A printing press of the 18th century, a relic of a time when words were painstakingly hammered onto paper, played a pivotal role in the nascent stages of what would become the United States. The fervor for religious texts, particularly bibles, was a significant catalyst for the initial printing endeavors in the American colonies. This religious zeal, coupled with a palpable scarcity of such sacred works, fueled the demand that drove early printers to establish their presses. Moreover, leading up to and throughout the tumultuous period of the American Revolution, colonial printers found themselves at the forefront of disseminating news and opinions. They published newspapers and pamphlets that not only informed but also galvanized public sentiment against British colonial policies and the imposition of taxes without representation. The ink flowed as freely as the revolutionary spirit, each printed word a potential spark igniting the flames of independence.
The printers and publishers of early America were far more than mere craftsmen; they were architects of society. Their efforts were instrumental in shaping the social, religious, political, and commercial landscape of the Thirteen Colonies within British America. This influence was particularly pronounced in the years preceding and during the American Revolution, culminating in the establishment of American independence through the American Revolutionary War. Their presses were the conduits through which ideas of liberty, self-governance, and colonial unity were broadcast, solidifying their place as indispensable figures in the nation's formative years.
The very genesis of printing in the British colonies can be traced to Cambridge, Massachusetts, where Elizabeth Glover and her printer, Stephen Daye, established the first printing press. From this humble beginning, the first colonial broadside, the first almanac, and the first book, the Bay Psalm Book, were brought into existence. As mentioned, the initial impetus for printing was deeply rooted in religious enthusiasm and the critical need for religious literature. However, by the mid-18th century, the printing landscape had evolved significantly with the emergence of newspapers, particularly in Boston. These publications, once neutral disseminators of information, soon became vocal critics of the British Crown as new taxes were levied. The colonists widely perceived these impositions as unjust, and the newspapers became powerful platforms for expressing dissent, solidifying their role as crucial instruments of political discourse.
In the nascent years of colonial settlement, communication across the vast distances separating the colonies was a laborious and slow process. Dispatches were hand-written and transported by private couriers, a method prone to delays and uncertainties. Before the turn of the 17th century, newspapers were non-existent in the colonies. Consequently, official news trickled in at a glacial pace, especially for those residing far from the colonial administrative centers or in the remote countryside. This scarcity of readily available information meant that colonial law and news were not accessible in comprehensive print form to the common colonist. Their understanding of governance and current events was largely derived from word-of-mouth accounts from colonial officials or traveling couriers, or perhaps from notices posted in a town square. Religious literature faced a similar scarcity. While many colonists arrived with bibles brought from England, these were often in short supply, and the demand for broader religious texts was considerable.
As the British Parliament continued its program of imposing additional taxes, most notably with the Stamp Act 1765, a palpable shift occurred. Colonial newspapers and pamphlets began to openly challenge British policies through editorials and articles, actively supporting the burgeoning cause of the American Revolution. Among the most influential printers of this era were figures like Benjamin Franklin, William Goddard, and William Bradford. These individuals were not merely printers; they were deeply involved in the political controversies of the time, particularly concerning taxation, freedom of the press, and other fundamental rights. Several printers, including Goddard and Bradford, were members of the Sons of Liberty, utilizing their presses to foster colonial opposition to the Stamp Act and other royal legislation they deemed an infringement on the rights of colonial Englishmen who lacked parliamentary representation. This open criticism from the press, however, frequently led to accusations of libel and sedition.
Despite the extensive historical records of the colonial period, the precise impact of printers and publishing on the religious, social, and political development of the colonies has received comparatively little in-depth investigation. Much of the existing scholarship on colonial printers and publishing tends to focus either on the biographies of individual figures, such as Isaiah Thomas, within the context of specific colonies, or on the technical aspects of printing presses and typography, as exemplified by Lawrence Wroth's seminal work, The Colonial Printer. Wroth himself acknowledged that the broader subject of early American printing and publishing, particularly its role in shaping political and social discourse and its eventual contribution to revolution, has been approached with a "noticeable reluctance" by historians.
History
17th Century
The colonial newspaper, a vital organ of information dissemination, emerged as a critical tool for informing colonists about political, social, and religious matters. These publications actively appealed to a growing sense of colonial identity and fostered unity among disparate communities. This burgeoning independent spirit, however, was a source of considerable anxiety for the royal colonial governments, who feared that the widespread circulation of news and opinions would erode their authority. Boston served as the crucible for the American newspaper, nurturing its development through its formative years. Initially, newspapers enjoyed the privilege of free postal delivery, a benefit that persisted until 1758.
The dawn of American journalism arrived on September 25, 1690, with the publication of Publick Occurrences Both Forreign and Domestick in Boston. This pioneering newspaper was printed and published by Richard Pierce for Benjamin Harris, a man who had sought refuge in the colonies from religious persecution and the repercussions of speaking out against the Crown in England. While the colonists welcomed Harris's newspaper with enthusiasm, it was met with stern disapproval by the colonial governor. The primary objection stemmed from the absence of an official printing license, a legal requirement mandated by British law at the time, which stipulated that "no person [was to] keep any printing-press for printing, nor [was] any book, pamphlet or other matter whatsoever" without "especial leave and license first obtained" from the governor. As one historian aptly observed, "the first newspaper published in America became the first to be suppressed by the authorities."
Harris's turbulent tenure in America concluded in 1695 when he returned to England, where he was subsequently arrested for publishing his unlicensed newspaper. The mantle of successful American newspaper publication then passed to The Boston News-Letter, which commenced publication in 1704. For a significant period, until 1719, it remained the sole newspaper in circulation throughout the colonies.
18th Century
In 1704, the colonies welcomed their second newspaper, The Boston News-Letter. Printed by Bartholomew Green for John Campbell, who also served as Boston's Postmaster, this publication was based in Boston and, crucially, held government approval. It maintained a continuous run for an impressive 74 years, ceasing publication only in 1776 when the British forces occupied Boston. The Hartford Courant is recognized as the oldest continuously published newspaper in the United States, though this claim is subject to some historical debate. Prior to the implementation of the Stamp Act 1765, the colonies boasted twenty-four newspapers, with the notable exception of New Jersey, which relied on publications from neighboring Philadelphia and New York for its news. By 1787, Thomas Jefferson articulated a sentiment that resonated deeply with many printers regarding the importance of a free press, famously stating, "Were it left to me to decide whether we should have a government without newspapers or newspapers without a government, I should not hesitate a moment to prefer the latter."
At the commencement of the 18th century, Boston was a veritable hub of printing activity, housing twice the number of printers as all other colonies combined. With only six American newspapers in existence, four of which were published in Boston, the city clearly held a dominant position. The majority of books and pamphlets produced during this period bore a Boston imprint, establishing eastern Massachusetts as the undisputed literary and typographic center of colonial America.
Colonial newspapers played a particularly active role in the religious controversies that characterized the early 1740s, specifically the Christian revivalist movement. This debate, which originated and centered in Boston, saw figures like Thomas Fleet emerge as prominent critics. Through his publication, the Boston Evening Post, Fleet used his platform to voice criticism of the established clergy, engaging in a public discourse that also involved Thomas Prince and his newspaper, The Christian History.
Among the numerous newspapers that flourished before and during the American Revolution, many distinguished themselves through their incisive critiques of colonial governance, their staunch advocacy for freedom of the press and other liberties, and their unwavering support for the cause of American independence. Newspapers had become indispensable to the colonists, serving as their primary source of information and as a vital means of keeping the community informed and of disseminating the ideals of freedom they cherished. Their influence extended to the crucial period of the Constitution's ratification in 1787–1788, where they played an important role in outlining public debates.
American Revolution
The concept of an independent American union began to solidify in the aftermath of the French and Indian War, when Britain, burdened by war debts, began to impose heavy taxes on the colonies. By 1774, the aspiration for an independent union did not necessarily equate to complete separation from Great Britain; rather, it often envisioned the colonies remaining an integral part of the British Empire, albeit with a greater degree of autonomy. However, following the Boston Tea Party in late 1773, the idea of a self-governing American union gained traction, appearing in various anonymous newspaper articles and essays, penned pseudonymously out of fear of reprisal. These publications advocated for the establishment of an "American Congress" to represent American interests and to hold equal standing with British authority. In response to the Intolerable Acts, which included the closure of Boston's port, the colonies dispatched representatives to Philadelphia, forming the First Continental Congress.
To exert pressure on England, the colonies formed the Continental Association, instituting a colony-wide boycott of British goods. This action, considered a significant step toward independence by many historians, served only to further antagonize King George III. In April 1775, he dispatched British troops to Boston, leading to the Lexington and Concord engagements, the opening battles of the American Revolutionary War. The war's outbreak forced many printers to abandon their Massachusetts establishments, relocating their operations or ceasing publication altogether. Newspapers such as the Boston Gazette and The Providence Gazette were at the forefront of publishing material that fostered the growing sentiment for American independence, a sentiment that was rapidly gaining popular support across the colonies.
Publications
The American colonial press was a diverse landscape, encompassing not only newspapers but also magazines and other periodicals. The first magazine to appear in the American colonies was The American Monthly Magazine, printed by Andrew Bradford in February 1741, with John Webbe serving as its editor. The inaugural religious periodical published in America was Ein Geistliches Magazin, produced by Sower in 1764. In 1719, Boston saw the establishment of the Boston Gazette, while Philadelphia welcomed its first newspaper, The American Weekly Mercury, founded by Andrew Bradford.
Virginia's first newspaper, the Virginia Gazette, emerged in 1736, founded by William Rind. Rind was soon appointed public printer, a position of considerable influence. This gazette famously printed Thomas Jefferson's A Summary View of the Rights of British America in 1774, two years before the monumental drafting of the Declaration of Independence. Also in 1774, the Virginia Gazette reprinted the articles of the Continental Association, which called for a boycott of British goods. These articles, drafted and signed by members of the First Continental Congress, were a direct response to the Intolerable Acts and served to unite the colonies in a collective boycott and a prohibition against exports to England. The articles of the Association, however, were met with varied reactions from both colonists and individuals in Britain and America, with criticisms often emanating from moderate or Loyalist presses.
On April 22, 1775, merely three days after the Battles of Lexington and Concord, the Virginia Gazette reported a significant event: a large quantity of gunpowder had been stolen from Williamsburg by order of Lord Dunmore. This news spread rapidly, being subsequently reported by The Pennsylvania Evening Post. The ensuing reports prompted Dunmore to offer compensation for the stolen gunpowder, temporarily averting armed conflict in Virginia.
The New-England Courant made its debut on Monday, August 7, 1721, marking its position as the third newspaper in Boston and the fourth in the colonies. Founded in Boston by James Franklin, the elder brother of Benjamin Franklin, its inception was partly a response to James's loss of his printing position at the Boston Gazette when its ownership changed and printing duties were transferred to Samuel Kneeland. It was during this period that Benjamin Franklin, writing under the pseudonym Silence Dogood, contributed over a dozen articles to the paper. One such article led to James Franklin's month-long imprisonment in 1726 by British colonial authorities. The authorities had accused him of printing seditious material and demanded the identity of the author, which James refused to reveal. Upon his release, James resumed his printing work. However, The New-England Courant ceased publication after only four months, with James Franklin being "...strictly forbidden by this Court to print or publish the New-England Courant, or any other pamphlet or paper of the like nature, except it be first supervised by the Secretary of this Province; and the Justices of His Majesty's Sessions of the Peace for the County of Suffolk...".
On October 2, 1729, Samuel Keimer, the proprietor of The Pennsylvania Gazette in Philadelphia, found himself in debt due to the newspaper's lack of success. Before fleeing to Barbados, Keimer sold the Gazette to Benjamin Franklin and his partner Hugh Meredith. Under Franklin's stewardship, the Gazette transformed into the most successful newspaper in the colonies. On December 28, 1732, Franklin announced through the Gazette the publication of the inaugural edition of Poor Richard's Almanack, authored by Richard Saunders, Philomath. This almanac achieved remarkable success, with its publication continuing for over twenty-five years.
On June 19, 1744, Franklin entered into a business partnership with David Hall, who had been introduced to him by William Strahan during Franklin's travels in England. Hall was placed in charge of managing the Gazette, thus freeing Franklin to pursue his scientific and other interests. When the proposal for the Stamp Act arose, Hall alerted Franklin to the growing concern among subscribers, who were beginning to cancel their accounts not necessarily due to the increased cost of newspapers, but on principle. After purchasing Franklin's share in May 1766, Hall formed a new firm, Hall and Sellers, which was tasked with printing the Continental paper currency issued by the Congress during the American Revolutionary War.
James Davis arrived in the North Carolina province in 1749, responding to a request from the Assembly for an official printer to handle the printing of laws, legal journals, and paper currency. He became the first printer to establish a print shop in that colony and, in doing so, founded and printed North Carolina's inaugural newspaper, the North-Carolina Gazette. In 1755, Benjamin Franklin appointed Davis as the first postmaster of North Carolina.
Connecticut's first newspaper, The Connecticut Gazette, was established in New Haven on April 12, 1755. This weekly publication, issued every Friday, was the brainchild of James Parker. As the premier newspaper in the colony, it served as a crucial military record, reporting on the events of the French and Indian War. Parker's partner was Benjamin Franklin, who frequently assisted aspiring printers. In that same year, Parker also published ten religious pamphlets, five almanacs, and two New York newspapers. Parker himself rarely visited New Haven, leaving the editorial duties of the newspaper to his junior partner, John Holt. For a time, The Gazette enjoyed a substantial circulation throughout the Connecticut Colony. The publication continued under Parker & Company until 1764, was briefly suspended, but was later revived by Benjamin Mecom. Its motto, prominently displayed on its front page, proclaimed: "Those who would give up Essential Liberty, to purchase a little Temporary Safety, deserve neither Liberty nor Safety." Like many other newspapers of the era, The Gazette was a vocal critic of the Stamp Act.
The Providence Gazette, at the time the sole newspaper in Providence, Rhode Island, first appeared on October 20, 1762. It was published by William Goddard and later in conjunction with his sister, Mary Katherine Goddard. Published weekly, The Providence Gazette passionately defended the rights of the colonies in the lead-up to the revolution and provided able support for the American cause during the war. Following the establishment of American independence, it continued to champion federal republican principles.
The Pennsylvania Chronicle, published by William Goddard, first appeared on January 6, 1767. It was the fourth newspaper printed in the English language established in Philadelphia and the first newspaper in the northern colonies to feature a four-column format per page.
John Dunlap was commissioned by the Second Continental Congress to print 200 copies of the Declaration of Independence as broadsides. The Declaration, primarily authored by Thomas Jefferson, was unanimously adopted by the Second Continental Congress on July 4, 1776. These printed copies became known as the Dunlap broadsides. John Hancock dispatched a copy to General Washington and his Continental Army, then stationed in New York, with instructions for the Declaration to be read aloud to the troops.
The Pennsylvania Evening Post, published by Benjamin Towne from 1775 to 1783, played a significant role during the Revolutionary War. This newspaper holds the distinction of being the first to publish the Declaration of Independence and the first daily newspaper established in the United States.
In 1740, the colonies of British America had sixteen newspapers, all published weekly. By the time the American Revolutionary War erupted in 1775, this number had grown to thirty-seven, with the majority of these publications editorializing in favor of the American patriot cause and independence from Britain.
Freedom of the Press
The concept of freedom of the press in the United States has deep roots in the colonial era. In 1939, the United States Postal Service issued a commemorative stamp depicting John Day's printing press, celebrating the 300th anniversary of publishing in the colonial era.
Beginning in the early 18th century, Benjamin Franklin emerged as the most active and influential printer and publisher across the Thirteen Colonies.
Many printers in England, who were engaged in publishing literature that supported the English Reformation, fled to the European continent or the New World to escape religious and political persecution. This was particularly true during the reigns of King Henry VIII and Queen Mary I, Catholic monarchs who, though unsuccessfully, attempted to reverse the Reformation. John Daye, a printer and distributor of Protestant literature and pamphlets, stands as a notable example of this trend. Concurrently, the General Assembly recognized the necessity of establishing a press and appointing an official printer to handle the publication of legislative acts within the colonies.
The invention of the printing press conferred a potent weapon upon the common populace, naturally inclined to challenge monarchial authority. The influence of the printing press grew demonstrably across various nations over time, despite concerted efforts at censorship by ruling powers.
In 1660, Marmaduke Johnson was dispatched from England to collaborate with Samuel Green on the printing of a Bible translated into an Indigenous language by John Eliot. Upon completion of this significant undertaking, Johnson returned to England. Within a year, he reappeared in the colonies with his own printing press, intending to establish a private enterprise. Although laws requiring Court approval and licensing had been repealed, they were reinstated upon Johnson's return, specifically targeting him. After several unsuccessful appeals to the Court, they eventually relented, imposing certain restrictions. In 1674, Johnson became the first printer in the American colonies to operate his own press. Tragically, Johnson died later that same year, never realizing his full ambitions. John Foster acquired Johnson's equipment and became the first printer in the American colonies to produce a woodcut (specifically, an image of Richard Mather), and began producing work from a privately owned press.
Prior to 1660, prosecutions related to seditious news accounts were virtually unheard of in the colonies. However, a shift in this pattern became evident in the latter half of the 17th century. Prosecutions for sedition escalated from a mere 0.7 percent in the 1660s to 15.1 percent by the 1690s. Despite the fact that the alleged cases almost invariably involved truthful reporting, their incidence in the colonies was on a clear upward trajectory. Historian Larry D. Eldridge notes that there were 1,244 prosecutions for seditious speech prior to the landmark Zenger case, drawing his data from the court records of every colony that existed before 1700. During this period, many writers deemed it prudent to use pseudonyms for fear of prosecution and the confiscation of their printing presses.
The printing trade's expansion was somewhat hindered by the cautious approach of Puritan colonial authorities, who required a license from the general assembly to operate a press. Salem became the third town in the Colonies, following Cambridge and Boston, to acquire a printing press, with Newport soon thereafter. Many printers faced accusations of sedition and libel for publishing critical accounts of various colonial authorities. The first significant case of press censorship emerged during the trial of Thomas Maule in 1696. Maule had publicly criticized the conduct of Puritans during one of the Salem Witch Trials. For publishing his work, Truth Held Forth and Maintained, he was arraigned as the first individual in the province to be prosecuted for libel. Maule was sentenced to receive ten lashings for stating that Rev. John Higginson "preached lies, and that his instruction was the doctrine of devils."
With the arrival of James Franklin in 1727, Newport, Rhode Island became the fourth New England town to host a printing press. Franklin had relocated to the more liberal atmosphere of Newport from Boston due to the difficulties he encountered after criticizing various official and religious dignitaries in his newspaper, The New-England Courant, which had led to his imprisonment in 1722.
Another pivotal case involved the trial of John Peter Zenger in New York in 1735. Zenger was tried for libel for allegedly defaming Governor William Cosby. However, he was acquitted on the grounds that Zenger's account was truthful. This now landmark case represented a crucial step toward establishing freedom of the press in the colonies. The British government subsequently came to believe that the printing and publishing trade as practiced in the colonies was undermining their authority.
While the technology of printing remained largely unchanged from the mid-17th to the end of the 18th century, its utility expanded considerably during this period. The first printing press arrived in the colonies in 1638, belonging to Elizabeth Glover and operated by Stephen Daye. This press was instrumental in the founding of Harvard University and was established with the express purpose of printing religious works without fear of interference from Parliament. Its inaugural publication was the Freeman's Oath, printed in January 1639. It was at this press that printers received their training, and the books, pamphlets, and broadsides produced here played a significant role in promoting and sustaining the enlightenment movement in New England. Printing presses, books, and newspapers were predominantly found in the northern colonies, as the southern colonies, being either royal or proprietary, had less self-governance compared to their northern counterparts during their early histories.
In 1752, [Jonathan Mayhew], a key figure in the founding of the Unitarian Church in America, openly criticized the colonial government in Massachusetts. One of Mayhew's sermons, delivered during an election, strongly advocated for a Republican form of government. His sermon was published shortly after the colonial Assembly passed a bill imposing various customs duties. This bill faced strong opposition, articulated in a pamphlet published by Samuel Adams's newspaper, The Independent Advertiser. The bill was derisively termed the "Monitor of Monitors," and the Legislature found itself sharply criticized. The publication of Mayhew's sermon immediately caused alarm among colonial authorities. David Fowle, the printer of the piece and brother of Zechariah Fowle, another printer, was arrested. Upon refusing to divulge the identity of the newspaper article's author, Fowle was imprisoned and subjected to harsh interrogation for several days. Disillusioned with the Massachusetts government, Fowle relocated to Portsmouth and acquired the [New Hampshire Gazette], where he continued to publicly criticize the Stamp Act 1765.
Religious Printing
The [Psalms], translated into English and published by Stephen Daye in Cambridge, Massachusetts in 1640, holds the distinction of being the first book printed in British America.
Thomas Jefferson's Bill for Establishing Religious Freedom, published in Williamsburg, Virginia in 1779, is recognized as the earliest known printed version of the proposed legislation.
Religious perspectives gained prominence in colonial American literature during the late 17th and into the 18th centuries, predominantly within Puritan writings and publications. These often led to charges of libel and sedition by the British Crown. The Puritans themselves had a history of persecution for printing and distributing their views in England, where they openly criticized the Church of England. In 1637, King Charles enacted a Star Chamber decree outlining 33 regulations that provided for complete control and censorship of any religious, political, or other literature deemed seditious or questionable. Among these regulations was a prohibition against any literature that criticized the Church of England, the State, or the government. This decree disproportionately affected minority religious groups, particularly Catholics, Puritans, and separatists. The provisions also granted authorities the power to punish unauthorized publications in the colonies, measures employed to silence the Puritans. Archbishop William Laud was particularly persistent in preventing and punishing the unauthorized printing of religious, political, and other materials. By 1730, however, the enforcement of these provisions in the colonies, which included licensing printing presses and requiring prior approval of publications, became increasingly challenging.
In 1663, English Puritan missionary John Eliot, over a period of forty years, converted approximately eleven hundred Indigenous people to Christianity and established fourteen reservations, or "praying towns," for his followers. Alongside other religious works, he published what became known as the Eliot Indian Bible. Printed by Samuel Green, it was the first Bible published in the British-American colonies, intended to introduce Christianity to the Indigenous peoples. Eliot's Bible was a translation of the Geneva Bible into the Algonquian language, commonly spoken by the Indigenous populations in Massachusetts.
In 1752, Samuel Kneeland and his partner Bartholomew Green, commissioned by Daniel Henchman, printed an edition of the King James Bible. This was the first Bible printed in America in the English language. As the British Crown held the printing rights, its publication in America was illegal. Consequently, the printing was conducted with utmost privacy, bearing a London imprint copied from the original, to evade prosecution and detection. In this endeavor, Kneeland produced the first Bible ever printed from the Boston Press.
[Cotton Mather], a Puritan minister in New England and a prolific author of books and pamphlets, is regarded as one of the most significant intellectual figures of colonial America. Mather extensively utilized the printing presses in the New England colonies, at times to counter criticisms leveled against the Puritans by George Keith and others. Between 1724 and 1728, he published sixty-three titles through colonial presses. He is particularly noted for his work, Magnalia Christi Americana, published in 1702, which chronicled the religious development of Massachusetts and surrounding New England colonies from 1620 to 1698. In an effort to promote Puritan ethics, he authored Ornaments for the Daughters of Zion, intended to guide young women on appropriate dress and behavior. Mather became a controversial figure due to his involvement in the events surrounding the Salem witch trials of 1692–1693.
[Jonas Green], a protégé of Benjamin Franklin in Philadelphia and a member of the Green family, was actively involved in operating the presses in the Puritan colonies. For twenty-eight years, Green served as the public printer for the province of Maryland. [Joseph Galloway], a close associate of Franklin, opposed the Revolution, aligning himself with the Tory faction. By 1778, he had fled to England. Like many Tories, Galloway believed that the Revolution was, to a significant extent, a religious dispute instigated by Presbyterians and Congregationalists, fueled by the circular letters and other publications they had printed and distributed. [Benjamin Franklin], however, who was raised Presbyterian, later embraced Deism, and eventually identified as a non-denominational Protestant Christian, recognized the value of printing and promoting religious values as a means of strengthening the social fabric and uniting the colonies in their opposition to British rule. Franklin ultimately published more religious works than any other eighteenth-century American printer.
[Thomas Dobson_(printer)], who arrived in Philadelphia in 1754, was the first printer in the United States to publish a complete Hebrew Bible. [Robert Aitken], a Philadelphia printer who arrived there in 1769, was the first to publish the Bible and the New Testament in the English language in the newly formed United States.
[The Christian History], a weekly journal, featured various accounts of the revival and propagation of religion in Great Britain and America. It was published by Kneeland & Greene, with Thomas Prince Jr. serving as editor and publisher. Issued regularly for two years, from March 5, 1743, to February 23, 1745, Prince also authored other significant works, including his definitive 1744 publication, An Account of the Revival of Religion in Boston in the Years 1740-1-2-3.
Colonial Taxation
Following the costly French and Indian War, Great Britain, facing significant debt, began imposing taxes on its colonies without securing adequate colonial representation in Parliament. This policy generated considerable concern among many colonists, who were already experiencing financial hardship and felt they had already contributed substantially—through lives, property, and finances—to a war largely fought on American soil. What began as colonial indifference soon escalated into public protests and open revolt. Publishers and printers became instrumental in disseminating newspapers and pamphlets that forcefully articulated their anger and sense of injustice. Prominent figures such as James Otis Jr. and Samuel Adams were among the most visible and vocal opponents of colonial taxation, their voices amplified through numerous colonial newspapers and pamphlets.
Boston found itself at the epicenter of rebellion even before the outbreak of armed conflict. The Boston Gazette, established on April 7, 1755, by Edes and Gill, was widely regarded as the "pet of the patriots." Its pages chronicled New England's editorial battles for American freedom and conveyed the opinions of influential figures such as Samuel Adams, Joseph Warren, John Adams, Thomas Cushing, and Samuel Cooper, among others. These discussions revolved around contentious issues like the American Revenue Act 1764, the Stamp Act 1765, the Boston Massacre, the Tea Act 1773, and other measures widely perceived as unjust impositions on the colonies.
Stamp Act
With the passage of the Stamp Act in 1765, which levied a tax on newspapers, advertisements, deeds, wills, claims, indentures, contracts, and other legal documents, printers began publishing highly polemical accounts challenging the morality of the Act. This defiance frequently invited accusations of sedition and libel from royal colonial authorities. Newspaper printers and publishers feared that the new tax would significantly increase the cost of their publications, leading to a substantial decline in readership. Many newspaper editors protested the Stamp Act by printing editions with black borders and often included articles that vehemently denounced the Act. Some newspapers even featured a death's head symbol where the royal stamp was supposed to appear. The passage of the Act also prompted many printers to suspend their publications rather than comply with what they considered an unfair tax and an infringement on their livelihood. This collective action united them in their opposition to the legislation. Newspapers proved to be the most potent vehicle for exerting social and political pressure, playing a crucial role in the Act's repeal less than a year later.
[The Constitutional Courant] was a single-issue colonial American newspaper published in response to the Stamp Act. Printed by William Goddard under the pseudonym Andrew Marvel, the newspaper vigorously attacked the Stamp Act with strong language, capturing the attention of both colonial printers and royal colonial officials. Other notable publications included [The Halifax Gazette], which also published a highly critical account, declaring that "The people of the province were disgusted with the stamp act." This strongly worded statement caused considerable offense to the royal government of that province, and its publisher, Anthony Henry, was summoned to account for printing what the Crown deemed seditious.
While in England, Benjamin Franklin's Pennsylvania Gazette suspended publication on October 31, 1765, in protest of the Stamp Act. Following this, Franklin's partner, David Hall, began printing the paper on unstamped paper, omitting the masthead to avoid prosecution.
The Sons of Liberty actively participated by intimidating royal officials responsible for the Act's operation and tax collection. As newspapers continued their open criticism of the Stamp Act, protests, often violent, spread, leading many tax commissioners across the colonies to resign their positions. Benjamin Franklin, serving as colonial agent in London, had warned Parliament that the Act would only foster animosity between the colonies and the British Crown. Following widespread protests, the Act was repealed in 1776. The newspaper coverage of the Stamp Act and the ensuing public demonstrations marked the first significant colonial challenge to British rule over the colonies.
Townshend Acts
In response to the failure and subsequent repeal of the Stamp Act, Parliament passed the Townshend Acts in 1767, introduced by [Charles Townshend]. These acts included the Revenue Act 1767, enacted on June 26, 1767, which reimposed taxes on paper, along with lead, glass, and tea. By October, the text of the Revenue Act was widely circulated in newspapers, often accompanied by critical commentary. Similar to the Stamp Act, this new tax directly jeopardized the businesses and livelihoods of printers, who relied heavily on paper for their craft and lead for casting printing type. Specifically, the Act imposed import duties on sixty-seven grades of paper.
In short order, newspapers such as the Boston Gazette and Pennsylvania Chronicle began publishing essays and articles opposing the Townshend Acts. Among the most influential publications criticizing the Acts was a series entitled Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania, authored by [John Dickinson]. These twelve letters were widely read and reprinted in numerous newspapers across the thirteen colonies, playing a crucial role in uniting the colonists against the Crown, Parliament, and their persistent taxation policies. William Goddard was the first printer to publish Dickinson's work, which advocated for limiting Parliament's power, stating that these essays "deserved the serious attention of all North-America." Dickinson's writings were also published by printers such as David Hall and William Sellers, who, along with other printers, employed their presses to publicly challenge such acts. The new tax also spurred increased efforts and incentives for establishing papermills in the colonies and for colonists to produce their own goods more broadly. However, in the years leading up to the revolution, paper became increasingly scarce. The existing papermills were few in number and generally small, with limited production capacity. As imports dwindled, the necessity for colonists to produce their own goods escalated dramatically. To conserve paper, newspapers were printed in the smallest practical size, with minimal space for decorative borders. In some instances, weekly newspapers ceased publication due to insufficient profitability amid the new taxes and resultant paper shortages.
American Revolution
The revolutionary writings of Samuel Adams found a significant outlet in the newspapers of the New England colonies.
One of the earliest historians of the American Revolution, David Ramsay, asserted that "in establishing American independence, the pen and press had merit equal to that of the sword." In the years preceding and during the American Revolution, hundreds of pamphlets were printed, addressing a wide array of themes including religion, common law, politics, natural rights, and the enlightenment, often in direct relation to revolutionary thought. In his extensive work, Bernard Bailyn, a distinguished historian of colonial American history, illuminates how these pamphlets offered an "interior view" of the motivations behind the revolution, noting that they sometimes diverged from conventional historical interpretations.
For years, historians have engaged in debate regarding the extent of influence various religious doctrines had in fostering the ideals that ultimately precipitated the American Revolution. Nevertheless, it is evident that many religious works frequently presented narratives that championed the ideals of freedom of speech and the press, along with other liberties. They openly criticized the British Crown for what they perceived as infringements upon their God-given rights and freedoms—issues fundamental to advancing the revolutionary cause. Consequently, colonial authorities maintained a vigilant watch over any published religious literature that they deemed seditious.
In the years leading up to the Revolutionary War, Massachusetts played a crucial role in supporting the Revolution. Boston was considered by royal authorities to be a "hotbed of sedition." During this period, printers and publishers were instrumental in promoting the call for independence and uniting the American colonies toward that objective. [Thomas Paine]'s 1776 work, Common Sense, articulated moral and political arguments and is widely regarded as "the most incendiary and popular pamphlet of the entire revolutionary era." It was printed by Robert Bell. In response to Paine's influential work, James Chalmers, writing under the pseudonym Candidus, countered with a pamphlet titled The Plain Truth. This work, also printed by [Robert Bell_(publisher)], was poorly received by a patriotic populace, leading to Chalmers's exile.
The distinct concepts of "Patriot" and "Loyalist" did not fully crystallize until around 1774, when the idea of independence became the central political and social issue as tensions between the colonies and Britain intensified. Many printers embraced the doctrine of a free press, which held that printers should remain neutral, allowing for a "free and open press" where diverse political ideals could be freely and publicly debated.
Newspapers played a significant role in unifying the individual colonies, each with its unique culture and religious practices, by appealing to their shared interests in liberty. Prior to the widespread embrace of independence and revolution among the colonists, the differences in their settlements and forms of government, in religion, culture, trade, and domestic policy, were so profound that [Benjamin Franklin], who possessed a keen understanding of the situation, believed that only the oppression of the entire country would ever unite them. To achieve this, he felt the colonists needed to recognize that their rights as human beings were far more important than the rights afforded within a particular colony. [Samuel Adams] echoed this sentiment as early as 1765 when he stated that Americans as a whole would never unify and fight for independence "unless Great Britain shall exert her power to destroy their Libertys." Newspapers such as the [Boston Gazette], which also published the titles of new religious books, and the [Massachusetts Spy], were fundamental in promoting the ideals that bridged the religious, cultural, and political divides between the colonies.
Prior to the revolution, printing was primarily concentrated in the capitals or larger cities of the various colonies. However, during the war, many printers and publishers established their operations in other towns, making it less likely for their presses and shops to be confiscated or destroyed by British forces. After independence was finally secured, through the peace of 1783, printing presses and newspapers proliferated rapidly, not only in seaports but in nearly all the principal inland villages and towns. The political developments during the American Revolution were influenced by two primary forms of print: pamphlets and newspapers. Pamphlets became a crucial medium for conveying revolutionary ideals during the controversies between the colonists and the Crown. Often penned by prominent writers under assumed names, they are referred to by scholars as the principal agents of change during the revolutionary era.
At the outbreak of hostilities at Lexington and Concord in April 1775, it became abundantly clear that the Whigs dominated the press and postal networks, enabling them to undermine Tory and Loyalist polemics. The printing and publication of Loyalist propaganda were consequently confined to cities, ports, and surrounding areas under British military control. Following the official issuance of the Declaration of Independence to the British Crown, only fifteen Loyalist newspapers emerged at various times and places, but none managed to maintain continuous publication amidst the instability and uncertainty of the war from 1776 to 1783. British-occupied New York City hosted the longest-lived and most popular Loyalist newspapers, including Hugh Gaine's [New-York Gazette] and the Weekly Mercury. Other Loyalist publications included [The Massachusetts Gazette], the leading Tory newspaper, published by [Richard Draper], and Alexander Robertson's The Royal American Gazette. [James Rivington]'s Royal Gazette, and William Lewis's New York Mercury. Rivington unequivocally sided with the British, while Gaine, representative of many Loyalists from the lower colonies, harbored sympathies for colonial rights but also an aversion to open rebellion and violence. Neither of these printers fully committed to the British cause once the war commenced, and the British occupation of New York City made neutrality nearly impossible. After 1770, as colonial tensions with Britain escalated, Loyalist newspapers experienced a significant decline in advertising revenue.
Printers provided an invaluable service to statesmen, prominent patriot figures, and the Continental Congress by disseminating their political and social views and other accounts both before and during the war. In the autumn and winter of 1768, [Samuel Adams] of Boston was actively writing for various newspapers, primarily the [Boston Gazette]. The Gazette served as his main platform and a rallying point for patriot leaders. The newspaper was known for its acerbic yet well-crafted accounts of perceived injustices occurring in the colonies. Adams penned fiery narratives supporting the revolutionary cause through this newspaper. His forceful letter of December 19, 1768, to the Gazette, according to historian [James Kendall Hosmer], would "perhaps be impossible to find a better illustration of the superior political sense of the New Englanders." In this letter, Adams assailed the British Parliament over the issue of taxation without representation, asserting: "When pressed with that fundamental principle of nature and the Constitution, that what is a man's own is absolutely his own, and that no man can have a right to take it from him without his consent." The offices of the Boston Gazette on Court Street also served as a meeting place for various revolutionary figures, including [Joseph Warren], [James Otis Jr.], [Josiah Quincy II], [John Adams], [Benjamin Church_(physician)], and other patriots of considerable note. Many of these individuals were members of the [Sons of Liberty]. Within these groups, Samuel Adams increasingly emerged as a forceful and prominent figure, and his writings were also published in newspapers beyond Boston.
[John Dunlap], the founder of [The Maryland Gazette], was one of the most successful Irish-American printers of his era. He printed the initial copies of the United States Declaration of Independence and [A Summary View of the Rights of British America] by [Thomas Jefferson]. In 1778, Congress appointed Dunlap to print the [Congressional Record]s, and he continued in this capacity as their official printer for five years. Dunlap and his partner David Claypoole printed the [Articles of Confederation] and pledged to Congress, "...that we will not disclose either directly or indirectly the contents of the said confederation."
[Mathew Carey] was among a number of printers who fled to the American colonies to escape prosecution for printing and publishing the Volunteers Journal, a Dublin newspaper that advocated for the anti-British Volunteer movement. The British Crown, at the time, naturally viewed this as seditious literature.
In 1777, the Continental Congress commissioned [Mary Katherine Goddard] to print copies of the [Declaration of Independence] for distribution throughout the colonies. Many of these copies were signed by [John Hancock], President of the Congress, and [Charles Thomson], Permanent Secretary, and are highly sought after by historians and collectors.
Post Revolution
The surrender of Lord Cornwallis to General Washington at Yorktown was extensively covered by both American and British newspapers before, during, and after the campaign. In anticipation of the imminent siege, the Massachusetts Spy, just two weeks prior to the battle, on September 13, 1781, reported:
"It is not doubted but that his Excellency General Washington has marched, with 8000 choice troops including the French, to Virginia, where the troops in that quarter will join him; Lord Cornwallis is blocked up by the French fleet;—by the present appearance of things we are at the eve of some important event, which God grant may be propitious to the United States.”
Following the patriot victory at Yorktown, a flurry of newspaper reports circulated, detailing the three-week campaign. Some reports continued to appear months later as new information became available. The initial reports were based on accounts from various commanders. The report published in the Independent Chronicle on April 19, 1781, while generally informative, was based on a hasty report written by [Nathanael Greene], who possessed incomplete knowledge of troop strengths and casualties. The report from [Lord Cornwallis], which appeared in the London Chronicle on June 7, 1781, also contained several inaccuracies. However, newspaper coverage featured many prominent commanders, and the general reports of the victory significantly boosted the morale and hopes of the Americans, while conversely impacting the British.
Following the revolution, it became increasingly evident that the newly formed United States was experiencing collective political disarray and required unification under a central government. Under the [Articles of Confederation], the United States possessed limited capacity to defend its sovereignty on the international stage, lacking the political authority to mobilize state militias for war. It also lacked the power to levy taxes and struggled to foster unity among the diverse sentiments and interests of the individual states. Uniting the states for this purpose proved to be a politically complex and challenging endeavor, as many state politicians were more concerned with state sovereignty and harbored significant reservations about a central authority, recalling their past struggles with the British government. When the proposal for a national constitution was put forth, it was met with mixed reactions from Federalists and Anti-Federalists, who frequently voiced their opinions through newspapers and pamphlets.
To persuade the populace of New York and other states that ratification of the U.S. Constitution was in their best interest, [Alexander Hamilton], [James Madison], and [John Jay] authored a series of essays known as [The Federalist Papers]. Initially published anonymously under the pseudonym Publius in New York newspapers, these essays began appearing in 1787 in New York's Daily Advertiser and The New York Packet. The Federalist articles were widely read and are often considered to have significantly influenced the ratification process and the trajectory of future American political institutions. The Federalist papers faced opposition from the vigorous writings of [Richard Henry Lee] and [Elbridge Gerry], further underscoring the critical role of the press in achieving political objectives. At this time, [John Fenno] emerged as an editor for the Federalist Party through his newspaper, the [Gazette of the United States]. Alexander Hamilton regularly contributed Federalist essays and financial support to this publication, which provided considerable backing for the Constitution and the burgeoning Federalist party.
On the Anti-Federalist side, [Philip Freneau] served as a strong voice through his newspaper, the [National Gazette], which he established in 1791 during [President Washington]'s first term. Freneau was encouraged by [James Madison] and the Secretary of State, [Thomas Jefferson], to establish a partisan newspaper that would counter the influence of Federalist-leaning publications. Given that Jefferson had hired Freneau as a French translator at the Department of State, Federalists surmised that Jefferson had played a role in authoring the political attacks on Washington and his Federalist colleagues that appeared in Freneau's Gazette, a claim Jefferson denied. Washington generally paid little attention to the constant political machinations reported in newspapers; however, he privately requested Jefferson to remove Freneau from the State Department. Jefferson argued that Freneau and his newspaper were protecting the country from becoming a virtual monarchy and managed to persuade Washington to forgo Freneau's dismissal, contending that it would constitute an affront to Freedom of the Press and ultimately prove detrimental to Washington and his administration. Both Fenno and Freneau became prominent figures in the history of American newspapers during the post-revolution years, playing leading roles in shaping the nascent stages of party politics in the 1790s.
In 1787, Dunlap was commissioned to produce printed copies of the Constitution of the United States, which were presented for review at the Constitutional Convention on September 19, 1787. It was subsequently published for public review for the first time in [The Pennsylvania Packet]. On April 30, 1789, George Washington took the oath of office as the first President of the United States in [Federal Hall] in New York City. Following the swearing-in ceremony, Washington delivered the first presidential inaugural address in the Senate chamber. The entire event and speech were documented in an eyewitness report published on May 6, 1789, in the Massachusetts Centinel. Towards the end of President Washington's second term, he decided to step down and declined offers for a third term. With the assistance of James Madison and Alexander Hamilton, Washington, then sixty-four years old, penned his [Farewell Address]. Although he never publicly read the Address, it was published in Philadelphia newspapers, which was the capital of the United States at the time. The Pennsylvania Packet and American Daily Advertiser was the first newspaper to carry the address in its issue of September 19, 1796. The now-famous Farewell Address was soon widely circulated and reprinted in numerous newspapers, including the New York Herald on September 21, 1796.
Newspapers and the U.S. Constitution
On September 17, 1787, The Pennsylvania Packet became the first publication to print the ratified [U.S. Constitution].
In the period both before and after the ratification of the U.S. Constitution, newspapers across the nation featured news and essays concerning the Constitution's development and content. Editorials debating its strengths and weaknesses were commonplace, frequently sparking or intensifying debates that occurred in town meetings, as well as in public spaces like streets and taverns.
While the proposed U.S. Constitution was under discussion by congressmen and other political figures, and during its ratification process, many newspapers and pamphlets, largely in support of the Constitution, reported furiously to cover and disseminate the numerous details being discussed. This process revealed geographical and political divisions, polarizing the press and a significant portion of the population into two political factions: the Federalists and the Anti-Federalists. Several newspapers that had long championed the cause of American independence now sought to delay or prevent the adoption of a Federal Constitution.
Approximately six newspapers published articles highly critical of the Constitution, primarily arguing that it represented another form of central government that would undermine state sovereignty. One such newspaper, The Boston Gazette, which had previously strongly supported American independence, became vehemently opposed to the Constitution. Consequently, it gradually lost much of its patronage and ceased publication by 1798. Other newspapers maintained a politically neutral stance, allowing for the publication of all viewpoints. However, the vast majority of newspapers supported the Constitution and a strong federal government, arguing that such a government would unite the states and ultimately strengthen them. The Massachusetts Spy of Boston supported the Constitution but faced considerable disfavor due to its location within an Anti-Federalist community. Some pro-Constitution newspapers, however, refused to publish Anti-Federalist material, leading to numerous complaints about attacks on the ideals of freedom of speech and freedom of the Press. Conversely, Anti-Federalists charged that their views and communications between the colonies were not being printed or delivered. During the winter of 1788, as various states debated ratification, Anti-Federalists alleged that the post office was intercepting their newspapers, preventing delegates at state conventions from accessing their arguments against the Constitution. Subsequently, in 1789, during its first session under the new Constitution, Congress drafted and introduced a national Bill of Rights to be incorporated into the Constitution. This amendment stipulated that Congress would not be permitted to make any law "abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press."
Upon the adoption of the Constitution, various political leaders recognized the need for their own public forums to express their views. This led to the formation of distinct political parties, about which the common citizen was generally uninformed. In an effort to sway public opinion on political matters, these leaders founded partisan newspapers that offered little in the way of news and were largely dedicated to promoting the political doctrines of their respective party leaders, effectively functioning as political tracts rather than sources of general news.
After the Constitution's adoption, the Senate floor remained closed to reporters, journalists, and other observers for the first several years. Congress, however, invited any onlookers who could be accommodated in the public gallery. The relationship between journalists and politicians was not, however, harmonious. Reporters frequently complained that House members deliberately prolonged their speeches, speaking rapidly and incessantly, often turning their backs and speaking indistinctly, while reporters struggled to transcribe as much as possible. Congressmen, in turn, accused reporters of misquoting them or intentionally distorting their statements, omitting key viewpoints and names. On September 26, 1789, members of the House began debating a resolution introduced by South Carolina representative [Aedanus Burke], which accused newspapers of "misrepresenting these debates in the most glaring deviations from the truth" and of "throwing over the whole proceedings a thick veil of misrepresentation and error." Two days earlier, however, the House had approved the final draft of the First Amendment to the Bill of Rights, guaranteeing journalists the right to freedom of the press. Another significant irony is that the details of Congressional debates are largely derived from these same reporters. The "single best resource" for early proceedings, The Annals of Congress, was compiled from accounts found in early newspapers.
The various debates during the ratification process, according to historian [Richard B. Bernstein], revealed "the American people at their political and principled best, albeit occasionally at their factional worst." However, despite the extensive coverage and attention given by reporters and newspapers to the ratification process, a comprehensive historical assessment on a state level, taken as a whole, was not achieved until the twenty-first century. Much of this difficulty stemmed from the fact that debates in some states were never officially recorded, while the published accounts of others were limited by the reporters' skills and their stenographers. Furthermore, reporters often showed an unwillingness to allow speakers to correct the wording of their speeches as they were being recorded, and many exhibited a bias toward the Federalists, who frequently outsourced the authoring and publication of speeches used during debates. In the late 1980s, James H. Hutson compiled a list of problems associated with the records kept during the various state ratifying conventions. By the end of 2009, the Documentary History of the Ratification of the Constitution (DHRC) had published fourteen volumes on the ratification process in eight states, largely compiled from and by comparing newspaper accounts of the time.
Newspapers and the Alien and Sedition Acts
The original Alien and Sedition Acts, signed into law in 1798, were four pieces of legislation passed by the Fifth U.S. Congress under President [John Adams] during the undeclared [Quasi War] with France. The stated justification for these acts was that they were directed at the French and their sympathizers in the United States. However, much of the impetus for their passage stemmed from partisan newspapers that were highly critical of President Adams and other Federalists, particularly concerning their perceived eagerness to engage France in an actual declared war. The laws severely restricted public criticism of government officials, especially in newspapers, and curtailed the citizenship requirements for aliens. The [Democratic-Republicans] viewed these laws as a political maneuver intended to silence the growing and frequent criticism appearing in newspapers and voiced during public debates and protests.
The Acts were largely favored by the Federalists, resulting in the arrest and imprisonment of numerous newspaper editors, many of whom were highly critical of Adams' administration. Notably, even a critic of Thomas Jefferson, a staunch Anti-Federalist, was arrested and jailed. Washington, who was often censured by the Anti-Federalist press, also took exception to the Acts. The Acts also made it more difficult for immigrants to become U.S. citizens through the [Naturalization Act of 1790], requiring fourteen years of residency for naturalization. This was purportedly aimed at curbing the influence of potential French and Irish citizens who might advocate for war with France. The Acts also empowered the president to imprison and deport any non-citizen deemed a threat to the nation's stability and security. Federalists maintained that the bills would strengthen national security during the conflict with France. Critics of the Acts, particularly newspaper editors through the press, argued that they were primarily an attempt to silence Anti-Federalist newspapers and discourage voters who disagreed with the Federalist party, and that they violated the rights of freedom of speech and freedom of the press, enshrined in the First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. In their attempt to bring order to a press perceived as out of control, the Acts inadvertently exacerbated the situation.
In the face of these new laws, the freedoms previously enjoyed by the press, which had once served to unite the colonies, were now subject to government scrutiny and soon became an engine of political division. Both Federalists and Republicans felt that newspapers were being exploited as a vehicle for promoting political scandals and falsehoods over truth in the political and social arenas. [Benjamin Franklin Bache], through his newspaper, the [Philadelphia Aurora], published what were considered vicious attacks on the [Federalist Party], and particularly on President John Adams and his predecessor George Washington. These attacks nearly led to riots in the streets of Philadelphia, and Bache was charged with libel. Among other accusations, Bache's newspaper portrayed Adams as a warmonger, a "tool of the British," and "a man divested of his senses," who was attempting to instigate a war with France. His frequent newspaper attacks on a sitting president, along with those of other editors, are often regarded by historians as having significantly contributed to the passage of the Alien and Sedition Acts.
In the November 22, 1798, issue of the Philadelphia Aurora, in reaction to the Acts, Bache published the following exclamation:
"Who would have believed it, had it been foretold, that the People of America, after having fought seven long years to obtain their Independence, would, at this early day, have been seized and dragged into confinement by their own government ..."
There were fourteen indictments for libel under the Acts, all of which were brought against Republicans, most of whom were newspaper editors. Pennsylvania Chief Justice [Thomas McKean], in a 1798 libel case against [William Cobbett], publisher of Peter Porcupine's Gazette in Philadelphia, a publication widely considered scandalous and inciteful, remarked:
"Every one who has in him the sentiments either of a Christian or a gentleman cannot but be highly offended at the envenomed scurrility that has raged in pamphlets and newspapers printed in Philadelphia for several years past, insomuch that libelling has become a national crime, and distinguishes us not only from all the states around us, but from the whole civilized world."
Historian [Douglas Bradburn] contends that popular history often attributes the primary opposition to the Alien and Sedition Acts to Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, the authors of the [Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions]. However, he also notes that while this is largely accurate, this notion alone can be misleading, as opposition to the Acts was widespread and crossed political, religious, and social lines.
The enforcement of the Acts, which were federal laws, directly raised questions about the role of states in defending the natural rights of individuals, reflecting the general attitudes toward natural rights that emerged before and during the American Revolution. Opposition to the Acts rapidly spread throughout most states during the latter half of 1798. These sentiments were amplified and given direction by an increasing number of partisan newspapers that played a central role in voicing general dissent. This widespread dissent instigated a growing number of public protests, which ultimately culminated in a national petition drive against the Acts. Initially, signatures were gathered slowly, but as word spread, they began arriving in "streams and torrents," with thousands of signatures from various states "flooding the floor of Congress," much to the dismay of the Federalists.
Resistance to the Federalist Acts began almost simultaneously in Virginia and Kentucky with the introduction of the [Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions], secretly drafted by Jefferson and Madison, respectively. These resolutions asserted that the Acts were unconstitutional and that the states had the right to deem them null and void if they deemed it necessary. News of the growing opposition that emerged in Kentucky soon reached the eastern coastal states and was widely covered in their newspapers. Editor William Cobbet, however, derided the effort in his Porcupine's Gazette, condemning the Kentucky petitioners as uneducated backwoods farmers, no better than "savages." Conversely, newspapers sympathetic to the Republicans hailed the Kentucky resolves as clear evidence that the founding principles of the Revolution remained vibrant in America. The Lexington Kentucky Gazette called for organized resistance to the Acts and the rush toward war with France, urging meetings, committees of correspondence, and general mobilization to take place on July 4th, even before the laws had been enacted.
Jefferson extended his opposition to the Acts beyond states' rights, prioritizing the concept of human rights. Within a week, newspapers were publishing articles and proclamations concerning states' and individual rights, widely asserting the idea that the people and the states possessed the right to defy laws they deemed unconstitutional. Throughout 1798–1799, newspapers continued to fuel the ideology that would lead to Jefferson's victory over Adams in the presidential election in 1800, resulting in the Democratic-Republican Party gaining a significant majority in Congress. The new Congress never renewed the Act, which expired on March 3, 1801, under its own provisions. President Jefferson, who had consistently maintained that the Acts were an affront to freedom of speech and of the press, granted pardons to all those convicted of sedition and libel under the Act, an action that significantly strengthened the concept of freedom of the press in the courts and in the public consciousness.
Printing Presses and Type
The art of printing dates back to approximately A.D. 175, when the Chinese employed a method of carving impressions into wooden blocks, applying ink, and pressing paper onto the inked block. This rudimentary method of printing spread to other parts of the world but saw little significant change until the 1100s. Then, around 1440, the German inventor [Johannes Gutenberg] invented and developed [movable type], where individual letters, typically engraved into lead, could be rearranged with ease to form new word configurations. This innovation revolutionized the printing process and the printing trade as a whole. Since much of Europe utilized a twenty-four-letter alphabet derived from the Roman and Greek alphabets, the task of printing new material was greatly simplified compared to languages with alphabets comprising thousands of individual [ideographs].
Before a printer could realistically consider establishing a printing business, the necessary capital for acquiring a printing press and type had to be secured. Both of these items were expensive and not always easily obtainable. Up until the mid-18th century, printing presses used in the colonies were imported from England. The difficulty in machining the large iron screw, essential for pressing paper onto the type, meant that American printers had no choice but to purchase them from abroad, significantly increasing costs and making it harder for new printers to establish themselves. [Isaac Doolittle], a clockmaker and a craftsman of many skills, constructed the first printing press and screw made on American soil in 1769, which was purchased by [William Goddard_(publisher)].
The earliest types used in the colonies were sourced from [type foundries] in Holland and England. Notable type founders and designers included [William Caslon] (1693–1766) and [John Baskerville] (1707–1775), both leading printers in England during their time. Their typefaces profoundly influenced the evolution of English type design and were the first to establish an English national typographic style, which ultimately impacted printing styles in the English-American colonies. While in Europe, Benjamin Franklin purchased many hundreds of pounds of type from the Caslon family for his presses in Philadelphia and other cities. His first use of Caslon type was in the printing of The Pennsylvania Gazette in 1738. [Caslon typefaces] quickly gained popularity among colonial printers from the mid-18th century up to the American Revolution. Books, newspapers, and broadsides were predominantly printed in Caslon old-style types, while many significant works were also printed using newer Caslon types, including the first printed version of the [Declaration of Independence] by [John Dunlap] in 1776.
Foundries for producing type did not emerge in the colonies until well into the 18th century, and it was not until 1775 that type became practically available in a variety of print styles. Historian [Lawrence C. Wroth], in his 1938 work The Colonial Printer, comparatively outlines the various types of print available from the late 1600s up to 1770. In the [Germantown] section of present-day [Philadelphia], the first regular foundry for casting type was established by [Christopher Sower_(younger)] in 1772. However, its type implements were imported from Germany and were solely intended for the production of German types.
As with printing presses and newspapers, laws regulated the number of foundries permitted to produce type in England. In 1637, a [Star Chamber] Decree mandated that only four individuals in England could operate a letter foundry at any given time, with each foundry limited in the number of apprentices it could employ. By 1693, however, the decree had expired, but the number of foundries nonetheless did not increase significantly. Even English printers often found themselves sourcing type from Dutch foundries. Consequently, no printing presses existed in the colonies until the first press arrived in Cambridge, brought from London in 1639. In the colonies, as in England, much of the type used by printers came from Dutch foundries. Many examples of Dutch type are evident in printed works produced in the colonies between 1730 and 1740.
By the turn of the 18th-19th centuries, printing press manufacturing in America had seen substantial growth, with new innovations and improvements being introduced to printing presses, which had largely maintained their basic design for over a hundred years. Press manufacturers like [Adam Ramage] and [George E. Clymer] were among the most prominent and significant during this period. Ramage produced 1,250 printing presses in his lifetime, which saw widespread use across most of the states. Clymer innovated the [Columbian press], an ornate iron press capable of printing an entire newspaper page with a single pull.
Bookbinding
Bookbinders also played a crucial role in the printing and publishing industry. Unlike newspapers and pamphlets, the numerous pages of voluminous works, once printed, had to be bound into a book. This process required a bookbinding press and the specialized skills of a bookbinder. The first recorded book printed on an American printing press that necessitated the services of a bookbinder was The Whole Book of Psalms, published in Cambridge in 1640. John Ratcliff, active in the seventeenth century, is identified as the first bookbinder in colonial America, credited with binding Eliot's Indian Bible in 1663.
Some booksellers and publishers, such as [William Parks_(publisher)], [Isaiah Thomas_(publisher)], and [Daniel Henchman_(publisher)], performed their own bookbinding. However, bookbinders in general were often obscure figures, their names rarely associated with the works they bound. There were few exceptions where bookbinders' names were included in inscriptions alongside the printer on the title page or inside cover. A few books bound by [Andrew Barclay] of Boston provide some of the known examples of works containing the bookbinder's name on a trade label.
Paper Production in the Colonies
The manufacturing of paper was essential to the printing and publishing industry, bringing together many individuals in the effort to collect linen rags used in paper production. Because there were no newspapers in the colonies before 1700, paper was not yet a critical commodity in high demand. Books were uncommon and typically imported. The first printing presses were established in Cambridge, Massachusetts Bay colony, in 1638, with others soon emerging in New York, Boston, and Philadelphia, but the overall production of printed matter remained limited. As the 18th century progressed, more printing presses and newspapers came into existence, and the shortage of paper began to be felt by printers.
[William Rittenhouse], in partnership with [William Bradford_(printer,_born_1663)], established the first paper mill in colonial America in 1690 on Monoshone Creek, a tributary of the [Wissahickon Creek] north of Philadelphia. It remained the only paper mill in the colonies for twenty years. The Rittenhouse family also constructed other paper mills, with their last one built in 1770.
The second paper mill in America was erected by another Germantown settler named William De Wees, who was the brother-in-law of Nicholas Rittenhouse, William's son and an apprentice at the Rittenhouse mill. The third paper mill to emerge was established by Thomas Wilcox on [Chester Creek] in [Delaware County, Pennsylvania], twenty miles from Philadelphia. Wilcox had sought employment at Rittenhouse's paper mill, but paper production was still in its infancy, and business was slow. After several years of saving money, he managed to establish his own paper mill in 1729.
Through the efforts of [Daniel Henchman_(publisher)], the first paper mill north of New Jersey was established in 1729 at [Milton] on the [Neponset River]. The shortage, however, worsened in the years approaching the American Revolution and became acute when the war finally broke out. Benjamin Franklin and [William Parks_(publisher)] established a paper mill in [Williamsburg, Virginia] in 1742, the first in the Virginia colony. Prior to 1765, most of the paper used by colonial printers had to be imported from England, as the existing colonial paper mills, predominantly located in Pennsylvania, were unable to meet the demands of the growing colonies.
Benjamin Franklin was actively involved in organizing the collection of rags for papermaking. His sales of this material to papermakers, along with his sales of paper to colonial printers, reached considerable volumes. In this capacity, his contributions and advisory role proved him to be a significant factor in colonial papermaking and its trade. Franklin took a particular interest in paper production in the colonies, especially in Pennsylvania, and is credited with establishing eighteen paper mills in that province. Consequently, Delaware County in Pennsylvania became a center for paper mills in the later years of the 18th century. Franklin, as a writer, often wrote extensively about the importance of papermaking and its integral role in the printing and publishing industry. In June 1788, he presented a [treatise] before the [American Philosophical Society] in Philadelphia entitled, "Description of the Process to be Observed in Making Large Sheets of Paper in the Chinese Manner, with one Smooth Surface."
When the colonial assemblies passed [nonimportation agreements] in 1769, following the Stamp Act of 1765 and the Townshend Acts of 1767, the paper shortage became severe. By 1775, the existing supply of imported paper was nearly exhausted, and the fifty-three colonial paper mills proved insufficient to meet the demand. This situation prompted colonial governments and even the Continental Congress to take action to increase paper output. Various newspapers also rose to the occasion, rallying many colonists to aid in the production of paper. Newspapers such as the Pennsylvania Gazette and the Virginia Gazette published articles highlighting the need for this essential raw material and appealed to the public to collect linen rags, offering a bonus in addition to their value to those who contributed the greatest annual quantity of the much-needed material. Eventually, paper would be produced from sawdust, but this and other major innovations in papermaking did not occur until the 1790s.
"Laid Paper" and "Wove Paper"
The three fundamental elements essential for printing and publishing were the printing press, ink, and paper. At various times, any of these items could be difficult to acquire, particularly paper, which required a paper mill and a skilled workforce for its manufacture. The paper produced in the American colonies throughout the greater part of the eighteenth century was a variety known as "laid paper," in contrast to the "wove" paper that came into use late in that century. When held up to the light, laid paper revealed numerous fine lines running the length of the sheet, intersected at intervals of about an inch by coarser lines, known as "chain" lines. These were impressions formed by the bottom of the mold, where fine wires ran from end to end, secured by coarser wires that crossed the mold from side to side. It was not until 1757 that the British type designer [John Baskerville] invented his "wove paper." This paper was produced by a mold composed of tightly woven fine brass wires, resulting in a much smoother surface that lacked the wire and chain lines found in laid paper. The smoother surface of wove paper allowed for a more distinct and clearer printed result. Wove paper was regularly used in England soon after its invention and became popular among printers producing fine books. In 1777, Benjamin Franklin acquired some of this wove paper and took it with him to France, where he introduced it to various individuals. By 1782, it was being successfully manufactured in that country. Wove paper was subsequently produced in the paper mills of the now independent United States. The earliest known use is found in examples by [Isaiah Thomas_(publisher)] in Worcester in 1795, after which it was soon adopted by most American printers.
Prominent Early American Printers and Publishers
- Jane Aitken 1764–1832
- Robert Aitken (publisher)) 1734–1802
- Thomas Allen (printer and publisher)] 1755-1826
- Francis Bailey (publisher)) 1744—1817
- Robert Bell (publisher)) 1725–1784
- Andrew Bradford 1686–1742
- William Bradford (printer, born 1663)) 1660–1752
- William Bradford (printer, born 1719)) 1719–1791
- John Campbell (editor)) 1653–1728
- Samuel Campbell (printer and publisher) 1765-1836
- Mathew Carey 1760–1839
- John Carter (printer)) 1745–1814
- Francis Childs (printer)) (1763–1830)
- Isaac Collins (printer) 1746–1817
- James Davis (printer)) (1721–1785)
- John Day (printer)) 1522–1584
- Stephen Daye 1594–1668
- Gregory Dexter (1610–1700)
- Thomas Dobson (printer)) 1751–1823
- John Dunlap 1747–1812
- Benjamin Edes 1732–1803
- John Fenno 1751–1798
- Thomas Fleet (printer)) (1685–1758)
- John Foster (printer)) (1648–1681)
- Daniel Fowle (printer)) 1715–1787
- Benjamin Franklin 1705–1790
- James Franklin (printer)) 1697–1735
- Philip Freneau (1752–1832)
- Hugh Gaine — 1726–1807
- Sarah Updike Goddard 1701–1770
- Mary Katherine Goddard 1738–1816
- William Goddard (publisher)) 1740–1817
- Bartholomew Green Sr. (printer)) 1666–1732
- Samuel Green (printer)) 1614–1702
- Jonas Green early 1700s–1767
- David Hall (printer)) 1714–1772
- Nicholas Hasselbach) (1749–1769)
- Anthony Haswell (printer)) 1756–1816
- Daniel Henchman (publisher)) 1689–1761
- Robert Hodge (printer and publisher) 1746-1813
- John Holt (publisher)) 1721–1784
- James Humphreys (printer)) 1748–1810
- William Hunter (publisher)) early 1700s–1761
- Marmaduke Johnson 1628-1674
- Samuel Keimer 1689–1742
- Samuel Kneeland (printer)) 1696–1769
- Samuel Loudon (1727–1813)
- Hugh Meredith 1697–1749
- James Parker (publisher)) 1714–1770
- William Parks (publisher)) 1699–1750
- Richard Pierce (publisher)) ?-1691
- Alexander Purdie (publisher) 1743–1779
- William Rind 1733–1773
- Clementina Rind 1740–1774
- James Rivington 1724–1802
- Joseph Royle (publisher)) 1732–1766
- Benjamin Russell (journalist)) 1761–1845
- Christopher Sower (elder)) 1693–1758
- Christopher Sower (younger)) 1721–1784
- Christopher Sower III 1754–1799
- Solomon Southwick (1773–1839)
- William Strahan (publisher)) 1715–1785
- Isaiah Thomas (publisher)) 1749–1831
- Ann Timothy 1727–1792
- Elizabeth Timothy 1700–1757
- Louis Timothee 1699–1738
- Peter Timothy 1724–1782
- Benjamin Towne mid 1700s–1793
- William Williams (printer and publisher)) 1787–1850
- Thomas Whitemarsh (printer)) (? – 1733)
- John Peter Zenger 1697–1746
See also
- History of printing
- History of journalism
- History of American newspapers
- History of newspaper publishing
- Newspapers in the United States
- Colonial history of the United States
- Bibliography of Early American publishers and printers
- Newspapers of colonial America
- Early American currency
- Robert Moffat (missionary),— First to translate and print the Bible in a mission in Africa.
Portals
Notes
- ^ Not to be confused with the rival newspaper of the same name, published also in Williamsburg [38]
- ^ Franklin and Meredith began the paper with No. 40 [51]
- ^ Hall to Franklin, June 20, 1765, Franklin papers, 12: 188–189 [57]
- ^ The counterfeiting of ten shilling notes was a problem in Rhode Island at this time, and Franklin explained why they were so easy to duplicate and offered an alternative method, but he was passed over for Samuel Vernon for the job. [85]
- ^ Daye's printing press is depicted on a 1939 U.S. Postage stamp, commemorating the 300th anniversary of printing in colonial America.
- ^ No reference can be found in the Journals of the Virginia House of Delegates about the printing of Jefferson's Bill as it was submitted to the May 1779 session, though it is attributed to the year 1785 in the bibliographies of Sabin and others, it was printed in the summer of 1779 as a broadside. [92]
- ^ Other than the Bible itself, [Michael Wigglesworth], with editorial comment by [Cotton Mather], both Puritan ministers, published [The Day of Doom], the most popular book in colonial America, which could be found in virtually every Puritan home. [93] [94]
- ^ The thirty-three regulations are outlined in [Clyde Duniway's] work of 1906. [96]
- ^ Galloway was a former speaker of the Pennsylvania General Assembly and later served as delegate to the First Continental Congress from Pennsylvania.
- ^ Galloway had harbored a deep resentment of the Presbyterians that dated back to the 1760s and with whom he regarded as rioters and of the baser elements of society. [109]
- ^ Franklin emphasized the important role of general religion when he wrote, "If men are so wicked as we now see them with religion, what would they be without it?" [113]
- ^ Originally printed in 1744, republished by Samuel T. Armstrong in 1823 [119]
- ^ The duties or taxes imposed by the Stamp Act had to be paid in gold or silver. [125] The Stamp Act imposed a Sterling Halfpenny on every half sheet of newspaper, two Shillings Sterling on every advertisement, and Fourpence Sterling on every almanac. [126]
- ^ [Bernard Bailyn] has won several awards, including two Pulitzer Prizes for history. (1968 and 1987)
- ^ Samuel Adams frequently used this pen name in his articles also.
- ^ Otis' well-known catch-phrase "Taxation without Representation is tyranny" became the basic Patriot position. [171]
- ^ From September 1777, to July 1778, when the British army was in possession of Philadelphia, the Packet was printed in [Lancaster, Pennsylvania]. [190]
- ^ Transcripts of these documents can be read at the National Archives. [202]
- ^ The [Quasi War] was an undeclared naval war with France from 1798 to 1800, and as such Congress could not authorize funding and military aid without a formal declaration of war.
- ^ Bache was the grandson of [Benjamin Franklin]. [208] He died of yellow fever before he ever stood trial for libel. Before he died he was assaulted by Clement Humphreys for his public attacks on George Washington. [209] [210]
- ^ Adams in later years defended his actions claiming that the Acts were war measures at a time when there was much concern over enemies within the country who were sympathetic to France. [215]
- ^ Noted Jefferson historian [Dumas Malone] said that Jefferson "... took the most extreme states-rights position of his entire life" in his opposition to the Alien and Sedition Acts. [221]
- ^ Accounts vary, and controversy over whether it was Gutenberg or [Laurens Janszoon Coster] who invented movable type has existed for hundreds of years. [224] [225]
- ^ Also spelled as Sauer
Citations
- ^ Hildeburn, 1885, p. vi.
- ^ Adelman, 2013, p. 519.
- ^ Berthold, 1970, p. 37.
- ^ a b c Schlesinger, 1935, p. 63.
- ^ a b Eldridge, 1995, p. 18,
- ^ Roden, 1905, p. 10.
- ^ Morgan, 1953, pp. 187–188.
- ^ Thomas, 1847, pp. xxi, 140, 158.
- ^ Berthold, 1970, p. 1.
- ^ Wroth, 1922, p. V.
- ^ Adelman, 2010, p. 715.
- ^ Frasca, 2006, p. 13.
- ^ Clark, 1991, 243.
- ^ Moore, 1886, p. 22.
- ^ Thomas, 1874, vol. I, pp. 89, 94.
- ^ Littlefield, 1907, p. 13.
- ^ a b Wroth, 1938, p. 19.
- ^ Thomas, 1874, vol. I, p. 94.
- ^ a b The Antiquarian Society, 2021 Essay.
- ^ a b Roden, 1905, p. 9.
- ^ Thomas, 1874, vol. I. pp. 49, 90.
- ^ Burns, 2006, pp. 37–38.
- ^ Schlesinger, 1935, p. 64.
- ^ Thomas Jefferson to Edward Carrington, Paris, January 16, 1787.
- ^ Weeks, 1916, p. 18
- ^ Gloege, 2013, pp. 78, 140.
- ^ Humphrey, 2013, pp. 23–26, 127–129.
- ^ Adelman, 2013, pp. 519, 544.
- ^ University of Wisconsin, Department of History, Essay, 2021.
- ^ Jensen, 1968, p. 461.
- ^ a b Thomas, 1847, vol. I, p. lxvii.
- ^ a b Nelson, 1959, p. 160.
- ^ Andrilk, 2012, pp. 111–113.
- ^ Thomas, 1874, p. 137, 144, 150.
- ^ Thomas, 1847, vol. I, p. 83.
- ^ a b Lee, 1917, pp. 85–86.
- ^ Hildeburn, 1885, p. IX.
- ^ a b Wroth, 1922, pp. 86–87
- ^ Frank, 1962, Master of Arts Thesis
- ^ Schlesinger, 1918, pp. 400, 435.
- ^ Hurst, Andrilk (ed.), 2012, p. 128.
- ^ Lee, 1917, pp. 29–30.
- ^ Buckingham, 1850, p. 49.
- ^ Thomas, 1874, p. 29.
- ^ Hudson, 1873, pp. 66–67.
- ^ Buckingham, 1850, pp. 62–64.
- ^ Thomas, 1874, pp. 16, 111.
- ^ Isaacson, 2003, p. 64.
- ^ Aldridge, 1962, p. 77
- ^ Clark & Wetherall, 1989, p. 282
- ^ Franklin, 1895, p. 121
- ^ "Benjamin Franklin Historical Society, Essay". Archived from the original on June 24, 2018. Retrieved September 30, 2021.
- ^ Miller, 1961, pp. 97–98.
- ^ Bailyn & Hench (eds.), 1981, pp. 18–19.
- ^ Isaacson, 2003, pp. 127, 181.
- ^ Frasca, 2006, p. 125.
- ^ a b Bailyn & Hench (eds.), 1981, p. 25.
- ^ Wilson & Fiske, 1887, p. 39.
- ^ Johnson, 1904, p. 1872.
- ^ Elliot, 1965, p. 7.
- ^ Thomas, 1874, Vol. II, p. 166.
- ^ Lee, 1917, pp. 53–54.
- ^ Wroth, 1938, p. 21.
- ^ a b Thomas, 1874, vol. II, pp. 85–86.
- ^ Schlesinger, 1958, p. 57.
- ^ Connecticut Newspaper Project, Connecticut State Library, November 1996.
- ^ Thomas, 1874, vol. II, p. 83.
- ^ Thomas, 1847, vol. II, pp. 138–139.
- ^ Andrilk, 2012, p. 194.
- ^ Thomas, 1847, vol. II, p. 142.
- ^ Museum of the American Revolution, Essay.
- ^ Dickens, 1964, pp. 166, 283.
- ^ King, 1999. pp. 164-178
- ^ a b Brigham, 1936, p. 536.
- ^ Winship, 1945, p. 204.
- ^ Matteson; Malone (ed.), 1943, v. 10, p. 110.
- ^ Duniway, 1906, pp. 54–56.
- ^ Eliot, 2003, p. 13.
- ^ Green, 1909, p. 24.
- ^ Eldridge, Journal, 1995, p. 355.
- ^ Eldridge, Journal, 1995, p. 337.
- ^ Streeter, 1856, p. 3.
- ^ Duniway, 1906, p. 70.
- ^ a b Wroth, 1938, p. 176.
- ^ a b Scott, 1958, pp. 217–218.
- ^ Reese, 1990, Essay.
- ^ a b Weeks, 1891, p. 6.
- ^ Kimber, 1937, p. 11.
- ^ Hudson, 1873, pp. 102–103.
- ^ Lee, 1917, p. 55.
- ^ Jefferson, 1779.
- ^ Jefferson, 1779, National Archives.
- ^ a b Roden, 1905, pp. 95–96.
- ^ Wigglesworth, 1867 [1662].
- ^ Duniway, 1906, p. 11.
- ^ Duniway, 1906, pp. 11–14.
- ^ Duniway, 1906, pp. 10–15.
- ^ Nelson, 1959, pp. 162–163.
- ^ Wroth, 1938, p. 7.
- ^ De Normandie, 1912, pp. 364–365.
- ^ Cogley, 1991, p. 227.
- ^ Newgass, 1958, p. 32.
- ^ Thomas, 1874, Vol. I, pp. 107–108.
- ^ Drake, 1856, pp. 630, 774.
- ^ Wroth, 1922, pp. 27–28.
- ^ Wroth, 1938, pp. 138–139.
- ^ Roden, 1905, pp. 8, 143.
- ^ Wroth, 1922, pp. 75–77.
- ^ Baldwin, 1902, 26:3, pp. 291–292.
- ^ Galloway, 1780, pp. 3, 55.
- ^ Frasca, 2006, p. 40.
- ^ Weintraub, 1976, p. 232.
- ^ Bralier, 1976, p. 57.
- ^ Kidd, 2017, pp. 8, 68.
- ^ Adelman, 2013, p. 522.
- ^ Hildeburn, 1885, p. viii.
- ^ Adelman, 2013, p. 535.
- ^ Wroth, 1938, p. 237.
- ^ a b Prince, 1823 [1744].
- ^ Burns, 2006, p. 123.
- ^ Morgan, 1953, p. 73.
- ^ Fallows, 1923, pp. 28–29, 88.
- ^ Morgan, 1953, p. 15.
- ^ Stamp Act, 1895 [1765], pp. 1–34.
- ^ Maier, 1991, p. 51.
- ^ a b c Bailyn & Hench (eds.), 1981, p. 23.
- ^ Thomas, 1874, vol. I, p. xxxii.
- ^ Lee, 1917, pp. 55–56.
- ^ Schlesinger, 1935, pp. 67, 74
- ^ Fallows, 1903, pp. 34, 93.
- ^ Thomas, 1874, vol. II, p. 10.
- ^ Ashley, 1985, vol. XLIII, pp. 249, 351.
- ^ Thomas, 1874, Vol. II, pp.130–131.
- ^ Dyer, 1982, p. 88.
- ^ Thomas, 1874, pp. xxxii, 158.
- ^ Thomas, 1874, p. 10.
- ^ Irvin, 2003, p. 202.
- ^ Wroth, 1922, p. 83
- ^ Bergan, 2005, pp. 6–7 28.
- ^ Gibson, 1954, p. 181.
- ^ Miller, 1959, pp. 149, 181, 250.
- ^ Schlesinger, 1936, p. 314.
- ^ Frasca, 2006, p. 162,
- ^ Johannesen, 1975.
- ^ Dickinson, 1768, title page.
- ^ National Humanities Center, 2013: A Selection from Resolutions, News Reports, Essays, Illustrations, Poetry & A History.
- ^ Wroth, 1938, pp. 142–143.
- ^ Weeks, 1916, p. 43.
- ^ Maxson, 1968, p. 118.
- ^ Hosmer, 1899, p. 134.
- ^ Ramsay, 1789, vol. II, p. 319.
- ^ Schlesinger, 1958, p. vii.
- ^ Bailyn, 1967, pp. v–vii.
- ^ Brauer, 1976, p. 1.
- ^ Eldridge, 1995, p. 13.
- ^ Hosmer, 1899, pp. 10–11.
- ^ Thomas, 1874, pp. 260–261.
- ^ Saillant, 2015, Encyclopedia article.
- ^ Adelman, 2013, p. 540.
- ^ Maier, 1991, p. 218.
- ^ Thomas, 1874, p. lviii, 6.
- ^ Thomas, 1874, vol. I, p. 18.
- ^ Parkinson, 2021, Essay.
- ^ Dickerson, 1951, p. 468.
- ^ Thomas, 1847, p. vol. I, pp. 172, 313.
- ^ Thomas, 1847, vol. I, pp. 300–301.
- ^ Potter & Calhoon; Bailyn & Hench (eds.), 1981, pp. 37, 232.
- ^ Yodelis, 1975, p. 16.
- ^ Thomas, 1874, p. lix.
- ^ Hosmer, 1899, pp. 129–130.
- ^ Hosmer, 1899, pp. 44–45, 101.
- ^ Hosmer, 1899, pp. 129–134.
- ^ Burns, 2006, p. 137.
- ^ Maier, 1991, p. 264.
- ^ Adelman, 2013, pp. 534, 540.
- ^ Thomas Jefferson, John Dunlap (ed), 1774.
- ^ Thomas, 1874, vol. I, p. 259.
- ^ Wendorf, 2014, p. 318.
- ^ Adelman, 2013, pp. 516–517.
- ^ Yost, 1961, p. 32.
- ^ Depew, Andrilk (ed.), 2012, p. 332.
- ^ Depew, Andrilk (ed.), 2012, pp. 312–215.
- ^ Maier, 2010, pp. 11–13, 19.
- ^ Maier, 2010, p. ix.
- ^ Furtwangler, 1984, pp. 51, 53, 55.
- ^ Encyclopædia Britannica:Founding Fathers.
- ^ a b Hamilton, 1936, pp. 97–98.
- ^ Slack, 2015, p. 21.
- ^ McCullough, 2001, p. 435.
- ^ a b c d Thomas, 1874, vol. II, p. 139.
- ^ a b Andrilk, 2012, pp. 359–360.
- ^ Maier, 2012, p. 389.
- ^ a b Lee, 1917, p. 100.
- ^ a b University of Wisconsin: Department of History, Essay.
- ^ a b Thomas, 1874, Vol. I, p. lx.
- ^ Adleman, 2013, p. 745.
- ^ Schlesinger, 1958, p. 300.
- ^ Slack, 2015, pp. 37–38.
- ^ Maier, 2010, pp. xiii, 250.
- ^ Bernstein, 2012, p. 377.
- ^ Maier, 2012, p. 384.
- ^ National Archives, Transcript of the Alien and Sedition Acts.
- ^ Library of Congress: Alien and Sedition Acts.
- ^ a b c Powell, 1967, p. 28.
- ^ a b c Lee, 1917, pp. 102–103.
- ^ Watkins, 2004, p. 28.
- ^ a b Lee, 1917, pp. 101–102.
- ^ Thomas, 1874, Vol. I, p. 238.
- ^ a b Jenkins, 2001, p. 188.
- ^ Lee, 1917, p. 103.
- ^ Ferling, 1996, p. 364.
- ^ McCullough, 2001, p. 485.
- ^ a b Halperin, 2016, pp. 1–2, 5.
- ^ Ferling, 1996, p. 369.
- ^ McCullough, 2001, pp. 504–505.
- ^ Slack, 2015, pp. Introduction, 147.
- ^ a b Bradburn, 2008, p. 567.
- ^ Slack, 2015, p. 173.
- ^ Bradburn, 2008, p. 568.
- ^ a b Bradburn, 2008, p. 567–568, 575.
- ^ a b Malone, 1962, pp. xix, 394, 395–397.
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- ^ Wroth, 1938, p. 90.
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Bibliography
-
Further information: Bibliography of early American publishers and printers
-
Adelman, Joseph M. (December 2010). "A Constitutional Conveyance of Intelligence, Public and Private": The Post Office, the Business of Printing, and the American Revolution". Enterprise & Society. 11 (4). Cambridge University Press: 711–754. doi. JSTOR.
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(Fall 2013). "Trans-Atlantic Migration and the Printing Trade in Revolutionary America". Early American Studies. 11 (3). University of Pennsylvania Press: 516–544. doi. JSTOR. S2CID.
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Andrilk, Todd (2012). Reporting the Revolutionary War: before it was history, it was news. Naperville, Ill.: Sourcebooks. ISBN 978-1-4022-69677.
-
Ashley, Perry J. (1985). American newspaper journalists, 1690-1872. Detroit, MI: Gale Research Company. ISBN 978-0-8103-17215.
-
Bailyn, Bernard (1967). The ideological origins of the American Revolution. Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674443013. {{cite book}} : CS1 maint: publisher location (link)
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Bailyn, Bernard; Hench, John B., eds. (1981) [1980]. The Press & the American Revolution. Boston: Northeastern University Press (Originally published: Worcester, Mass.: American Antiquarian Society). ISBN 978-0-9303-50307. (Google book)
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Baldwin, Ernest H. (1902). "Joseph Galloway, the Loyalist Politician (continued)". The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography. 26 (3). University of Pennsylvania Press: 289–321. JSTOR.
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Bernstein, Richard B. (April 2012). "Ratification's Pathfinder, with Some Hints for Future Explorations". The William and Mary Quarterly. 69 (2). Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture: 377–381. doi. JSTOR.
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Berthold, Arthur Benedict (1970). American colonial printing as determined by contemporary cultural forces, 1639-1763. New York: B. Franklin. ISBN 978-0-8337-02616.
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Bradburn, Douglas (July 2008). "A Clamor in the Public Mind: Opposition to the Alien and Sedition Acts". The William and Mary Quarterly. 65 (3). Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture: 565–600. JSTOR.
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Bradsher, Earl Lockridge (1912). Mathew Carey, editor, author and publisher; a study in American literary development. New York: The Columbia University Press. {{cite book}} : CS1 maint: publisher location (link)
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Bralier, Jerald C.; Mead, Sidney E.; Bellah, Robert N. (1976). Bralier, Jerald C. (ed.). Religion and the American revolution. Philadelphia: Fortress Press. ISBN 978-0-8006-12412. {{cite book}} : CS1 maint: publisher location (link)
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Brigham, Clarence Saunders (May 1936). "James Franklin and the Beginnings of Printing in Rhode Island". Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society. 65. Massachusetts Historical Society: 535–544. JSTOR.
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Buckingham, Joseph Tinker (1850). Specimens of newspaper literature: with personal memoirs, anecdotes, and reminiscences. Vol. I. Boston: Charles C. Little and James Brown.
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Buckingham, Joseph Tinker (1850). Specimens of newspaper literature: with personal memoirs, anecdotes, and reminiscences. Vol. II. Boston: Charles C. Little and James Brown.
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Burgan, Michael (2005). The Stamp Act of 1765. Minneapolis, Minn.: Compass Point Books. ISBN 978-0-7565-08463.
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Burns, Eric (2007). Infamous Scribblers: The Founding Fathers and the Rowdy Beginnings of American Journalism. Public Affairs, (of Perseus Books). ISBN 978-1-5864-85436.
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Clark, Charles E. (June 1991). "Boston and the Nurturing of Newspapers: Dimensions of the Cradle, 1690-1741". The New England Quarterly. 64 (2). The New England Quarterly, Inc.: 243–271. doi. JSTOR.
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Cobb, Sanford H. (1902). The rise of religious liberty in America: a history. New York: Macmillan. {{cite book}} : CS1 maint: publisher location (link)
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Carroll, Hugh F. Carroll (1907). Printers and printing in Providence, 1762–1907. Providence Typographical Union. No. 33.
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Cogley, Richard W. (Summer 1991). "John Eliot and the Millennium". Religion and American Culture: A Journal of Interpretation. 1 (2). University of California Press on behalf of the Center for the Study of Religion and American Culture: 227–250. JSTOR.
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De Normandie, James (July 1912). "John Eliot, the Apostle to the Indians". The Harvard Theological Review. 5 (3). Cambridge University Press on behalf of the Harvard Divinity School: 349–370. doi. hdl. JSTOR. S2CID.
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Dickens, Arthur Geoffrey (1964). The English Reformation. New York: Schocken Books. {{cite book}} : CS1 maint: publisher location (link)
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Dickerson, O. M. (December 1951). "British Control of American Newspapers on the Eve of the Revolution". The New England Quarterly. 24 (4). The New England Quarterly, Inc.: 453–468. doi. JSTOR.
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Duniway, Clyde Augustus (1906). The development of freedom of the press in Massachusetts. Vol. XII. New York: Longmans. {{cite book}} : CS1 maint: publisher location (link)
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Dyer, Alan (1982). A biography of James Parker, colonial printer. Troy, N.Y.: Whitston Pubublishing Company. ISBN 9780878752027.
-
Eldridge, Larry D. (1994). A distant heritage: the growth of free speech in early America. New York University Press. ISBN 978-0-5853-26580. (Google book)
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(July 1995). "Before Zenger: Truth and Seditious Speech in Colonial America, 1607–1700". The American Journal of Legal History. 39 (3). Oxford University Press: 337–358. doi. JSTOR.
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Eliot, John (2003). The Eliot Tracts: With Letters from John Eliot to Thomas Thorowgood and Richard Baxter. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-3133-0488-0.
-
Encyclopedia Britannica (2007). Founding Fathers: The Essential Guide to the Men Who Made America. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-11792-7.
-
Fallows, Samuel (1903). Samuel Adams. Milwaukee: H. G. Campbell publishing co.
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Ferling, John E. (1996). John Adams: a life. New York: Henry Holt & Co. ISBN 978-0-8050-45765.
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Ferguson, Lorraine; Scott, Douglass (1990). "A Time Line of American Typography". Design Quarterly (148). Walker Art Center: 25–54. doi. JSTOR.
-
Ford, Thomas K. (1958). Printer in Eighteenth Century Williamsburg: An Account of His Life and Times and of His Craft. Colonial Williamsburg, Virginia: Colonial Williamsburg Foundation. ISBN 978-0-9104-12209. {{cite book}} : ISBN / Date incompatibility (help) Google book
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Frank, Willard Chabot Jr. (April 1962). Rousing a Nation: The Virginia Gazette and the Growing Crisis 1773–1774 (Master of Arts). College of William & Mary. A Thesis Presented to The Faculty of the Department of History, The College of William and Mary in Virginia
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Frasca, Ralph (2006). Benjamin Franklin's printing network: disseminating virtue in early America. University of Missouri Press. ISBN 978-0-8262-16144.
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(May 2006). "The Emergence of the American Colonial Press". Pennsylvania Legacies. 6 (1). University of Pennsylvania Press: 11–15. JSTOR.
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Furtwangler, Albert (1984). The Authority of Publius: A Reading of the Federalist Papers. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-16439.
-
Gloege, Timothy E. W. (March 2013). "The Trouble with "Christian History": Thomas Prince's "Great Awakening"". Church History. 82 (1). Cambridge University Press: 125–165. doi. JSTOR. S2CID.
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Granger, Bruce Ingham (Winter 1956). "The Stamp Act in Satire". American Quarterly. 8 (4). The Johns Hopkins University Press: 368–384. doi. JSTOR.
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Green, Samuel Abbott (1909). John Foster, The Earliest American Engraver and the First Boston Printer. Massachusetts Historical Society.
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Halperin, Terri Diane (2016). The Alien and Sedition Acts of 1798: when a Congressional majority assaulted immigrants and civil liberties. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-1-4214-19695. {{cite book}} : CS1 maint: publisher location (link)
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Hamilton, Milton W. (1936). The Country Printer. Columbia University Press.
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Harlan, Robert D. (First Quarter 1974). "David Hall and the Townshend Acts". The Papers of the Bibliographical Society of America. 68 (1). The University of Chicago Press on behalf of the Bibliographical Society of America: 19–38. doi. JSTOR. S2CID.
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Hildeburn, Charles Swift Riché (1885). A century of printing: The issues of the press in Pennsylvania, 1685–1784. Philadelphia: Press of Matlack & Harvey.
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(1895). Sketches of printers and printing in colonial New York. New York: Dodd, Mead, & Company.
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