The Continental Army in the American Revolutionary War wasn't just a monolithic entity. It was a complex organism, a necessary evil for a fledgling nation trying to shed its imperial skin. To manage its sprawling, often chaotic operations, the army was carved up into seven distinct regional or territorial departments. It was a decentralization measure, a way to keep the reins from slipping entirely through the fingers of a distant Continental Congress. You see, the regiment was the bedrock, the largest standing unit. Anything beyond that, anything needing a more unified command structure over multiple regiments, required a departmental headquarters. While brigades, divisions, and the rather grandly named field armies existed, they were ephemeral, temporary constructs. They didn't necessarily encompass all the units within a department, nor did they typically include the vital, often overlooked, support elements like supply depots from the Quartermaster General's Department or the essential, if grim, facilities of the Hospital Department. And the militia? They were usually left to the whim of the department commander. A rather precarious arrangement, wouldn’t you say?
Departmental Organization
This section, frankly, is a mess. It barely scratches the surface and offers no proof. It's like trying to read a map drawn in charcoal during an earthquake. If you're going to talk about something as fundamental as how an army was structured, you need evidence. Actual sources, not just whispers and assumptions. If you can't even manage that, then perhaps the whole endeavor is a waste of my time. (June 2020)
The troops stationed within a department formed its garrison. [1] If this garrison grew substantial enough, it might be coalesced into a field army. In such cases, the commander of the territorial department and the commander of the field army were one and the same. The commanding general of the Northern Department, for instance, was also the commanding general of the Northern Army. Similarly, the Southern Department’s commander led the Southern Army. However, armies didn't always bear geographical labels. The one under Washington's direct command, containing the bulk of the Continental Army's units, was simply designated the Main Army. Each department operated under a semi-autonomous commanding officer, typically a commanding general, who ultimately answered to Washington himself, the General and Commander-in-Chief. The Continental Congress acted through these department commanders, a conduit for their directives and their scrutiny.
Appointment of Department Commanders
The Continental Congress held the ultimate authority over appointing and dismissing department commanders. This power, however, was often tempered by the exigencies of war. When pressing needs arose, George Washington or the executive authority of a state might step in, appointing a temporary commander until Congress could ratify the decision. Many of these interim appointments were subsequently confirmed by the Congress. This practice, alongside the oversight of the Continental Army and Navy by the war and marine committees of the Congress, laid the groundwork for the civilian control of military affairs that would later be enshrined in the Articles of Confederation and the United States Constitution.
Relations Between the Departments and the States
The department commanders and their staff also maintained direct working relationships with the state governments within their respective jurisdictions. Initially, these were the provisional governing bodies that emerged in 1774 and 1775. This collaboration continued even after 1776, when states transitioned from Provincial Congresses and Conventions to more permanent governments operating under written constitutions. Typically, departments were led by major generals. Washington, as a full general, held the highest rank in the Continental Army throughout the war. [Citation needed].
Departments
There were generally seven territorial departments, though their boundaries were fluid and not all were active concurrently.
Canadian Department
The creation of the Canadian Department was born from the ambitious aspirations of the Continental Congress and certain American factions to incorporate the British province of Quebec, often referred to simply as "Canada," into the nascent union. This grand design ultimately faltered. While the Americans managed to capture Montreal in November 1775 and establish their command center at Château Ramezay, complete control over the region remained elusive. The Canadian Department was officially carved out from the New York Department on January 17, 1776. [3] Following the unsuccessful Invasion of Canada, all remaining troops were withdrawn to Fort Ticonderoga in New York. The Canadian Department was formally dissolved on July 8, 1776. [4]
Eastern Department
The Eastern Department coalesced around the states that had initially provided troops for the Siege of Boston. In a sense, it predated the formal establishment of the Continental Army. This department essentially encompassed New England, comprising New Hampshire, Massachusetts (which then included the territory now known as Maine), Rhode Island, and Connecticut. For the first year of the conflict, the field army associated with this department, under General Washington's command, was referred to variously as the Continental Army, the Grand Army, [5] or the Main Army. The Eastern Department was officially constituted on April 4, 1776, [6] when the Main Army, led by Washington, relocated from Boston to New York City. Notable engagements within this department included the Siege of Boston in 1775–1776 and the Battle of Rhode Island in 1779. The department ceased to exist in November 1779. [7]
Northern Department
The Northern Department evolved from the New York Department, which was established on June 25, 1775. [8] This earlier entity was sometimes designated the Separate Department [5] and its stationed troops were known as the Separate Army. [9] Initially, the New York Department's boundaries mirrored those of the Province of New York. Its purview briefly extended to include Canada during the early stages of the Invasion of Canada, but Canada was subsequently established as its own department on January 17, 1776. [3] When the Middle Department was established on February 27, 1776, the New York Department was absorbed into it. The initial configuration of the Middle Department encompassed all of the colonies of New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, and [Maryland]. [10] However, New York's inclusion in the Middle Department was short-lived, lasting less than two months. In April 1776, the Main Army moved from Boston to New York City, and Washington took command of the Middle Department. The Northern Department was formally constituted from the Middle Department on April 14, 1776. [11] The reorganized Northern Department was restricted to the portion of New York north of the Hudson Highlands, along with the territory that would become the state of Vermont. [11] The field army associated with the Northern Department was known as the Northern Army. [12] Military actions in this department extended beyond Saratoga, with fighting continuing in the Northern Department until the war's conclusion. The department was eventually disbanded following the death of its final commander, General Alexander, in Albany on January 15, 1783. [7]
Highlands Department
The Highlands Department, though the smallest in terms of geographical area, was of immense strategic importance. Technically a subdivision of the Middle Department, [2] its critical position earned it de facto independent status. The department was centered on the defenses along the Hudson River, approximately 50 miles (80 km) north of New York City, where the Appalachians and the river converge. Following the British occupation of New York City in 1776, the defenses just north of the city became paramount. The presence of British naval forces in New York underscored the vital significance of the Hudson River, a waterway both belligerents fought to control. The Americans established fortifications, including West Point, and famously stretched a chain across the river to impede enemy passage. Washington placed Continental troops under the command of General Heath in the Highlands on November 12, 1776, and a Continental Army garrison remained there until the war's end. Heath's assignment effectively established a military department. [13] The British attempted to seize control through the Saratoga campaign in 1777 and frequently conducted raids into the southern reaches of the department to disrupt the movement of military supplies and personnel. A particularly notorious event in this department's history was the defection of Benedict Arnold in September 1780.
Middle Department
The Middle Department was formally established on February 27, 1776. [10] Its initial jurisdiction encompassed the entirety of the colonies of New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, and [Maryland]. In April 1776, the Main Army relocated from Boston to New York and served as the field army associated with the Middle Department for the remainder of the war. On April 14, 1776, the portion of New York north of the Hudson Highlands, along with the territory that would become Vermont, was detached from the Middle Department and organized as the Northern Department. [11] Consequently, the Middle Department then comprised the Hudson Highlands within New York state, the remainder of New York south of the Highlands, and the states of New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, and Maryland. [11]
The designation "Main Army" had originated during the Siege of Boston, as it incorporated the majority of Continental Army regiments. This designation persisted throughout the war. Most units within the Middle Department were assigned to either the Main Army, under George Washington, or to the Highlands Department, which operated under Washington's close supervision. A limited number of regiments and independent companies were occasionally assigned to the Middle Department without being attached to Washington's army or the Highlands. These units were simply stated as being assigned to the Middle Department.
This department witnessed some of the Continental Army's most pivotal campaigns. These included the New York campaign and the New Jersey campaign, which culminated in the decisive battles of Trenton and Princeton. The Philadelphia campaign unfolded within this department, after which the Continental Army endured a harsh winter encampment at Valley Forge. In 1778, the department was the theater for the Monmouth campaign. Following the Battle of Monmouth on June 28, 1778, the primary military focus of the war shifted southward. The Middle Department, however, continued to exist until the war's conclusion, serving as the site of one of its final acts: the British Army's evacuation of New York City on November 25, 1783.
Western Department
The Western Department stretched across the frontier territories west and northwest of Virginia and Pennsylvania, encompassing the present-day states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and [Wisconsin]. Its reach extended from Pittsburgh all the way to the Illinois country and as far north as the southern peninsula of Michigan. The department was established in 1777, with Edward Hand serving as its initial commander. George Rogers Clark's Illinois campaign in 1779 stands as one of the most significant operations conducted within this department. Uniquely, the Western Department was the only one to persist after the cessation of hostilities. The final elements of the Continental Army, stationed at Fort Pitt, remained to safeguard the western frontier outposts.
Southern Department
The Southern Department was formally established on February 27, 1776. [10] Its territory included Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia, along with the western frontiers of these colonies, which would later form the states of West Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, Alabama, and [Mississippi]. The field army associated with this department was known as the Southern Army. The Southern Department operated with a degree of independence unparalleled by its northern counterparts, largely due to geographical isolation and the necessity for year-round military operations, unlike the northern departments that often suspended offensive actions during winter and early spring. This department also holds the grim distinction of having its assigned troops twice annihilated. The first instance was the surrender of Charleston on May 12, 1780. The second catastrophic defeat occurred at the Battle of Camden on August 16, 1780. Despite these devastating setbacks, this department ultimately became the stage for the Siege of Yorktown in 1781, the decisive engagement that effectively sealed the war's outcome. Following Yorktown, significant events in the Southern Department included the evacuation of Savannah and Charleston in July and December 1782, respectively. [14] The Southern Department continued its existence until the war's conclusion. [7]
List of Department Commanders
| Department | Commander | Date of Appointment |
|---|---|---|
| Canadian | Richard Montgomery | December 9, 1775 |
| David Wooster | December 31, 1775 (acting) | |
| Charles Lee | February 17, 1776 (declined) | |
| John Thomas | March 6, 1776 | |
| John Sullivan | June 1, 1776 | |
| Horatio Gates | June 17, 1776 | |
| Eastern | George Washington | June 16, 1775 |
| Artemas Ward | April 4, 1776 | |
| William Heath | March 20, 1777 | |
| Horatio Gates | November 7, 1778 | |
| Northern | Philip Schuyler | June 25, 1775 |
| Horatio Gates | August 19, 1777 | |
| John Stark | April 17, 1778 | |
| Edward Hand | October 19, 1778 | |
| James Clinton | November 20, 1778 | |
| John Stark | June 25, 1781 | |
| Lord Stirling | October 15, 1781 | |
| John Stark | November 21, 1781 | |
| Lord Stirling | August 29, 1782 | |
| Highlands | William Heath | November 12, 1776 |
| Alexander McDougall | December 21, 1776 | |
| Israel Putnam | May 12, 1777 | |
| Alexander McDougall | March 16, 1778 | |
| Horatio Gates | May 20, 1778 | |
| Alexander McDougall | November 24, 1778 | |
| William Heath | November 27, 1779 | |
| Robert Howe | February 21, 1780 (acting) | |
| Alexander McDougall | June 21, 1780 | |
| Benedict Arnold | August 3, 1780 | |
| George Washington | September 25, 1780 (acting) | |
| Alexander McDougall | September 28, 1780 | |
| Nathanael Greene | October 5, 1980 | |
| William Heath | October 17, 1780 | |
| John Paterson | May 11, 1781 (acting) | |
| Alexander McDougall | June 24, 1781 | |
| William Heath | January 18, 1782 | |
| Henry Knox | August 24, 1782 | |
| Middle | George Washington | February 27, 1776 |
| Western | Edward Hand | April 10, 1777 |
| Lachlan McIntosh | May 26, 1778 | |
| Daniel Brodhead | March 5, 1779 | |
| William Irvine | September 24, 1781 | |
| Southern | Charles Lee | March 1, 1776 |
| James Moore [15] | September 9, 1776 | |
| Robert Howe [16] | April 15, 1777 | |
| Benjamin Lincoln | September 25, 1778 | |
| Horatio Gates | June 13, 1780 | |
| Nathanael Greene | October 31, 1780 |
Source: Wright, Robert K. Continental Army, Appendix B, p. 431 (unless otherwise noted).
Notes
- [1] Wright, Continental Army, 57.
- [2] Wright, Continental Army, map, 83.
- [3] Wright, Continental Army, 60.
- [4] Wright, Continental Army, 62.
- [5] Wright, Continental Army, 26.
- [6] Fitzpatrick, Writings, IV:467.
- [7] Wright, Continental Army, Appendix B, 431.
- [8] Fitzpatrick, Writings, III:302–304.
- [9] Berg, Encyclopedia, 107.
- [10] Wright, Continental Army, 82.
- [11] Wright, Continental Army, 84.
- [12] Berg, Encyclopedia, 91.
- [13] Wright, Continental Army, 95.
- [14] Wright, Continental Army, 176.
- [15] Rankin 1971, p. 79.
- [16] Rankin 1988, p. 218.