Terracotta

The term "terracotta," a word that whispers of baked earth, conjures images of ancient civilizations and enduring artistry. It's more than just a material; it's a testament to humanity's enduring connection with the very soil beneath our feet, molded and transformed by fire into objects of both utility and profound beauty. While often associated with a specific reddish-brown hue, its essence lies in its clay-based nature and the humble firing process that renders it a durable, non-vitreous ceramic. This is not the impenetrable sheen of porcelain, nor the refined elegance of stoneware; terracotta is earthenware, fired at temperatures that embrace its inherent porosity, a characteristic that defines its many applications.

The very definition of "terracotta" can be as fluid as the clay itself, shifting with context and intent. In the realm of art, pottery, and craft, it's the familiar, earthy red of sculptures that speak of human form and emotion, or the practical vessels that hold our flowers, channel our water, and grace our tables. Archaeologists and art historians, however, often employ the term with a more nuanced precision. For them, "terracotta" frequently designates figurines and smaller objects, those shaped by hand or simple tools rather than the turning of a potter's wheel. Vessels and larger items, even if made from the identical material, might be classified as earthenware, the distinction resting on the object's form and function as much as its composition. And then there is the color itself, that warm, inviting brownish-orange that has become synonymous with the material, a hue so distinct it has its own name: terra cotta (color). In the grander scale of architecture, the term expands to encompass the very skin of buildings, the fired ceramic elements that clad facades and adorn roofs, a practice that has shaped the aesthetic of cities across time. This article, however, focuses on terracotta as a medium for artistic expression, from the monumental Terracotta Army to the delicate Greek terracotta figurines, and its role in architectural decoration. The utilitarian earthenware and the more refined sculptures of East Asia and Europe in porcelain fall outside its purview.

In Art History

Asia and the Middle East

The story of terracotta art is as ancient as civilization itself, stretching back to the dawn of human settlements. In the windswept ruins of Mohenjo-daro in present-day Pakistan, archaeologists have unearthed fragments of terracotta female figurines, dating back to the Mature Harappan Period (circa 2600–1900 BCE). These figures, often adorned with elaborate coiffures and fan-shaped headdresses, alongside phallus-shaped stones, hint at the presence of fertility cults, a recurring theme in early human societies. Further west, in the cradle of Ancient Mesopotamia, the Burney Relief, a remarkable terracotta plaque dating to approximately 1950 BCE, stands as a testament to the material's early artistic significance. Across the Atlantic, in Mesoamerica, terracotta reigned supreme, with the vast majority of Olmec figurines crafted from this humble clay. Even in the elaborate funerary practices of Ancient Egypt, terracotta found its place, utilized for the creation of numerous ushabti mortuary statuettes, figures intended to serve the deceased in the afterlife.

India

The artistic lineage of terracotta in India is deeply woven into the fabric of its history, dating back to the very inception of the Harappan civilization. While the techniques may have evolved across millennia, the material remained a constant. During the Mauryan period, terracotta figures primarily depicted mother goddesses, reinforcing the pervasive theme of fertility cults. These creations often featured molded faces attached to hand-modeled bodies, a testament to the early experimentation with form. The Shungan era saw a refinement in this process, with entire figures being formed from a single mold, the final color of the terracotta varying from a rich red to a lighter orange depending on the duration and intensity of the firing. The Satavahanas introduced a more complex technique, employing two distinct molds – one for the front and one for the back – which were then joined to create hollow figures. This method, sometimes involving a thin strip of clay to seal the edges, may have been influenced by Roman artisans, as it is not commonly found elsewhere in India during that period.

Contemporary India continues to celebrate its rich terracotta heritage, with vibrant centers of production flourishing in West Bengal, Bihar, Jharkhand, Rajasthan, and Tamil Nadu. The temples of Bishnupur in West Bengal are particularly renowned for their intricately detailed terracotta panels, narrating stories and depicting deities with remarkable finesse. The iconic Bankura Horse, a stylized equine figure, also hails from this region, embodying a distinct school of Bengal terracotta art. In Madhya Pradesh, the tribal communities of the Bastar region maintain a vigorous tradition, crafting elaborate statues of animals, birds, and deities with intricate designs. Gujarat is known for its hand-painted clay and terracotta products, while the Aiyanar cult in Tamil Nadu is distinguished by its life-size terracotta statues, often erected in village shrines.

These traditional terracotta sculptures, predominantly religious in nature, continue to be produced, their demand often peaking during harvest festivals when new pottery and votive idols are required. The artisans, whose livelihood often depends on agriculture for the rest of the year, find their craft tied to the cycles of nature. The designs, while sometimes appearing repetitive due to the consistent application of established reliefs and techniques, are often adapted to specific requests from customers. To preserve this invaluable legacy, the Indian government has established the Sanskriti Museum of Indian Terracotta in New Delhi, showcasing a diverse collection of terracotta from various regions and historical periods, fostering an appreciation for this enduring art form. In recognition of its cultural significance, the India Post Service issued a commemorative stamp in 2010, featuring a terracotta doll from the museum's collection.

China

Chinese sculpture has a long and distinguished history of utilizing terracotta, both with and without glazing and color. The famed Terracotta Army of Emperor Qin Shi Huang, dating back to 209–210 BCE, represents a monumental achievement, though relief sculptures were arguably more common in tombs and other contexts around two millennia ago. Later, Buddhist figures were frequently rendered in painted and glazed terracotta, with the Yixian glazed pottery luohans, likely created between 1150 and 1250, standing as particularly prominent examples, now housed in various museums worldwide. The brick-built tombs of the Han dynasty often featured interiors decorated with molded reliefs on bricks, showcasing intricate designs. Subsequent tombs contained a plethora of figures representing protective spirits, animals, and servants intended for the afterlife, including the celebrated horses of the Tang dynasty. By a quirk of terminology, these latter creations are often not explicitly referred to as "terracotta."

Africa

Precolonial West African sculpture is marked by its extensive use of terracotta. The Nok culture of central and north-central Nigeria is particularly recognized for its distinctive terracotta art, characterized by stylized human figures. The Ife-Benin cultural axis in western and southern Nigeria is also notable for its exceptionally naturalistic terracotta sculptures, which also gave rise to renowned bronze and brass works. In eastern Nigeria, the Igbo culture area excelled in terracotta pottery, contributing significantly to the region's artistic output. These interconnected traditions demonstrate a sophisticated engagement with the material, producing works of remarkable artistry and cultural depth.

Europe

The Ancient Greeks were prolific creators of terracotta figurines, with the Tanagra figurines serving as a prime example of mass-produced, mold-cast works. These figures, widely accessible during the Hellenistic period, often served a purely decorative purpose. They represent a broader spectrum of Greek terracotta figurines, which included larger, more finely crafted pieces like the Aphrodite Heyl. The Romans, too, embraced terracotta for numerous small figurines, frequently employed in religious contexts as cult statues or temple adornments. In Etruscan art, terracotta was often favored over stone for monumental sculptures, as evidenced by the near life-size Apollo of Veii and the poignant Sarcophagus of the Spouses. The Romans also produced Campana reliefs, intricate terracotta plaques that were commonly used to fashion friezes for building exteriors, offering a more economical alternative to carved stone.

During the medieval art period in Europe, terracotta sculpture saw limited use until the late 14th century. It then experienced a resurgence within the sophisticated International Gothic workshops of Germany, with the illustrated Bohemian bust of the Virgin Mary from around 1390–1395 serving as a unique surviving example from that region. A few decades later, the Italian Renaissance witnessed a revival of terracotta sculpture, spurred by the discovery of excavated classical examples and the influence of German works. This artistic movement gradually spread across Europe. In Florence, Luca della Robbia established a renowned family dynasty specializing in glazed and painted terracotta, particularly large roundels that adorned churches and public buildings. These works employed techniques similar to contemporary maiolica and other tin-glazed pottery. Other notable sculptors of the era included Pietro Torrigiano, who created statues and busts, including those of the Tudor royal family in England. The unglazed busts of Roman Emperors at Hampton Court Palace, attributed to [Giovanni da Maiano] (1521), are another significant example of Italian terracotta art in England, though their original painted finishes have succumbed to weathering.

In the 18th century, unglazed terracotta, long used for preliminary clay models or maquettes that were subsequently fired, gained popularity as a medium for small sculptures, including portrait busts. Its malleability offered artists a more spontaneous and fluid approach compared to carved materials. Claude Michel, known as Clodion, emerged as an influential figure in this movement in France. In England, the Flemish portrait sculptor John Michael Rysbrack sold his terracotta modelli for larger stone works and also produced busts exclusively in terracotta. The following century saw the French sculptor Albert-Ernest Carrier-Belleuse create numerous terracotta pieces, perhaps most famously "The Abduction of Hippodameia," which vividly depicts a centaur abducting the bride on her wedding day.

Architecture

Architectural terracotta, a term encompassing a broad array of clay-based elements used in construction, has played a significant role in shaping the built environment. From the elaborate Imperial roof decoration found in China's Forbidden City to the antefix adornments of classical architecture in the West, terracotta has long been employed to add decorative flourish to roofs and facades. India, particularly West Bengal, developed a unique tradition of terracotta temples, where sculpted decoration, crafted from the same material as the primary brick construction, adorns the structures with intricate narratives and motifs.

The mid-19th century marked a significant resurgence of architectural terracotta in Western architecture. Originating in Europe, architects embraced the material for its decorative potential, incorporating elaborate terracotta detailing into building facades. In the United States, James Taylor was a pioneer in its production, leveraging his experience from England to establish the material's presence in North America. The devastating Great Chicago Fire of 1871 inadvertently fueled the demand for fireproof materials in urban settings, further propelling the adoption of architectural terracotta across North America. Its versatility allowed it to seamlessly integrate with a variety of architectural styles, including Renaissance Revival, neo-Gothic, and Art Deco, remaining a popular choice through the early 1900s.

The advent of Modernist architecture in the 1930s, with its preference for concrete and glass, led to a decline in the use of architectural terracotta. However, the material has experienced a notable revival in recent times, finding favor in postmodern and revivalist architectural styles, appreciated for its aesthetic qualities and historical resonance.

Differences from Non-Architectural Terracotta

The clays selected for architectural terracotta often differ from those used in art and pottery. They can range from dark-bodied stonewares to light-bodied whitewares, chosen based on the specific requirements of their application. Crucially, architectural terracotta is typically fired to or near vitrification. This process is essential for its durability, enabling it to withstand harsh outdoor conditions, including extreme freeze-thaw cycles and the corrosive effects of salt intrusion. Contrary to a common misconception, glazing does not render terracotta impervious to water. A non-porous clay body is the primary defense against moisture penetration and subsequent failure.

Production

The malleability of terracotta clays before firing allows for a variety of shaping techniques. These include the traditional throwing on a wheel, slip casting, and other methods employed in pottery production.

Following a period of drying, the shaped clay is placed in a kiln for firing. Historically, pit firing, where the clay is covered with combustible material, was also a common method. The typical firing temperature for terracotta hovers around 1,000 °C (1,830 °F), though historical and archaeological examples may have been fired at lower temperatures, as low as 600 °C (1,112 °F). During this transformative process, the iron oxides present in the clay react with oxygen, often imparting the characteristic reddish hue known as terracotta. However, the color palette of terracotta is far from uniform, encompassing a spectrum of yellows, oranges, buffs, reds, pinks, grays, and browns.

A less common, though notable, production method involves carving fired bricks or other terracotta shapes. This technique is evident in the architecture of Bengal, where it is applied to both Hindu temples and mosques, adding intricate sculptural detail to religious structures.

One of the soldiers from the Terracotta Army exemplifies the mold-making techniques used for mass production of these Ancient Chinese terracotta sculptures, created for the armies of Qin Shi Huang, the first Emperor of China.

Properties

Terracotta, in its unglazed form, is not inherently watertight. However, its porosity can be reduced through surface-burnishing prior to firing. The application of glazes further enhances its resistance to water penetration, thereby increasing its watertightness.

Unglazed terracotta remains suitable for certain applications, such as underground water conduits (an archaic use), garden pots, and irrigation systems. It is also commonly used for building decoration in various environments, and for containers like oil lamps and ovens. For most other uses, particularly those involving contact with food or exposure to freezing temperatures, glazing is essential. This includes tableware, sanitary piping, and architectural elements in colder climates.

When lightly struck, unglazed terracotta produces a clear ringing sound, provided it is free from cracks.

Painted (polychrome) terracotta typically involves an initial coating of gesso followed by the application of paint. While widely used, this decorative method is best suited for indoor settings and is significantly less durable than colors fired into or beneath a ceramic glaze. Historically, terracotta sculptures in the West were rarely left in their "raw" fired state until the 18th century.

Advantages in Sculpture

Compared to the intricate and often costly process of creating bronze sculpture, terracotta offers a simpler, faster, and more economical alternative. The ease with which clay can be modeled, primarily using fingers and a limited range of simple tools, allows artists a greater degree of freedom and spontaneity. Intricate details, such as the rendering of hair or the folds of drapery, which might prove challenging in stone, are readily achievable in terracotta. Thin sheets of clay can be manipulated to create remarkably realistic effects in drapery.

The use of reusable mold-making techniques facilitates the efficient production of multiple identical pieces. In contrast to marble sculpture and other stonework, finished terracotta pieces are considerably lighter. Furthermore, terracotta can be painted and glazed to achieve vibrant colors or to simulate the patina of metal. For works intended for outdoor use, greater thickness is required to ensure durability, which naturally increases their weight. Careful attention must also be paid to the drying process of unfired pieces to prevent cracking as the material shrinks. Structural considerations for terracotta sculpture are akin to those for stone; there are limitations on the stress that can be imposed, and free-standing figures are generally restricted to well under life-size unless supplemented with internal structural support. The firing of large terracotta figures presents significant challenges, and surviving examples often exhibit signs of sagging or cracking. The Yixian figures, for instance, were fired in multiple sections and incorporated iron rods for structural integrity.

Gallery

Terracotta image of Isis lamenting the loss of Osiris (Eighteenth Dynasty, Egypt), housed at the Musée du Louvre in Paris.
The Etruscan "Sarcophagus of the Spouses", dating to approximately 520 BCE, is displayed at the National Etruscan Museum.
A Tanagra figurine from ancient Greece, dating between 325–150 BCE, can be found at the Altes Museum.
An Indian terracotta figure from the Gupta dynasty is part of the collection at the National Museum, New Delhi.
Terracotta flowerpots observed in Charles Darwin's laboratory at Down House.
A terra cotta planter in Italy, adorned with decorative festoons.
A Han dynasty tomb brick relief, showcasing intricate artistry.
A bust of an unidentified man by Pierre Merard, created in France in 1786.
The Seated Luohan from Yixian, part of the Yixian glazed pottery luohans group, likely from 1150–1250, is housed at the British Museum.
A bust of Maximilien Robespierre, an unglazed work by Claude-André Deseine, sculpted in 1791.
Glazed building decoration from the Forbidden City in Beijing.
A terracotta temple in Bishnupur, India, recognized as a significant center for terracotta temple architecture.
A Hindu temple constructed in 1739 in Kalna, India.
Elaborate terracotta designs adorning the exterior of the Kantajew Temple in Dinajpur, Bangladesh.
The Bell Edison Telephone Building in Birmingham, England, featuring terracotta elements.
The Natural History Museum in London boasts an ornate terracotta facade, characteristic of high Victorian architecture, with carvings intended to represent the museum's contents.
Bankura horses, a traditional craft, are seen for sale in Bankura, West Bengal, India.
A glazed terracotta casserole bowl.
A salt-glazed terracotta jar.
A terracotta vase produced by Crown Lynn in the 1950s.

Notes

^ a b Bust of the Virgin, ca. 1390–95, In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. (October 2008)
^ "Terracotta" is the standard spelling in British English and is generally preferred in art history globally. "Terra-cotta" is more common in general American English, though the Getty's Art and Architecture Thesaurus favors "terracotta."
^ "terra-cotta". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary. Merriam-Webster.
^ "Terracotta", p. 341, Delahunty, Andrew, From Bonbon to Cha-cha: Oxford Dictionary of Foreign Words and Phrases, 2008, OUP Oxford, ISBN) 0199543690, 9780199543694.
^ a b OED, "Terracotta"; "Terracotta", MFA Boston, "Cameo" database.
^ "terracotta". (n.d.) Collins English Dictionary – Complete and Unabridged, 12th Edition 2014. Retrieved July 13 2024 from thefreedictionary.com
^ 'Industrial Ceramics.' F. Singer, S. Singer. Chapman & Hall. 1971. Quoted: "The lighter pieces that are glazed may also be termed 'terracotta.'"
^ Peek, Philip M., and Yankah, K., African Folklore: An Encyclopedia, 2004, Routledge, ISBN) 1135948720, 9781135948726.
^ "Home : Oxford English Dictionary". oed.com. Retrieved 3 March 2021.
^ a b c d e f Tunick, Susan (1997). Terra-Cotta Skyline: New York's Architectural Ornament (1st ed.). Princeton Architectural Press. ISBN) 1-56898-105-8.
^ "The many uses of terracotta tiles - a designers history". Lubelska. 2019-05-21. Retrieved 2020-10-07.
^ Neusner, Jacob, ed. (2003). World Religions in America. Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press.
^ "National Museum, New Delhi". nationalmuseumindia.gov.in. Retrieved 2023-05-04.
^ Shyam Singh Rawat. A Historical Journey Of Indian Terracotta From Indus Civilization Up To Contemporary Art. European Journal of Molecular & Clinical Medicine. Volume 07, Issue 07, 2020. ejmcm.com permanent dead link.
^ "Gaatha.org ~ Craft ~ Molela terracota". gaatha.org. Archived from the original on 2020-07-14. Retrieved 2020-07-14.
^ Rawson, 140-145; Grove, 4.
^ Rawson, 140-145, 159-161.
^ H. Meyerowitz; V. Meyerowitz (1939). "Bronzes and Terra-Cottas from Ile-Ife". The Burlington Magazine for Connoisseurs. 75 (439): 150–152, 154–155.
^ Grove, 3.
^ Richardson, Emeline Hill (1953). "The Etruscan Origins of Early Roman Sculpture". Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome. 21: 75–124. doi):10.2307/4238630. ISSN) 0065-6801. JSTOR) 4238630.
^ Schultz, 67-68.
^ Grove, "Florence".
^ Draper and Scherf, 2-7 and throughout; Grove, 2, i, a and c.
^ Well covered in Draper and Scherf, see index; Grove, 2, i, a and c.
^ Grove, 2, i, c.
^ Grove, 2, i, d.
^ Grove, 2, ii.
^ Grove, 2, ii, c and d.
^ William Carty; Hyojin Lee (August 16, 2017). "Ceramics for Exterior Applications & A Discussion of Heat Transfer and Storage" (PDF). Boston Valley Terra Cotta.
^ 'Technical Trends Of Cottage Ceramic Industries In Southwestern Nigeria' Journal of Visual Art and Design. Segun Oladapo Abiodun. Vol. 10, No. 1, 2018.
^ 'Mechanisms To Improve Energy Efficiency In Small Industries. Part Two: Pottery In India And Khurja' A. Rath, DFID Project R7413. Policy Research International.
^ a b Grove, 1.
^ Chittaranjan Dasgupta (2015). Collection of Essays on Terracotta Temples of Bishnupur (in Bengali). ISBN) 9789385663109.
^ Grove, 2, i, a.
^ Grove, 2, i, a; Scultz, 167.
^ Scultz, 67, 167.
^ Scultz; Hobson, R.L. (May 1914). "A New Chinese Masterpiece in the British Museum". The Burlington Magazine. Vol. 25, no. 134. p. 70. JSTOR) 859579.
^ Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine: "Lecture by Derek Gillman at the Penn Museum, on their example and the group of Yixian figures. From YouTube". YouTube. 8 August 2011.