearly identified by a genitive singular ending of -ī.
• The third declension, a rather diverse and often challenging group, may end in various letters in the nominative singular, but is consistently marked by a genitive singular ending of -is.
• The fourth declension, commonly featuring an ending letter of -u in the nominative singular, is distinguished by a genitive singular ending of -ūs.
• The fifth declension, a smaller and less common group, typically ends in -e in the nominative singular and is identified by a genitive singular ending of -eī.
Latin employs a system of seven distinct noun cases. These cases, which also apply to adjectives and pronouns, serve to mark a noun's precise syntactic role within a sentence by means of its specific inflectional ending. Consequently, word order in Latin is not nearly as rigidly fixed or as critically important as it is in English, a language that, by comparison, is far less inflected. This inherent flexibility allows for variations in the general structure and word order of a Latin sentence, often for rhetorical emphasis or poetic effect. The seven cases are as follows:
• Nominative case – This case is employed when the noun functions as the subject of the sentence or as a predicate nominative. It identifies the thing or person performing the action. For instance, in "the girl ran," one could say puella cucurrit, or, with equal grammatical validity, cucurrit puella.
• Genitive case – The genitive case is used to denote possession or a close connection with an object, much like the English possessive ('s) or the "of" construction. For example, "the horse of the man" or "the man's horse" would both render the word 'man' in the genitive case when translated into Latin. It also indicates the partitive, specifying the whole from which a part is taken, as in "a group of people" or "a number of gifts," where 'people' and 'gifts' would be in the genitive case. Furthermore, certain verbs and adjectives specifically govern the genitive, such as in "The cup is full of wine" (Pōculum plēnum vīnī est) or "The master of the slave had beaten him" (Dominus servī eum verberāverat).
• Dative case – This case is used when the noun functions as the indirect object of the sentence, receiving the benefit or detriment of the action. It is also employed with specific verbs, certain prepositions, and can even indicate an agent, a reference, or even a possessor. An example: "The merchant hands the stola to the woman" (Mercātor fēminae stolam trādit).
• Accusative case – The accusative case primarily marks the direct object of the subject's action. It is also used as the object of prepositions that denote motion towards a place, and sometimes, rather prosaically, to indicate a duration of time. For instance: "The man killed the boy" (Vir puerum necāvit).
• Ablative case – The ablative case is remarkably versatile, conveying a wide range of meanings often related to separation, movement from a source, cause, the agent performing an action (with a preposition), or the instrument by which an action is performed. It is also used as the object of certain prepositions and to specify a particular point or duration in time. It often functions adverbially: "You walked with the boy" (Cum puerō ambulāvistī).
• Vocative case – This case is used exclusively when a noun is employed in a direct address, calling out to someone or something. The vocative form of a noun is, in most instances, identical to its nominative counterpart. However, there are notable exceptions for second-declension nouns ending in -us, where the -us transforms into an -e in the vocative singular. If a second-declension noun ends in -ius (such as fīlius 'son'), its vocative singular ending is simply -ī (filī), a form distinct from the nominative plural (filiī). Hence: "Master!" shouted the slave ("Domine!" clāmāvit servus).
• Locative case – The locative case serves the specific function of indicating a location, corresponding to the English prepositions 'in' or 'at'. It is considerably less common than the other six cases of Latin nouns and typically applies to the names of cities, small towns, and islands, along with a select few common nouns such as domus 'house', humus 'ground', and rus 'country'. In the singular of the first and second declensions, its form happens to coincide with the genitive (thus, Roma becomes Romae 'in Rome'). In the plural of all declensions and the singular of the other declensions, it aligns with the ablative (so Athēnae becomes Athēnīs, 'at Athens'). A unique instance is the fourth-declension word domus, where its locative form, domī 'at home', differs from the standard forms of all other cases.
A rather glaring omission for English speakers, Latin possesses neither definite nor indefinite articles. Consequently, a phrase like puer currit can ambiguously mean either 'the boy is running' or 'a boy is running', leaving the precise nuance to context or the reader's discretion.
Adjectives
• Main article: Latin declension § Adjectives
In Latin, adjectives, those descriptive linguistic elements, generally fall into one of two categories for their regular inflection: first- and second-declension adjectives, or third-declension adjectives. They are so designated precisely because their forms either closely resemble or are, in fact, identical to the corresponding first- and second-declension nouns and third-declension nouns, respectively. A rather convenient, if somewhat uninspired, naming convention. Latin adjectives also possess distinct comparative and superlative forms, allowing for nuanced degrees of description, from 'larger' to 'largest'. Furthermore, the language utilizes a variety of participles, which function as verbal adjectives, blending the characteristics of both verbs and adjectives.
It is also worth noting that Latin numbers are sometimes inflected and behave grammatically as adjectives, a detail explored further in the dedicated section on numbers.
First- and second-declension adjectives exhibit a predictable pattern of inflection: their feminine forms are declined precisely like regular first-declension nouns, while their masculine and neuter forms follow the patterns of second-declension nouns. To illustrate, consider mortuus, mortua, mortuum 'dead'. The form mortua is declined in the same manner as a regular first-declension noun (such as puella 'girl'); mortuus is declined like a regular second-declension masculine noun (such as dominus 'lord, master'); and mortuum is declined like a regular second-declension neuter noun (such as auxilium 'help'). A straightforward, if somewhat tedious, system.
Third-declension adjectives, while generally following the patterns of normal third-declension nouns, do present a few idiosyncratic exceptions. For instance, in the plural nominative neuter, the ending is typically -ia (as in omnia 'all, everything'), whereas for third-declension nouns, the plural nominative neuter ending can be either -a or -ia (e.g., capita 'heads', animalia 'animals'). Furthermore, these adjectives can display one, two, or three distinct forms for the masculine, feminine, and neuter nominative singular, adding another layer of complexity for the diligent student.
Participles
Latin participles, much like their English counterparts, are verb-derived forms that function as adjectives, retaining some verbal qualities while modifying nouns. They add a dynamic layer of description, allowing for the concise expression of actions or states related to a noun. There are a few principal types of participles in Latin, each with its own specific tense and voice characteristics:
- Present Active Participles: These describe an action happening concurrently with the main verb, such as currens 'running'.
- Perfect Passive Participles: These indicate an action completed before the main verb, and the noun is the recipient of the action, such as amatus 'having been loved'.
- Future Active Participles: These express an action that is about to happen or intended to happen, such as amaturus 'about to love'.
- Future Passive Participles (Gerundives): These convey necessity or obligation, often translated as 'to be loved' or 'needing to be loved', such as amandus.
Each participle, of course, must agree in case, number, and gender with the noun it modifies, adding yet another layer of grammatical precision.
Prepositions
Latin, ever the pragmatist, employs prepositions in certain contexts, their usage dependent upon the specific type of prepositional phrase being constructed. The majority of Latin prepositions are followed by a noun inflected in either the accusative or ablative case. For instance, apud puerum 'with the boy', where puerum is the accusative form of puer 'boy', or sine puerō 'without the boy', where puerō is the ablative form. However, a select few adpositions, those linguistic elements that serve a similar function to prepositions, uniquely govern a noun in the genitive case, notable examples being gratia and tenus. A small, but important, deviation from the norm.
Verbs
• Main articles: Latin grammar and Latin conjugation
A regular verb in Latin, in its full glory, belongs to one of four main conjugations. A conjugation, in this context, is simply defined as "a class of verbs with similar inflected forms" [80]. These conjugations are neatly identified by the final letter of the verb's present stem. The present stem itself can be reliably discovered by simply omitting the -re (or -rī in the case of deponent verbs) ending from the present infinitive form.
• The infinitive of the first conjugation consistently ends in -ā-re (for active voice) or -ā-rī (for passive voice), as exemplified by amāre 'to love' and hortārī 'to exhort'. • The second conjugation infinitives end in -ē-re (active) or -ē-rī (passive), such as monēre 'to warn' and verērī 'to fear'. • The third conjugation is marked by infinitives ending in -ere (active) or -ī (passive), seen in dūcere 'to lead' and ūtī 'to use'. • The fourth conjugation infinitives conclude with -ī-re (active) or -ī-rī (passive), as in audīre 'to hear' and experīrī 'to attempt' [81]. These stem categories, it should be noted, trace their origins back to Proto-Indo-European, and as such, can be fruitfully compared to similar conjugational patterns found in other Indo-European languages.
Of course, not all verbs conform to such neat categorization. Irregular verbs are, by definition, those recalcitrant verbs that steadfastly refuse to follow the established patterns of the regular conjugations in the formation of their inflected forms. In Latin, this rather exclusive club includes esse 'to be'; velle 'to want'; ferre 'to carry'; edere 'to eat'; dare 'to give'; ire 'to go'; posse 'to be able'; fieri 'to happen'; and, naturally, all of their various compounds [81]. A rather inconvenient collection, for those seeking perfect order.
Latin verbs are characterized by a sophisticated system of inflection, encompassing six simple tenses (present, imperfect, future, perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect), three primary moods (indicative, imperative, and subjunctive), in addition to non-finite forms such as the infinitive, participle, gerund, gerundive, and [supine). They also distinguish between three persons (first, second, and third), two numbers (singular and plural), two voices (active and passive), and two aspects (perfective and imperfective). To fully describe a Latin verb, scholars typically refer to four principal parts, each providing crucial information for its complete inflection:
• The first principal part represents the first-person singular, present tense, active voice, indicative mood form of the verb (e.g., amō 'I love'). If the verb is impersonal, this part will be in the third-person singular (e.g., pluit 'it rains').
• The second principal part is the present active infinitive (e.g., amāre 'to love'). This form is essential for identifying the verb's conjugation.
• The third principal part provides the first-person singular, perfect active indicative form (e.g., amāvī 'I have loved' or 'I loved'). Like the first principal part, if the verb is impersonal, this part will be in the third-person singular.
• The fourth principal part is traditionally the supine form (e.g., amātum 'to love, for loving'), or, alternatively, the nominative singular of the perfect passive participle form of the verb (e.g., amātus, -a, -um 'loved'). This fourth part can show one gender of the participle (often the masculine) or all three genders (-us for masculine, -a for feminine, and -um for neuter) in the nominative singular. If a verb cannot be made passive, its fourth principal part will instead be the future participle. Most modern Latin dictionaries, if they present only one gender, tend to show the masculine; however, many older dictionaries opted for the neuter, as it directly coincided with the supine. It's worth noting that the fourth principal part is sometimes omitted for intransitive verbs, but strictly speaking, even these can be made passive if used impersonally, and the supine does exist for such verbs.
The six simple tenses of Latin are logically divided into two distinct systems: the present system, which encompasses the present, imperfect, and future forms, and the perfect system, which comprises the perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect forms. Each simple tense possesses a specific set of endings that correspond to the person, number, and voice of the subject. Interestingly, subject (nominative) pronouns are generally omitted for the first (I, we) and second (you) persons, except when particular emphasis is required. A characteristic of highly inflected languages.
The table below displays the common inflected endings for the indicative mood in the active voice across all six tenses. For the future tense, the first set of listed endings applies to the first and second conjugations, while the second set is reserved for the third and fourth conjugations:
| Tense | Singular | Plural |
|---|---|---|
| 1st Person | 2nd Person | |
| Present | -ō/m | -s |
| Future | -bō, -am | -bis, -ēs |
| Imperfect | -bam | -bās |
| Perfect | -ī | -istī |
| Future Perfect | -erō | -eris/erīs |
| Pluperfect | -eram | -erās |
Deponent verbs
A rather peculiar, yet fascinating, subset of Latin verbs are classified as deponent. These verbs present a grammatical paradox: their forms are consistently inflected in the passive voice, yet they steadfastly retain an active meaning. A prime example is hortor, hortārī, hortātus sum, which, despite its passive morphology, consistently means 'to urge'. A linguistic quirk that demands careful attention.
Vocabulary
As Latin is fundamentally an Italic language, the bulk of its vocabulary likewise traces its origins to the Italic branch, ultimately stemming from the ancestral Proto-Indo-European language. However, due to centuries of close cultural interaction and inevitable conquest, the Romans were not merely linguistic purists. They not only ingeniously adapted the Etruscan alphabet to forge their own Latin alphabet but also, rather pragmatically, borrowed a number of Etruscan words directly into their language. Notable examples include persona 'mask', a term that has rather ironically come to define human identity, and histrio 'actor' [82]. Latin also incorporated vocabulary borrowed from Oscan, another significant Italic language of the ancient peninsula.
Following the pivotal Fall of Tarentum in 272 BC, an event that solidified Roman dominance in Magna Graecia, the Romans embarked on a deliberate process of Hellenization. This involved consciously adopting various features of Greek culture, a phenomenon that naturally extended to the borrowing of Greek words. Examples include camera 'vaulted roof', sumbolum 'symbol', and balineum 'bath' [82]. This profound Hellenization directly led to the eventual addition of the letters Y and Z to the Latin alphabet, specifically to accurately represent Greek sounds that had no native Latin equivalents [83]. Subsequently, the Romans, with their characteristic efficiency, essentially transplanted Greek art, medicine, science, and philosophy wholesale to Italy, often paying exorbitant sums to entice Greek skilled professionals and educated individuals to Rome, and dispatching their own youth to be educated in Greece. Consequently, many Latin scientific and philosophical terms were either direct Greek loanwords or had their existing meanings significantly expanded through association with Greek concepts, as seen with ars 'craft' developing a broader meaning akin to Greek tekhne 'art' [84]. A rather practical form of cultural appropriation, one might observe.
Due to the relentless expansion of the Roman Empire and its subsequent extensive trade networks with outlying European tribes, the Romans also, perhaps inevitably, borrowed certain words from northern and central European languages. These include beber 'beaver', a term of Germanic origin, and bracae 'breeches', a word clearly derived from Celtic [84]. After the fall of the Empire, the specific dialects of Latin spoken across the various Latin-speaking regions of the former Roman Empire were profoundly influenced by the indigenous languages specific to those areas. These regionally distinct dialects of Latin then, through the slow, inexorable