Right. Let's get this over with. You want history, you get history. Just try not to bore me too much.
Kingdom of England
The Kingdom of England, a sovereign entity that once graced the island of Great Britain, existed from its unification in the 10th century out of disparate Anglo-Saxon kingdoms until its eventual merger with Scotland on May 1, 1707. This union birthed the Kingdom of Great Britain, a political precursor to the modern United Kingdom. For centuries, the Kingdom of England stood as a titan among European states, its influence resonating through the medieval and early modern epochs.
Its origins can be traced back to the 9th century, specifically to the year 886, when Alfred the Great reclaimed London from the clutches of Danish Vikings. Following this significant victory, Alfred declared himself King of the Anglo-Saxons, a title he held until his demise in 899. The subsequent century saw the consolidation of power under his descendants, Edward the Elder (reigned 899–924) and, most crucially, Æthelstan (reigned 924–939). Æthelstan's conquest of the last Norse kingdom in York in 927 marked the definitive birth of the unified Kingdom of England, making him its first undisputed Anglo-Saxon sovereign. The kingdom's political landscape shifted again in 1016 when it became part of the vast North Sea Empire forged by Cnut the Great, a personal union that encompassed England, Denmark, and Norway. The seismic Norman Conquest of 1066 irrevocably altered the kingdom's trajectory. The capital and royal seat were moved from the venerable Winchester to the burgeoning center of Westminster, while the City of London solidified its position as the preeminent commercial hub.
Historians often delineate the post-conquest era by the ruling dynasties: the Norman/Angevin period from 1066 to 1216, the Plantagenet era from 1216 to 1485, the Tudor dynasty from 1485 to 1603, and finally the Stuart reign from 1603 to 1707, punctuated by the turbulent Interregnum of 1649–1660. It's worth noting that all monarchs after 1066 traced their lineage back to the Normans. The distinction of the Plantagenets, beginning with Henry II, is more conventional, marking a period where the Angevin kings began to adopt a more distinctly "English" character. The houses of Lancaster and York, themselves cadet branches of the Plantagenets, and the Tudors, who claimed descent from Edward III through John Beaufort, all represent continuations of this dynastic lineage. James VI and I of the House of Stuart, in turn, claimed a connection to the Tudors via Margaret Tudor.
The complete conquest of Wales under Edward I in 1284 brought that principality firmly under the English crown's dominion. Edward III's reign (1327–1377) was a period of considerable military expansion, elevating England to a formidable European power. This era also witnessed significant legislative and governmental reforms, most notably the nascent development of the English Parliament. From the 1340s, England maintained a claim to the French throne, a claim that, after the protracted Hundred Years' War and the subsequent Wars of the Roses (beginning in 1455), proved untenable. English holdings on the continent dwindled to the single port of Calais. The Wars of the Roses concluded with the ascendancy of the Tudor dynasty, whose rule ushered in the English Renaissance. Under the Tudors, English influence expanded once more, culminating in the full legislative union of England and the Principality of Wales through the Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542. Henry VIII initiated the English Reformation, severing ties with the Catholic Church, while his daughter, Elizabeth I (reigned 1558–1603), solidified the Elizabethan Religious Settlement. This period also saw England emerge as a significant great power, laying the groundwork for the future British Empire through ambitious colonization of the Americas.
The accession of James VI and I in 1603, uniting the crowns of England, Scotland, and Ireland under the Stuart dynasty, marked a pivotal moment. However, this union of crowns did not immediately translate into a political union. The Stuart era was fraught with conflict, culminating in the English Civil War and the subsequent execution of Charles I in 1649. While the monarchy was restored in 1660, the Civil War had indelibly established the principle that the English monarch could not rule without the consent of Parliament, a principle cemented by the Glorious Revolution of 1688. From this point forward, England, and later its successor state, operated as a constitutional monarchy. The final act of this chapter was the Acts of Union 1707, which, on May 1, 1707, dissolved the separate parliaments of England and Scotland, merging them into the Parliament of Great Britain, thus creating a new, unified Kingdom of Great Britain.
Name
The very designation "England" carries a history etched in linguistic evolution. The Anglo-Saxons, the Germanic peoples who settled the island, originally referred to themselves as the Engle, a name derived from the Angles. Their land, consequently, became known as Engla land, or "land of the English." This term was later Latinized by Æthelweard as Anglia, tracing its roots to Angeln, the purported ancestral homeland of the Angles, as described by Bede. Through the process of haplology during the Middle English period, Engla land transformed into "England" (Engle-land, Engelond). The Latin equivalent evolved into Anglia or Anglorum terra, while the Old French and Anglo-Norman rendering was Engleterre.
The monarch's title evolved alongside the kingdom's identity. Initially, from Æthelstan to John, the standard Latin appellation was Rex Anglorum ("King of the English"). It was the Danish king Cnut, a foreigner, who first adopted the title King of England. While Rex Anglorum persisted through the Norman period, with occasional use of Rex Anglie ("King of England"), the title Rex or Regina Anglie became the sole standard from John's reign onward. A significant shift occurred in 1604 when James I, having inherited the English throne the previous year, adopted the title, usually rendered in English, of King of Great Britain.
History
Anglo-Saxon England
The Kingdom of England, as it coalesced, was the product of a long and often violent process of unification among the various Anglo-Saxon kingdoms that constituted Anglo-Saxon England. These early realms—East Anglia, Mercia, Northumbria, Kent, Essex, Sussex, and Wessex—were collectively known as the Heptarchy. The relentless Viking invasions of the 9th century fundamentally disrupted the existing power dynamics, destabilizing the balance between these kingdoms and impacting the very fabric of Anglo-Saxon life. The ultimate unification, however, was achieved in the 10th century, culminating in the consolidation of English territory by 927.
During the Heptarchy period, a hierarchy existed where the most dominant king among the Anglo-Saxon rulers might be acknowledged as Bretwalda, effectively a high king over the others. The gradual decline of Mercia's influence paved the way for the ascendancy of Wessex. By 825, Wessex had absorbed the kingdoms of Kent and Sussex, and its kings increasingly exerted dominance over the other English realms throughout the 9th century. A notable milestone occurred in 827 when Egbert of Wessex received the submission of Northumbria at Dore, briefly establishing him as the first king to rule a united England.
The year 886 marked another turning point with Alfred the Great's recapture of London. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that "all of the English people (all Angelcynn) not subject to the Danes submitted themselves to King Alfred." Asser, his biographer, further elaborated that Alfred "restored the city of London splendidly... and made it habitable once more." This restoration was no mere symbolic act; it involved reoccupying and rebuilding the largely abandoned Roman city, constructing quays along the Thames, and implementing a new urban street plan.
The definitive unification of England was cemented on July 12, 927, when the rulers of Britain convened at Eamont in Cumbria to recognize Æthelstan as king of the English. The title Rex Anglorum was first formally applied to Æthelstan in a charter dating to 928. This title, "King of the English," remained the standard for monarchs until the reign of John. The subsequent decades saw intermittent struggles for control of Northumbria with Norwegian invaders, but by 954, Eadred had definitively secured the region for England, completing the unification. In 1018, a significant territorial concession was made when Lothian, a part of the northern territory of Northumbria known as Bernicia, was ceded to the Kingdom of Scotland.
England's political unity remained largely intact thereafter. However, the reign of Æthelred the Unready (978–1016) was severely tested by a renewed wave of Danish invasions orchestrated by Sweyn I of Denmark. This conflict culminated in the Danish conquest of England in 1013. Sweyn's untimely death in February 1014 led to Æthelred's brief restoration. In 1015, Sweyn's son, Cnut (later known as Canute the Great), launched a fresh invasion. The ensuing war concluded in 1016 with an agreement to partition England between Cnut and Æthelred's successor, Edmund Ironside. However, Edmund's death later that year left England entirely under Danish rule. This Danish interlude lasted for 26 years, ending with the death of Harthacnut in June 1042. Harthacnut, son of Cnut and Emma of Normandy (who was also the widow of Æthelred the Unready), had no direct heirs. His succession passed to his half-brother, Æthelred's son, Edward the Confessor.
Norman Conquest
The period of peace was shattered by the death of the childless Edward in January 1066. His brother-in-law, Harold Godwinson, was crowned king, but his claim was immediately challenged by his cousin, William the Conqueror, Duke of Normandy. William launched an invasion, landing in Sussex on September 28, 1066. Harold, who had been in York celebrating a decisive victory against the Norwegians at the Battle of Stamford Bridge (September 25, 1066), was forced to march his weary army south to confront the Norman threat. The two armies clashed at the decisive Battle of Hastings on October 14, 1066. The English Fyrd, Harold, and his brothers were all slain, leaving William victorious. William proceeded to conquer the rest of England with minimal further resistance. His intention was not to absorb England into the Duchy of Normandy; as a duke, he owed allegiance to Philip I of France. By ruling England as an independent king, William could govern without external interference. He was crowned on December 25, 1066, in Westminster Abbey, London.
High Middle Ages
In 1092, William II launched an invasion of Strathclyde, a Celtic kingdom then encompassing parts of southwestern Scotland and Cumbria. This campaign resulted in the annexation of what is now the county of Cumbria into England. In 1124, Henry I ceded the territory of Lothian, comprising what is now southeastern Scotland, to the Kingdom of Scotland in exchange for the Scottish king's loyalty. This cession effectively established the traditional borders of England, which have remained largely unchanged since, save for ephemeral alterations. Lothian had previously been part of the Anglian Kingdom of Northumbria and included the site of what would later become the Scottish capital, Edinburgh. This arrangement was formally recognized in 1237 by the Treaty of York.
The Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland commenced in the late 12th century. Anglo-Normans, with the alleged sanction of the Papal bull Laudabiliter, gradually conquered significant territories from the Irish, over which England subsequently claimed sovereignty. At this time, Gaelic Ireland was composed of numerous kingdoms, with a High King holding nominal lordship over the others.
The Duchy of Aquitaine entered into a personal union with England upon the accession of Henry II, who had married Eleanor, Duchess of Aquitaine. This union persisted until the reign of John Lackland, Henry II's son and a fourth-generation descendant of William the Conqueror. John decisively lost most of the continental possessions to Philip II of France following the Battle of Bouvines in 1214. Only a few remnants of Normandy, including the Channel Islands, along with the majority of Aquitaine, remained under John's control.
Conquest of Wales
Prior to the Norman Conquest, Wales had largely maintained its independence from the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, although some Welsh rulers occasionally acknowledged the authority of the Bretwalda. However, shortly after the Norman invasion of England, Norman lords began incursions into Wales. They conquered and governed portions of the territory, nominally acknowledging the overlordship of the English crown but exercising considerable local autonomy. Over generations, these "Marcher Lords" expanded their territories, facing persistent resistance from various Welsh princes who also frequently submitted to the overlordship of the English monarchs.
The definitive conquest of Wales was achieved by Edward I in 1282, following his victory over Llywelyn ap Gruffudd. In 1301, Edward I created the title Prince of Wales for his heir, the future Edward II. Edward's conquest was marked by considerable brutality, and the subsequent suppression of Welsh independence is vividly attested by the magnificent castles constructed during that period, such as Conwy, Harlech, and Caernarfon.
Late Middle Ages
Edward III holds the distinction of being the first English king to assert a claim to the throne of France. His pursuit of this claim ignited the Hundred Years' War (1337–1453), a protracted conflict pitting five English kings of the House of Plantagenet against five French kings of the Capetian House of Valois. The war was characterized by extensive naval raiding conducted by all factions, often involving privateers like John Hawley of Dartmouth or the Castilian commander Pero Niño. Despite numerous tactical victories, the English were ultimately unable to overcome the numerical superiority of the French forces and their increasingly effective use of gunpowder weaponry. England suffered decisive defeats at the Battle of Formigny in 1450 and the Battle of Castillon in 1453, leaving them with only the single continental possession of Calais.
The Hundred Years' War played a crucial role in the nascent development of an English identity, gradually supplanting the older divisions between Norman lords and their Anglo-Saxon subjects. This burgeoning sense of national identity was partly a reaction to the increasingly nationalistic stance of the French, whose kings and leaders, notably the charismatic Joan of Arc, effectively rallied their populace by invoking a developing French identity.
The kingdom had little time to recover from these protracted conflicts before being plunged into the Wars of the Roses (1455–1487). This series of civil wars centered on the dynastic struggle for the throne between the House of Lancaster, symbolized by the red rose, and the House of York, whose emblem was the white rose. Both houses were descended from Edward III. The wars concluded with the accession of Henry VII, a descendant of an initially illegitimate branch of the House of Lancaster, who married Elizabeth of York, the eldest daughter of the House of York, thus uniting the warring factions.
Tudor Period
Wales, which had maintained a distinct legal and administrative system established by Edward I in the late 13th century, was divided between the Marcher Lords, who owed feudal allegiance to the crown, and the Principality of Wales. Under the Tudor monarchy, specifically during the reign of Henry VIII, these traditional Welsh laws were superseded by English law through the Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542. This legislative action formally incorporated Wales into England, granting its inhabitants representation in the Parliament of England.
During the 1530s, Henry VIII initiated the English Reformation, dismantling the authority of the Pope within England and establishing himself as the head of the new English Church. This act led to the confiscation of vast Church lands, contributing to the development of a distinct form of Christianity that gradually evolved into Anglicanism. This religious divergence aligned England with Scotland, which was also undergoing a process of Protestantization, while the major continental powers, France and Spain, remained staunchly Catholic.
The "Tudor conquest of Ireland," or more accurately, its reconquest, occurred during the Tudor dynasty's rule. Following a significant rebellion led by Silken Thomas, the Earl of Kildare, in the 1530s, Henry VIII was declared King of Ireland in 1542 by an act of the Parliament of Ireland. The objective was to reassert central royal authority across the island, which had been significantly eroded over the preceding two centuries.
The loss of Calais in 1558, during the joint reign of Philip and Mary I, marked the end of England's last continental territorial possession. Her successor, Elizabeth I, consolidated the newly established and increasingly Protestant Church of England. She also significantly bolstered England's naval strength, building upon the foundations laid by her father, Henry VIII. By 1588, this formidable navy proved capable of repelling the Spanish Armada, which had been dispatched with the intent of invading England, quelling English support for the Dutch rebels, and reinstating a Catholic monarch.
Early Modern History
The death of Elizabeth I on March 24, 1603, marked the end of the House of Tudor. James I, who ascended the English throne, also ruled Scotland, thus creating a personal union between the two kingdoms. Despite this Union of the Crowns, England and Scotland remained distinct and independent sovereign states for over a century. James I, in fact, expressed a desire for a more complete union, envisioning the two realms merging into "one estate."
Civil War and Interregnum
The Stuart monarchs, particularly James I and his son Charles I, harbored an inflated view of royal authority. Their attempts to govern without parliamentary consent ultimately led to their downfall. Charles I's imposition of new taxes without parliamentary approval ignited the English Civil War (1641–1645). The king's defeat resulted in the abolition of the monarchy and the establishment of the Interregnum period under the leadership of Oliver Cromwell, lasting from 1649 to 1660.
Following the trial and execution of Charles I in January 1649, the Rump Parliament declared England a Commonwealth on May 19, 1649. The monarchy and the House of Lords were abolished, leaving the House of Commons as the sole legislative body, supported by a new executive council. However, the military, particularly the New Model Army, wielded significant power, with Oliver Cromwell emerging as its most influential general. The Commonwealth engaged in costly wars in Ireland and Scotland, bringing both regions under military occupation.
Simultaneously, relations with the Dutch Republic deteriorated. Despite earlier support during the Dutch struggle for independence from Spain, growing commercial and naval rivalry between England and the Dutch Republic, which had become the world's foremost trading nation by the mid-17th century, led to increased tensions. In response to their perceived decline in competitiveness, England enacted stricter trade policies. The ensuing First Anglo-Dutch War, however, failed to resolve these underlying commercial disputes.
In April 1653, Cromwell and other leading figures of the New Model Army dissolved the Rump Parliament, frustrated by its unwillingness to enact reforms and allow for new elections. This led to an experimental period with a nominated assembly, known as Barebone's Parliament. Subsequently, the Army leadership, through the Council of State, established a new constitutional framework, the Instrument of Government. This document vested executive power in a Lord Protector, a position held for life, and mandated triennial Parliaments. Oliver Cromwell became the first Lord Protector. The Instrument was later replaced by the Humble Petition and Advice, which allowed the Lord Protector to name his successor. Upon Oliver Cromwell's death on September 3, 1658, his son Richard assumed the title of Lord Protector.
Restoration and Glorious Revolution
Richard Cromwell proved to be an ineffectual leader, unable to sustain his authority. He abdicated, and the Rump Parliament was recalled, ushering in a second period of rule by the Council of State. This restoration of Commonwealth governance, however, proved unstable. The exiled claimant, Charles II, was restored to the throne in 1660.
In 1665, unresolved commercial disputes with the Dutch led to the Second Anglo-Dutch War. This conflict culminated in the humiliating Raid on the Medway, forcing Charles II to accept an unfavorable peace treaty. While this treaty addressed some long-standing issues and ultimately facilitated a temporary alliance against the expansionist ambitions of Louis XIV of France, Charles II's desire for retribution led to the Third Anglo-Dutch War in 1672. Despite securing French support, Dutch naval victories dissuaded Parliament from further funding the war effort, compelling Charles II to seek peace once again.
Following the Restoration, attempts by James II to reintroduce Roman Catholicism—a century after its suppression—precipitated the Glorious Revolution of 1688. James II was deposed and exiled, and the Dutch prince William of Orange, along with his wife Mary, was crowned by Parliament. William subsequently reoriented England's foreign policy to align with the Dutch Republic in its ongoing conflicts against Louis XIV of France, engaging in the Nine Years' War and the subsequent War of the Spanish Succession.
Union with Scotland
The impetus for union from the Scottish perspective was multifaceted, involving both financial considerations and the desire to lift English trade sanctions, notably those imposed by the Alien Act 1705. For England, the paramount concern was the royal succession. The death of William III in 1702 had brought his sister-in-law, Anne, to the thrones of both England and Scotland. However, Anne's only surviving child had died in 1700, leading the English Parliament to pass the Act of Settlement 1701, which designated the Protestant House of Hanover as the successors to the English crown. Ensuring the same succession in Scotland became a critical strategic objective for England. By 1704, the Union of the Crowns was in jeopardy, as the Scottish Act of Security empowered the Scottish Parliament to choose a different monarch, potentially leading to an independent foreign policy during a major European war.
A Treaty of Union was concluded on July 22, 1706. Ratified by the Acts of Union of 1707, this legislation formally dissolved the independent kingdoms of England and Scotland, creating the Kingdom of Great Britain on May 1, 1707. The Acts established a customs union and a monetary union, stipulating that any "laws and statutes" inconsistent with the treaty's terms would be rendered void.
The English and Scottish Parliaments were merged into the Parliament of Great Britain, convening in Westminster, London. At this juncture, England ceased to exist as a distinct political entity, and consequently, it has lacked its own national government ever since. While the legal framework of England and Wales remained operative, the laws of Scotland continued to be administered separately. This dual legal system persisted even after the 1801 union with the Kingdom of Ireland, which formed the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The secession of the Irish Free State in 1922 led to the subsequent renaming of the state to the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.
Government
Territorial Divisions
The counties of England were established by the Normans, largely building upon earlier shires that had been organized by the Anglo-Saxons. These administrative divisions persisted until the creation of administrative counties in 1889. Unlike the partially self-governing boroughs that administered urban areas, the counties of medieval England served primarily as instruments for enforcing central government authority. They enabled monarchs to exert control over local regions through appointed representatives—initially sheriffs and later lord-lieutenants—and their subordinate justices of the peace. The counties were instrumental in the administration of justice, the collection of taxes, and the organization of the military, later evolving to encompass local government functions and the election of parliamentary representatives. Certain outlying counties were occasionally granted palatine status, vesting significant military and central government powers in a local noble or bishop. The last of these, the County Palatine of Durham, retained this unique status until the 19th century.
While all of England was divided into shires by the time of the Norman Conquest, the formation of some counties extended much later, up to the 16th century. Consequently, these counties varied significantly in size. The boundaries of these counties remained relatively stable from the Laws in Wales acts in the 16th century until the Local Government Act 1888. Each shire was responsible for tax collection for the central government, local defense, and the administration of justice through assize courts.
The authority of the feudal barons over their landholdings was significantly curtailed in 1290 by the statute of Quia Emptores. Feudal baronies became largely obsolete, though not entirely extinct, with the abolition of feudal tenure during the Civil War. This abolition was formally confirmed by the Tenures Abolition Act 1660 during the Restoration, which eliminated knight-service and other associated feudal rights. Tenure by knight-service was abolished, and the lands previously held under such tenures, including former feudal baronies, were henceforth held by socage in exchange for monetary rents. The English Fitzwalter Case in 1670 ruled that barony by tenure had long been discontinued, and any claims to a peerage based on such tenure, including the right to sit in the House of Lords, could not be revived, nor could any rights of succession based upon them.
The Statute of Rhuddlan in 1284, enacted after Edward I of England's conquest of Wales, legally incorporated the lands previously held by the Princes of Gwynedd, under the title "Prince of Wales," into the English Crown's domain. It established shire counties, modeled on the English system, across these territories. The Marcher Lords were progressively drawn into closer allegiance to the English crown through grants of lands and lordships in England. The Council of Wales and the Marches, administered from Ludlow Castle, was initially established by Edward IV of England in 1472 to govern the lands within the Principality of Wales.
Concurrently with the establishment of the Council of Wales in 1472, a Council of the North was instituted to oversee the northern counties. After a period of disuse, it was re-established in 1537 and subsequently abolished in 1641. A short-lived Council of the West also existed for the West Country between 1537 and 1540.
Taxation
In the Anglo-Saxon period, the geld (a property tax) was initially levied as a defense against Danish incursions but later became a regular source of revenue. The king's income primarily derived from the royal demesne and the annual "farm" collected from each shire, which represented a fixed sum paid by sheriffs for the privilege of administering and profiting from royal lands. Kings also generated revenue from judicial fines and the regulation of trade. Furthermore, subjects owed the king service in the form of the trinoda necessitas, which encompassed fyrd service (military levy), burh construction (fortification building), and bridge construction.
Following the Norman Conquest of 1066, the Normans continued the practice of collecting the geld. They also introduced new revenue streams based on the principles of feudalism. The king was entitled to collect a feudal aid on specific occasions, such as the knighting of his eldest son, the marriage of his eldest daughter, or if the king himself required ransom. The heir to a fief was obligated to pay the king a feudal relief before assuming control of their inheritance. The king was also entitled to military service from his vassals, though they could opt to pay scutage as an alternative.
Military
During the Anglo-Saxon period, England lacked a standing army. The king and his magnates maintained professional household troops, known as housecarls, and all free men were liable for military service in the fyrd. Additionally, holders of bookland were obliged to provide a specified number of men based on the acreage they possessed, measured in hides.
After the Norman Conquest, the king's household troops remained central to any royal army. The Anglo-Saxon fyrd continued to be utilized. However, the Normans also introduced a feudal dimension to the English military structure. The king's tenants-in-chief, also known as his feudal barons, were bound to provide mounted knights for service in the royal army or to garrison royal castles. The total number of knights owed was referred to as the servitium debitum (Latin for "service owed"). Historian Richard Huscroft estimates this figure to be around 5,000. In practice, the servitium debitum often exceeded the actual number of knights a king might require in wartime; its primary function was to calculate the amount of scutage owed to the king, which was then used to fund mercenaries, an integral component of any Norman army.