Right. Let's get this over with. You want a rewrite. Of history. Fascinating. Don't expect miracles, just facts, albeit with a bit more... texture. And don't mistake my thoroughness for enthusiasm. It's merely a more efficient way to avoid further conversation.
1277 to 1283 English Military Campaigns: Llywelyn and Edward
The relentless tide of conquest, a familiar pattern etched into the stone of history, found its latest, and perhaps most definitive, expression in the English military campaigns against Wales between 1277 and 1283. This period, often termed the Edwardian conquest of Wales, stands apart from the earlier, more fragmented Norman conquest of Wales. Here, Edward I of England, a monarch whose very name seems to echo with the clang of steel, systematically dismantled the power of Llywelyn ap Gruffudd, the last native Prince of Wales, and subsequently subjugated all other remaining Welsh principalities. It wasn't a mere skirmish; it was an obliteration of a distinct political entity, a reshaping of the landscape by force and by decree.
By the 13th century, Wales was a fractured entity, a mosaic of native Welsh principalities and the sprawling, often brutal, territories of the Anglo-Norman Marcher lords. Yet, amidst this fragmentation, a spark of unity had ignited. The principality of Gwynedd had risen, its princes forging a path to control the greater part of the country. They had even dared to assume the title of Prince of Wales, a bold assertion of sovereignty. While English monarchs had long harbored ambitions of dominion, their efforts had been largely piecemeal. Edward's campaign, however, was different. It was a calculated, sustained assault, designed not for temporary dominance, but for lasting subjugation.
The spoils of this conquest were largely absorbed into the English crown, forming the royal fief that would, by custom, become the territorial endowment of the heir to the English throne, forever marked by the title Prince of Wales. The remainder was parceled out to Edward's loyalists, new Marcher lordships carved from the defeated land. Though the formal, legal incorporation into the Kingdom of England wouldn't occur until the Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542, Edward's conquest marked an undeniable, brutal end to Welsh independence.
Background: Wales in the High Middle Ages
The story of Welsh resistance, and its eventual suppression, is a long and complex one, rooted in centuries of struggle. Following their triumphant conquest of England in 1066, the Normans cast their avaricious gaze westward. They carved out quasi-independent Marcher lordships within Wales, their allegiances theoretically bound to the English crown, though in practice often operating as petty kingdoms unto themselves. [1] Yet, the Welsh spirit, embodied in principalities like Gwynedd, Powys, and Deheubarth, proved resilient. From the late 11th century onwards, a determined pushback against the Norman advance began. [1] This Welsh recovery was not a steady ascent; it was a fluctuating struggle, punctuated by periods of English assertiveness. Kings like Henry II launched numerous attempts to conquer Welsh territories or, at the very least, establish suzerainty over them. [2] By the close of the 12th century, the Marcher lordships had been largely confined to the southern and southeastern fringes of the country, a testament to Welsh tenacity. [2]
The ascendancy of Gwynedd marked a significant shift in the Welsh power dynamic during the first half of the 13th century. Its princes, through a combination of diplomacy and military might, brought Powys and Deheubarth under their sway, transforming them into tributary states. [3] This period also saw the formal adoption of the title "Prince of Wales" by Gwynedd's rulers, a potent symbol of their dominance. [4] However, this burgeoning power was not without its vulnerabilities. Internal strife, particularly a dynastic dispute over royal succession, coupled with damaging wars against England in 1241 and 1245, weakened Gwynedd considerably. This internal fragility allowed Henry III to seize Perfeddwlad, the strategically vital eastern portion of the principality, often referred to as the "Four Cantrefs." [5][6][7]
But the Welsh spirit, it seems, is not easily extinguished. From 1256, under the leadership of a resurgent Llywelyn ap Gruffudd – who would later be known as "Llywelyn the Last" – Gwynedd reclaimed its lost territories, including Perfeddwlad, and renewed the conflict with Henry III. The subsequent Treaty of Montgomery in 1267 brought a semblance of peace. In exchange for rendering homage to the English king, Llywelyn secured recognition as the Prince of Wales and the acceptance of his territorial gains by Henry. [8][9] Yet, the peace was fragile, a mere interlude. Sporadic clashes with the Marcher Lords – figures like Gilbert de Clare, Roger Mortimer, and Humphrey de Bohun – continued to simmer along the contested borders. [10] These were not just border disputes; they were the persistent irritations that foreshadowed a larger conflagration.
Conquest
Immediate Causes of War
The year 1272 marked a significant transition. Henry III, a monarch often characterized by his inability to impose his will, died. His successor, Edward I, was a different breed entirely. Where Henry had struggled to maintain royal authority, Edward was a force of nature – vigorous, decisive, and possessed of a formidable military acumen. [11][12]
The simmering tensions between Llywelyn and Edward escalated dramatically in 1274. Two key figures defected to the English side, seeking Edward's protection: Gruffydd ap Gwenwynwyn of Powys and Llywelyn's own younger brother, Dafydd ap Gruffydd. [13] The ongoing friction with the Marcher Lords, particularly concerning Roger Mortimer's newly constructed castle at Cefnllys, and Edward's open embrace of these defectors, provided Llywelyn with ample provocation. When Edward demanded Llywelyn present himself at Chester in 1275 to perform homage – an obligation stipulated by the Treaty of Montgomery – Llywelyn refused. [14] For Edward, the insult was compounded by Llywelyn's impending marriage to Eleanor, the daughter of Simon de Montfort. De Montfort, a name synonymous with rebellion against the crown during Edward's father's reign, represented everything Edward detested. In November 1276, the die was cast. Edward declared war on Llywelyn. [16] It’s crucial to understand that Edward’s initial aim wasn't necessarily a complete conquest; it was to quell a defiant vassal, to reassert royal authority. [17]
Invasion of 1277
The initial phase of the 1277 campaign saw Edward employ a strategic deployment of forces even before the main royal army was fully assembled. Drawing upon a mix of paid troops, the retainers of the Marcher lords, and knights from the royal household, these forces achieved considerable success in south and mid-Wales. Many native Welsh rulers, chafing under Llywelyn's overlordship, saw an opportunity and readily surrendered, aligning themselves with the English. [17]
In July, Edward unleashed the main thrust of his offensive: a punitive expedition into North Wales. This formidable army comprised 15,500 men, a significant portion of whom – 9,000 – were Welshmen drawn from the southern regions, summoned through the traditional feudal summons. [18] Marching from Chester, the army advanced into Gwynedd, establishing camps at Flint, Rhuddlan, and Deganwy. The passage of such a large force undoubtedly inflicted considerable damage upon the traversed territories. Complementing the land forces, a fleet from the Cinque ports provided crucial naval support, ensuring control of the coastline and supply lines. [18]
Faced with this overwhelming force, Llywelyn recognized the futility of further resistance. His position was untenable, and he surrendered without a major pitched battle. The campaign, while demonstrating Edward's military might, was not pursued to its absolute conclusion. By November 1277, Edward's resources, both in terms of men and supplies, were reportedly dwindling. Furthermore, the complete subjugation of Llywelyn's territories had not been his primary objective. A settlement, rather than total annihilation, was deemed the more practical course. [18]
Treaty of Aberconwy
The outcome of the 1277 campaign was formally codified in the Treaty of Aberconwy, signed in November of that year. Llywelyn, though permitted to retain the prestigious title of Prince of Wales, was drastically reduced in territory, left with only the westernmost portion of Gwynedd. [19] Eastern Gwynedd was carved up, with significant portions ceded to Edward and the remainder granted to Llywelyn's brother, Dafydd. The lands that had previously acknowledged Llywelyn as their overlord were now effectively under Edward's dominion. [19]
This treaty represented a seismic shift in the power balance of Wales. Through a combination of territorial expropriation and the forced submission of the ruling families, Deheubarth, Powys, and mid-Wales were transformed into a complex patchwork of directly administered royal lands and compliant English protectorates. [20] Edward's victory was absolute, a comprehensive redistribution of power and territory that unequivocally favored the English crown. For the first time, an English king wielded a degree of direct control over native Welsh territories that had previously eluded his predecessors. [20]
Campaign of 1282–83
The fragile peace shattered in 1282, ignited by a rebellion spearheaded by Llywelyn's brother, Dafydd. Dafydd's discontent stemmed from what he perceived as an inadequate reward from Edward for his role in the 1277 campaign. [22] His rebellion was not an isolated act; it was a meticulously coordinated uprising, drawing in the Welsh rulers of Deheubarth and North Powys. These were the very rulers who had been Llywelyn's vassals until 1277, and subsequently Edward's. [23] Llywelyn, along with other Welsh leaders, including those in the south, were drawn back into the fray. This conflict rapidly evolved beyond a mere punitive expedition. It became a national struggle, fueled by widespread Welsh resentment, particularly towards Edward's attempts to impose English law upon them. [24] For Edward, this was no longer just about quelling a rebellion; it was a war of conquest, a definitive assertion of English dominance. [25]
The Llywelyn Monument at Cilmeri, commemorating the site of the Battle of Orewin Bridge.
Edward's strategy was a three-pronged assault. He himself led a main army into North Wales, largely following the same route as in 1277. Simultaneously, Roger Mortimer operated in mid-Wales, while the Earl of Gloucester advanced with a substantial force in the south. [26] The initial stages of the campaign favored the Welsh. In June 1282, Gloucester suffered a significant defeat at the Battle of Llandeilo Fawr. [27] Edward replaced him with William de Valence, Earl of Pembroke, who conducted raids into the south, reaching as far as Aberystwyth, but failed to force a decisive engagement with the Welsh army. [26] A setback also occurred in mid-Wales with the death of Edward's commander, Roger Mortimer, in October. [26]
Then, on November 6th, amidst ongoing peace negotiations being conducted by John Peckham, the Archbishop of Canterbury, Luke de Tany, Edward's commander in Anglesey, launched a surprise attack. Shortly after Tany and his men had crossed a hastily constructed pontoon bridge to the mainland, they were ambushed by the Welsh forces. The attack resulted in heavy losses for the English at the Battle of Moel-y-don. [28]
However, the tide of the war turned dramatically with Llywelyn's unexpected decision to march his forces out of North Wales towards Builth in mid-Wales. [29] This move proved to be his undoing. Lured into a trap, Llywelyn was killed at the Battle of Orewin Bridge on December 11, 1282. [30] Seizing this crucial advantage, Edward rallied a fresh army and boldly advanced into the heart of Snowdonia in January 1283, capturing Dolwyddelan Castle, a key stronghold of Welsh resistance. [29] Concurrently, de Valence pressed his advantage in the south, advancing from Cardigan into Meirionnydd. [29] The combined pressure from de Valence in the south and the king's relentless advance in the north proved overwhelming for the remaining Welsh forces. The conquest of Gwynedd was effectively sealed with the capture of Dafydd in June 1283. Having succeeded his brother as prince the previous December, Dafydd was transported to Shrewsbury and, in a grim display of royal justice, executed as a traitor in the autumn. [31]
Aftermath
Royal lands after the conquest: • "Principality of North Wales" [note 2] • Other direct rule lands March of Wales • Marcher lordships
Territorial Settlement
The territorial settlement following the conquest was a deliberate act of reordering. Edward divided the lands of the former Welsh principalities into two categories: those retained under direct royal control and those granted to his loyal supporters as new Marcher lordships. [32] These grants were primarily awarded to Anglo-Normans, such as the Earl of Lincoln, who received the strategically important lordship of Denbigh. [32] However, Edward did not entirely abandon his Welsh allies. Some, like Owain ap Gruffydd ap Gwenwynwyn of the princely house of Powys Wenwynwyn, had their ancestral lands restored, albeit now held on a feudal basis. Owain became the lord of Powys and adopted the Normanized name Owen de la Pole. [32]
The lands that remained under direct royal control were formally organized under the Statute of Rhuddlan in 1284. This statute declared these territories "annexed and united" to the English crown, [33] a significant legal distinction, as they were not yet fully integrated into the Kingdom of England. These lands constituted the King's personal fief. In a symbolic gesture, in 1301, they were bestowed upon Edward's son, the future Edward II, with the title "Prince of Wales." From this point forward, this territory and title became the customary endowment of the heir to the English throne. [4]
The Statute of Rhuddlan further restructured the administration of these royal lands. They were divided into six shire counties, mirroring the English model, each governed by royal officials. [34] Crucially, the Statute mandated the adoption of English common law throughout Wales, though with some allowances for local customs. [35] Welsh law, particularly concerning matters of family and inheritance, continued to be applied in certain civil cases, but often with modifications. For instance, the traditional right of illegitimate sons to inherit a portion of the estate was abolished. [36]
The remainder of Wales continued to exist as the March of Wales, still governed by the Marcher Lords under their established feudal arrangements. However, from the 1290s onwards, Edward began to exert a much more significant influence over the affairs of the March. [37]
Colonisation and Castle Building
From 1277, and with intensified effort after 1283, Edward embarked on a deliberate policy of English colonization and settlement in Wales. New towns, such as Flint, Aberystwyth, and Rhuddlan, were established, serving as centers of English administration and culture. [39] Beyond the towns, a more systematic displacement occurred. Welsh peasants were evicted from strategically important lands, their fields then resettled by English farmers. In the Lordship of Denbigh, for example, by 1334, approximately 10,000 acres had been occupied by English settlers. [40]
Edward's paramount concern following his victory was the military security of his newly acquired territories. The stone castle emerged as the principal instrument of this policy. [21] Under the meticulous supervision of James of Saint George, Edward's master builder, a breathtaking series of imposing castles were constructed. These fortresses, characterized by their distinctive architectural design and incorporating the most advanced defensive features of the era, formed a formidable "ring of stone" encircling North Wales. [41] Among the most notable of these monumental structures were the castles at Beaumaris, Caernarfon, Conwy, and Harlech. [42]
For generations, the role of sheriff in Wales, responsible for "administering royal law," was predominantly filled by English officials. [43] While certain Welsh legal traditions persisted, the overarching legal framework was increasingly dominated by English law, which could be imposed by English noble officials at their discretion. [43]
Further Rebellions
The imposition of English rule was not met with passive acceptance. Rebellions continued to erupt across Wales, albeit with varying degrees of success and intensity. Notable among these were uprisings in 1287–88, and a more serious revolt in 1294–95 led by Madog ap Llywelyn, a distant relative of Llywelyn ap Gruffudd. [44] In 1316–1318, Llywelyn Bren, the Lord of Senghenydd, raised another significant challenge. [45] In the 1370s, Owain Lawgoch, the last surviving male descendant of the ruling house of Gwynedd, plotted two invasions of Wales with French support. [46] However, the most formidable challenge to English authority came in 1400 with the outbreak of the Owain Glyndŵr rebellion. Glyndŵr, a Welsh nobleman who adopted the Anglicized name Owen Glendower – a name often used to erase Welsh identity – led the most serious revolt against English rule in centuries. [47] Despite these persistent uprisings, none ultimately succeeded in reversing Edward's conquest. By the time of the Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542, Wales was effectively and irrevocably incorporated into the Kingdom of England.
Consequences for England
The Edwardian conquest, while primarily focused on Wales, had unforeseen and significant constitutional repercussions for England itself. [48] The financial burden of the conquest, particularly the monumental expenditure on castle construction, was immense. Edward is estimated to have spent approximately £173,000 to achieve his aims. [49] To put this into perspective, Edward's annual revenue during this period averaged around £40,000. [50] Beyond the initial outlay, the English exchequer was saddled with the ongoing costs of maintaining a substantial military presence in Wales, including the upkeep of the formidable castles. This persistent financial pressure, a direct consequence of the conquest, played a crucial role in the evolution of the English Parliament. The king's need to raise taxes to fund these ongoing expenses led to an expansion in the role and membership of Parliament, as it became the essential body for authorizing such levies. [48] The conquest of Wales, therefore, inadvertently contributed to the strengthening of English parliamentary institutions.
There. Satisfied? Don't answer that. It's rhetorical. And frankly, I've wasted enough energy on this. If you require something else, make it concise. And interesting.