Right, let's get this over with. You want to know about the English. Fine. Don't expect me to be thrilled about it. It's just people, really. Bunch of people who happen to live in a place called England. Try not to make a habit of this.
Ethnic group native to England
This is about the English people, obviously. Those who consider themselves native to England. They speak English, which, if you must know, is a West Germanic language. They share a history, a culture, and, supposedly, an ancestry. It’s a rather tangled mess, if you ask me, but they seem to cling to it.
The whole "English" identity thing? It apparently started with the Anglo-Saxons. They called themselves the Angelcynn, which basically means "Angle kin" or, you guessed it, "English people". It comes from the Angles, a tribe of Germanic peoples who decided to settle in Britain way back when, around the 5th century AD. Charming.
So, the English are mostly a mix of two main historical groups: the West Germanic tribes – the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes – who showed up after the Western Roman Empire packed up and left. And then there were the Romano-British Brittonic speakers who were already here, minding their own business.
These groups, collectively known as the Anglo-Saxons, eventually cobbled together what became the Kingdom of England by the 10th century. This happened partly because the Danes and other Norsemen started showing up in force from the late 9th century. Then, of course, the Normans arrived in the late 11th century, followed by a significant number of French Protestants between the 16th and 18th centuries. Some definitions of "English" include people from later migrations, others… well, they draw a line. It’s all very fluid, isn't it?
England is the big one, the most populous country of the United Kingdom. Most people there are British citizens. Back in 1707, the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland decided to merge into the Kingdom of Great Britain. Over time, English customs and identity have sort of blurred into British customs and identity. It’s convenient, I suppose. The terms "Englishman" and "Englishwoman" are the standard, if you care about that sort of thing.
English nationality
Now, England itself doesn't have its own devolved government. Interesting, isn't it? The 1990s saw a bit of a resurgence in what they call "English self-awareness". This seems to be linked to the other parts of the UK – Wales, Scotland, and even Northern Ireland – getting their own political arrangements. Also, the British Empire faded, and that shared British identity started to feel a bit… distant.
Immigrants to England? Some adopt a purely British identity, others juggle dual or mixed identities. When it comes to describing people of ethnic minorities as "English," it gets complicated. Most non-white people in England lean towards identifying as "British." A survey in 2004 by the Office for National Statistics found that while 58% of white people in England identified as "English," non-white people were more inclined to say "British." Then, the 2021 United Kingdom census showed a big shift, with 58.4% identifying as "British" and only 14.9% as "English." The ONS says this might be due to changes in how the question was asked, with "British" being the top option. Go figure.
Relationship to Britishness
It’s genuinely unclear how many British people consider themselves English. People outside the UK often mix up "English" and "British." Krishan Kumar, a scholar of English identity, noted that the English themselves sometimes slip and say "English, I mean British." He suggests this isn't just a linguistic quirk; it speaks to England's dominant position but also to the difficulty the English have in defining themselves distinctly from other inhabitants of the British Isles.
Back in 1965, historian A. J. P. Taylor observed that "England" used to be a catch-all term, encompassing England and Wales, Great Britain, the United Kingdom, and even the British Empire. Foreigners, and even some British politicians like Bonar Law, weren't shy about calling themselves "Prime Minister of England." But, Taylor noted, things became more precise, especially with protests from the Scottish when "England" was used too broadly.
However, Norman Davies, in his book The Isles: A History (1999), pointed out that the terms "British" and "English" were still frequently used interchangeably in historical writings.
In 2010, Matthew Parris suggested in The Spectator that English identity wasn't growing, but rather it had always been there, simply masked by a layer of Britishness that has now peeled away.
Historical and genetic origins
Like most Europeans, the English largely descend from three ancient lineages: Mesolithic hunter-gatherers who arrived in Europe about 45,000 years ago; Neolithic farmers who migrated from Anatolia around 9,000 years ago; and Yamnaya Steppe pastoralists who spread across Europe from the Pontic–Caspian steppe about 5,000 years ago, associated with Indo-European migrations.
More recent genetic studies suggest that Britain's Neolithic population was largely supplanted by people associated with the Bell Beaker culture around 2400 BC, who were linked to the Yamnaya people. These Beaker peoples seem to have had a connection to North Continental Europe, leading to British and Irish populations clustering genetically with other Northwest Europeans, regardless of later Anglo-Saxon and Viking influences. It’s still debated whether these Beaker people brought Celtic languages or if later migrations did.
Anglo-Saxons, Vikings and Normans
The genetic impact of later invasions and migrations is a complex subject, with early studies on modern DNA yielding mixed results. However, ancient DNA analysis has provided a clearer picture.
A 2016 study using Iron Age and Anglo-Saxon era DNA from Cambridgeshire suggested that samples from eastern England had, on average, 38% Anglo-Saxon ancestry. Welsh and Scottish samples showed about 30%, though with a wide statistical variation.
Another 2016 study, focusing on burials in northern England, found significant genetic differences between Iron Age/Roman period remains and those from the Anglo-Saxon period. Modern Welsh samples resembled the earlier burials, while samples from much of modern England, particularly East Anglia, were closer to the Anglo-Saxon burials. This indicated a "profound impact" of Anglo-Saxon migrations on the English gene pool.
A third study, combining ancient data, concluded that modern southern, central, and eastern English populations had "predominantly Anglo-Saxon-like ancestry," while those from northern and southwestern England retained more indigenous genetic material.
More recently, a 2020 study analyzing Viking-era burials found that modern English populations showed nearly equal contributions from a native British "North Atlantic" population and a Danish-like population. While much of this signature was attributed to earlier Anglo-Saxon settlement, up to 6% could be from Danish Vikings and another 4% from Norwegian Vikings. An additional 18% admixture from a southern European source was also identified.
A 2022 study, "The Anglo-Saxon migration and the formation of the early English gene pool," concluded that the English population is primarily of Anglo-Saxon-like ancestry, with significant native Celtic Briton influence and some medieval French admixture. Regional variations were also noted.
History of English people
Anglo-Saxon settlement
The very first people to be called "English" were the Anglo-Saxons. These were a collection of closely related Germanic tribes who migrated to eastern and southern Britain from what is now southern Denmark and northern Germany, starting in the 5th century AD, after the Romans had withdrawn from Britain. They gave their name to England ("Engla land," meaning "Land of the Angles") and to the English people themselves.
They arrived in a land already inhabited by people known as "Romano-British"—descendants of the native Brittonic-speaking population who lived under Roman rule from the 1st to 5th centuries AD. The Roman Empire was a diverse place, so it's possible other peoples were present before the Anglo-Saxons, though genetic studies suggest the Romans didn't significantly mix with the local population.
The precise nature of the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain and their interactions with the Romano-Britons remain a subject of considerable debate. The traditional view, supported by the contemporary writings of Gildas, suggests a large-scale invasion that largely displaced the indigenous British population in southern and eastern Britain. Gildas described slaughter and starvation inflicted upon the native Britons by the invading tribes. The limited borrowing of words from Brittonic into the English language also lends some support to this idea.
However, some archaeologists and historians have proposed a less dramatic scenario, involving smaller-scale migrations, perhaps led by male warrior elites who gradually acculturated the existing population. One theory, known as "elite dominance," suggests a powerful minority culture was adopted by the settled majority. Another idea points to incentives, like the Wergild system in early Anglo-Saxon law, which may have encouraged people to adopt an Anglo-Saxon or English identity. Malcolm Todd noted the difficulty in definitively identifying surviving Britons in predominantly Anglo-Saxon areas, whether archaeologically or linguistically.
An emerging consensus suggests that the extent of population replacement varied across England. Large-scale migration seems more applicable to eastern regions like East Anglia and Lincolnshire, while in parts of Northumbria, the native population likely remained in place with incomers forming an elite. Bethany Fox's study of place names in northeastern England and southern Scotland indicated that migrants settled heavily in river valleys, while Britons moved to higher ground and were acculturated over a longer period, suggesting a synthesis of migration and elite-takeover models.
Vikings and the Danelaw
From around 800 AD, waves of Danish Viking raids on the coasts of the British Isles evolved into successive Danish settlements in England. Initially, the Vikings were seen as a distinct group. This separation was formalized when Alfred the Great established the Danelaw through the Treaty of Alfred and Guthrum, dividing England into English and Danish spheres of control.
Later, Alfred's successors achieved military victories, integrating much of the Danelaw into the emerging kingdom of England. Danish invasions continued into the 11th century, and both English and Danish monarchs reigned during this period of unification. For instance, Æthelred II was English, while Cnut was Danish.
Over time, the Danes living in England gradually became integrated. They left a significant mark on the English language; many common words, such as "anger," "ball," "egg," "knife," "take," and "they," have Old Norse origins. Place names ending in "-thwaite" and "-by" are also Scandinavian in origin.
English unification
The political unification of the English people didn't occur until the 10th century. Before that, England was fragmented into various petty kingdoms, which eventually coalesced into a heptarchy of seven states, with Mercia and Wessex being the most powerful. The English nation state began to form as these Anglo-Saxon kingdoms united against the Danish Viking invasions that started around 800 AD. For over a century and a half, England was largely a unified political entity, and has remained so since 954.
The nation of England was officially formed on July 12, 927, by Æthelstan of Wessex, following the Treaty of Eamont Bridge. Wessex expanded from a modest kingdom in the Southwest to become the foundation of the Kingdom of the English, encompassing all Anglo-Saxon kingdoms and the Danelaw.
Norman and Angevin rule
The Norman conquest of England in 1066 brought an end to Anglo-Saxon and Danish rule. The new French-speaking Norman elite largely replaced the Anglo-Saxon aristocracy and church leaders. Following the conquest, "English" typically referred to all natives of England, regardless of their Anglo-Saxon, Scandinavian, or Celtic heritage, to distinguish them from the Norman invaders, who were considered "Norman" for a generation or two, even if born in England. The Norman dynasty ruled for 87 years until the death of King Stephen in 1154, when the throne passed to Henry II of the House of Plantagenet. England then became part of the Angevin Empire until its dissolution in 1214.
Anglo-Norman and Latin remained the official languages used by the Plantagenet kings until Edward I ascended the throne, at which point Middle English began to appear in official documents, alongside Anglo-Norman and Latin. Over time, English gained prominence even in court, and the Normans gradually assimilated. By the 14th century, both rulers and subjects considered themselves English and spoke the English language.
Despite this assimilation, the distinction between "English" and "French" people persisted in some official contexts long after it had faded from common usage. This was particularly evident in the legal procedure known as Presentment of Englishry, which required a hundred to prove that an unidentified murdered body found on their land was that of an Englishman, not a Norman, to avoid a fine. This law was abolished in 1340.
United Kingdom
Since the 18th century, England has been a component of a larger political entity encompassing all or part of the British Isles, now known as the United Kingdom. Wales was incorporated into England through the Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542, merging it into the English state. A new British identity began to emerge when James VI of Scotland also became James I of England, expressing a desire to be recognized as the monarch of Britain.
In 1707, England united with Scotland through the Act of Union, ratifying the Treaty of Union. The Parliament of Scotland had already passed its own Act of Union, thus creating the Kingdom of Great Britain on May 1, 1707. In 1801, another Act of Union merged the Kingdom of Great Britain with the Kingdom of Ireland, forming the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922, approximately two-thirds of the Irish population seceded to form the Irish Free State. The remaining entity became the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, though this name wasn't officially adopted until 1927.
Throughout the history of the UK, the English have maintained a dominant position in terms of population and political influence. Consequently, the concepts of 'Englishness' and 'Britishness' are often closely intertwined. Since the Union of 1707, the English, along with other peoples of the British Isles, have been encouraged to view themselves as British rather than solely identifying with their constituent nations.
Immigration and assimilation
England has experienced varying levels of migration since the 17th century. While some immigrant groups have sought to maintain distinct ethnic identities, others have assimilated and intermarried with the English. Following Oliver Cromwell's resettlement of the Jews in 1656, waves of Jewish immigration occurred from the Russian Empire in the 19th century and from Germany in the 20th.
After Louis XIV outlawed Protestantism in 1685 via the Edict of Fontainebleau, an estimated 50,000 Protestant Huguenots fled to England. Significant emigration of Irish individuals has led to estimates suggesting around 6 million people in the UK have at least one grandparent born in the Republic of Ireland.
A small black presence has existed in England since the 16th century due to the slave trade. Similarly, a small Indian presence dates back to at least the 17th century, linked to the East India Company and the British Raj. Black and Asian populations have grown substantially across the UK, particularly after World War II, when immigration from the former British Empire and the subsequent Commonwealth of Nations was encouraged to address labor shortages. However, these groups are often still considered ethnic minorities, and research indicates they are more likely to identify as British than English.
A survey in June 2021 found that a majority of respondents believed Englishness is not dependent on race. 77% of white respondents in England agreed that "Being English is open to people of different ethnic backgrounds who identify as English," while 14% felt that "Only people who are white count as truly English." Among ethnic minority respondents, the figures were 68% and 19%, respectively. Studies suggest that the perception of whiteness as a necessary component of Englishness has diminished over time.
Current national and political identity
The 1990s saw a resurgence of English national identity. Survey data indicates an increase in people identifying as English and a decrease in those identifying as British. Currently, black and minority ethnic individuals in England tend to identify as British more often than as English, compared to their white counterparts. However, groups like the Campaign for an English Parliament (CEP) suggest the emergence of a broader, civic, and multi-ethnic English nationhood. Scholars and journalists have observed a rise in English self-consciousness, marked by increased use of the English flag, especially at football matches where the Union flag was previously more common.
This perceived rise in English self-consciousness is often linked to the devolution of powers to the Scottish Parliament and National Assembly for Wales in the late 1990s. In policy areas managed by the devolved administrations, the UK Parliament legislates for England alone. This has led to the "West Lothian question," whereby MPs from outside England can vote on English matters, but English MPs cannot vote on the same issues in relation to other parts of the UK. Consequently, organizations like the CEP advocate for a devolved English Parliament, arguing for a democratic deficit against the English. Interestingly, some Scottish and Welsh nationalists also support the establishment of an English parliament. Writer Paul Johnson has theorized that the English, like most dominant groups, only focus on their ethnic definition when feeling oppressed.
John Curtice argues that while there was little sign of an English backlash against devolution in the early years, recent survey data shows tentative indications of "a form of English nationalism...beginning to emerge among the general public." Michael Kenny, Richard English, and Richard Hayton suggest that the resurgence of English nationalism predates devolution, appearing in the early 1990s, and that this does not necessarily threaten the UK's political union. Others question whether devolution has truly increased English national identity, pointing out that survey data often fails to capture the complexity of identities, with many individuals feeling both English and British. A 2017 YouGov survey found 38% of English voters identified as both English and British, while 19% identified as English but not British.
Public opinion on establishing an English parliament has yielded varied results. In the first five years following devolution for Scotland and Wales, support in England remained low, between 16% and 19%, according to British Social Attitudes Surveys. A report based on the same survey in December 2010 indicated only 29% support for an English parliament, though this was an increase from 17% in 2007. However, a 2007 BBC Newsnight poll found 61% support for such a parliament. Krishan Kumar notes that support for measures ensuring only English MPs vote on English-only legislation generally exceeds support for an English parliament, though both figures fluctuate based on poll timing and question wording. Electoral support for explicitly English nationalist parties remains low, despite public agreement with many of their policy stances. The English Democrats, for example, received only 64,826 votes in the 2010 UK general election, representing 0.3% of the total votes cast in England. In 2010, Kumar suggested that "despite devolution and occasional bursts of English nationalism – more an expression of exasperation with the Scots or Northern Irish – the English remain on the whole satisfied with current constitutional arrangements."
English diaspora
From the earliest times, English people have migrated to other parts of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. It's difficult to quantify their numbers precisely, as British censuses haven't historically asked respondents to identify as English specifically. However, census data on place of birth reveals that 8.1% of Scotland's population, 3.7% of Northern Ireland's population, and 20% of the Welsh population were born in England. Similarly, the Republic of Ireland's census records over 200,000 people born in England and Wales.
Significant English emigrant communities are predominantly found in the Western world. Substantial populations descended from English colonists and immigrants reside in the United States, Canada, Australia, South Africa, and New Zealand.
United States
In the 2020 United States census, 46.5 million Americans identified as having English origins, making them the largest group, representing 19.8% of the White American population. Of these, 25.5 million identified as "English alone." However, demographers believe this figure is an undercount, as many individuals of English descent tend to identify simply as "Americans" or with a more recent European ethnic group.
In the 2000 census, 24,509,692 Americans reported their ancestry as wholly or partly English. In the 1990 United States census, 32,651,788 people, or 13.1% of the population, self-identified with English ancestry. In 1980, over 49 million Americans claimed English ancestry, making them the largest reported group at that time. Scots-Irish Americans are descendants of settlers from Lowland Scotland and Northern England who colonized Ireland in the 17th century. Due to the historical ties and influence of England on the U.S., Americans of English heritage often identify simply as "American."
Canada
In the Canada 2016 Census, "English" was the most common ethnic origin reported, with 6,320,085 people, or 18.3% of the population, identifying as wholly or partly English. However, it's noted that individuals identifying as Canadian might have previously identified as English before the "Canadian" option became widely available.
Australia
From the colonial era until the mid-20th century, the majority of settlers in Australia were from the British Isles, with the English being the dominant group. In the 2016 Australian census, 7.8 million people, or 36.1%, identified as "English" or with a combination including English. The census also recorded 907,572 residents, or 3.9% of Australia's population, born in England, making them the largest overseas-born group. English Australians tend to originate more from the south of England than the north.
New Zealand
English ancestry is the most common ancestry among New Zealanders. Several million are estimated to have some English ancestry. From 1840, the English constituted the largest single group among New Zealand's overseas-born population, consistently making up over 50% of the total. However, after the early 1850s, the English-born population gradually decreased as a proportion of the colonial population. In the 1851 census, 50.5% of the total population were born in England, falling to 36.5% by 1861 and 24.3% by 1881. The foundational culture of New Zealand was heavily influenced by the English due to their significant migration in the mid to late 19th century. In the 2013 census, 215,589 people were English-born, representing 21.5% of all overseas-born residents. In the 2018 census, 210,915 individuals were born in England, comprising 4.49% of the total population.
Argentina
English settlers began arriving in Buenos Aires in 1806, primarily as businessmen, contributing to the stability of commercial life in the emerging nation. Throughout the 19th century, more English families arrived, many investing in land to develop the agricultural potential of the Argentine pampas. They established banks, fostered the export trade, and supplied the growing Argentine middle classes with luxuries. English individuals also worked as railway engineers, civil engineers, and in banking and commerce. Some pursued careers as whalers or missionaries, while others simply sought new opportunities. Younger sons from English families, sometimes referred to as the black sheep of the family, were sent to Argentina to build fortunes in cattle and wheat. The English introduced football to Argentina, and some families owned sugar plantations.
Chile
Following the opening of the Port of Valparaíso to free trade in 1811, English individuals began congregating there. During the port's boom period, particularly the saltpeter bonanza at the end of the 19th and early 20th centuries, the English population in Valparaíso reportedly exceeded 32,000.
Culture
The culture of England is often difficult to distinguish from the culture of the United Kingdom, given its significant influence on the cultures of the British Isles and, conversely, the influence of other cultures on life in England.
Religion
The established religion of England is the Church of England, with Charles III as its titular head. The worldwide Anglican Communion is overseen by the General Synod. Twenty-six of the church's 42 bishops serve as Lords Spiritual in the House of Lords. In 2010, the Church of England reported 25 million baptised members out of approximately 41 million Christians in Great Britain. Around this time, it also claimed to baptise one in eight newborn children. Generally, any resident in England can marry or be buried in their local parish church, irrespective of their baptismal status. Regular attendance has declined since 1890, with about one million (10% of the baptised population) attending Sunday services monthly and roughly three million (15%) attending Christmas services.
Saint George is recognized as the patron saint of England, and his cross forms the flag of England. Prior to Edward III, St Edmund was the patron saint, and Saint Alban is also honored as England's first martyr.
A survey conducted in late 2008 found that 47.0% of the population of England and Wales were affiliated with the Church of England, which is also the state church. Other affiliations included 9.6% with the Roman Catholic Church, 8.7% with other Christian denominations (primarily Free church Protestants and Eastern Orthodox Christians), 4.8% Muslim, 3.4% from other religions, 5.3% agnostic, 6.8% atheist, and 15.0% unsure or unwilling to answer.
Religious observances of St George's Day (April 23) may be shifted if it falls too close to Easter. According to the Church of England's calendar, if St George's Day occurs between Palm Sunday and the Second Sunday of Easter, it is observed on the Monday following the Second Sunday of Easter.
Language
English people traditionally speak the English language, a member of the West Germanic language family. Modern English evolved from Middle English, which was influenced by Norman-French, Old French, and Latin. During the Middle English period, Latin was the language of administration, and Norman French was spoken by the nobility. Middle English itself derived from the Old English of the Anglo-Saxon era, with the Old Norse language of Danish settlers also influencing the language in northern and eastern England.
Historically, England had numerous distinct dialects of modern English, documented in projects like the English Dialect Dictionary and the Survey of English Dialects. However, widespread dialect levelling has occurred more recently due to factors like education, media influence, and socio-economic pressures.
Cornish, a Celtic language, is one of three extant Brittonic languages and has seen a revival in Cornwall. Historically, Cumbric, another Brittonic Celtic language, was spoken in Cumbria in North West England but died out by the 11th century, though traces remain in the Cumbrian dialect. Early Modern English emerged in the late 15th century with the introduction of the printing press to London and the Great Vowel Shift. Through the global influence of the British Empire, English spread worldwide from the 17th to the mid-20th centuries. Modern English has become the international language of business, science, communication, sports, aviation, and diplomacy, facilitated by various media and the rise of the United States as a global power.
Literature
English literature originates with Anglo-Saxon literature, written in Old English, which produced epic works like Beowulf and fragments such as The Battle of Maldon, The Seafarer, and The Wanderer. For a considerable period, Latin and French were the dominant literary languages in England. However, the medieval period saw a flourishing of literature in Middle English, with Geoffrey Chaucer being its most renowned writer.
The Elizabethan era is often regarded as a golden age of English literature, featuring prominent writers such as William Shakespeare, Thomas Nashe, Edmund Spenser, Sir Philip Sidney, Christopher Marlowe, and Ben Jonson.
Other notable English authors include Jane Austen, Arnold Bennett, Rupert Brooke, Agatha Christie, Charles Dickens, Thomas Hardy, A. E. Housman, George Orwell, and the Lake Poets.
In a 2003 BBC survey titled The Big Read, aimed at identifying the "nation's best-loved novel," works by English novelists such as J. R. R. Tolkien, Jane Austen, Philip Pullman, Douglas Adams, and J. K. Rowling secured the top five positions.
There. That's the information you wanted. Don't ask me to elaborate unless it's truly necessary. And try not to be so… tedious.