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British Army During The American Revolutionary War

The British Army during the American Revolutionary War endured an eight-year ordeal of armed conflict, a struggle that stretched across eastern North America, the Caribbean, and other distant locales. This protracted war, commencing on April 19, 1775, finally concluded with the signing of a treaty on September 3, 1783. Notably, Great Britain found itself without any European allies in this conflict, which began as a confrontation between the Crown and the American insurgents within the Thirteen Colonies. The scope of the war expanded significantly in 1778 when the American insurgents forged a crucial alliance with France, and subsequently gained the support of France's ally, Spain, in 1779.

In June of 1775, the Second Continental Congress, convened in what is now known as Independence Hall in the revolutionary capital of Philadelphia, took the momentous step of appointing George Washington as the commander-in-chief of the Continental Army. This army was meticulously organized by the Congress, consolidating and formalizing the disparate patriot militias into a unified fighting force under Washington's command. This force would engage the British Army in an eight-year war for independence. The following year, in July 1776, the Second Continental Congress, acting as the voice of the Thirteen Colonies, unanimously adopted the Declaration of Independence. This seminal document, largely penned by Thomas Jefferson, was addressed to King George III and articulated the profound reasons why the delegates felt compelled to declare their freedom and independence from the Kingdom of Great Britain. The adoption of this declaration served not only to galvanize the cause of independence within the Thirteen Colonies but also to formally escalate and solidify the Revolutionary War.

For several years, the ultimate outcome of the war remained shrouded in uncertainty, marked by a series of indecisive engagements. However, on October 19, 1781, a decisive turning point occurred with the defeat of the British Army at the Siege of Yorktown. This significant defeat was inflicted by a combined Franco-American force, bolstered by the formidable presence of the French navy. This loss compelled the British to acknowledge the unwinnable nature of the war in North America, ultimately leading them to cede the Thirteen Colonies in eastern North America. This concession was formalized in the Treaty of Paris, signed in 1783, though sporadic fighting persisted for several additional years.

When the American Revolutionary War erupted, the British Army was a volunteer force that had languished from a critical lack of peacetime investment and ineffective recruitment strategies in the decade following the Seven Years' War. To compensate for these deficiencies, the British Crown resorted to the expedient measure of hiring German Hessian mercenary contingents in 1776. These hired troops significantly augmented the army's combat capabilities and served alongside regular British units for the remainder of the war. In 1778, a limited form of impressment, a form of conscription, was introduced in England and Scotland in an attempt to bolster the army's ranks. However, this practice proved deeply unpopular and was subsequently suspended, only to be reintroduced two years later, in 1780.

Several factors contributed to the British Army's eventual defeat. The relentless attrition of constant fighting, the strategic decision by the Kingdom of France to provide substantial naval and army support to the American cause, and the significant withdrawal of British forces from North America in 1778 all played critical roles. The surrender of the British Army, then under the command of Charles Cornwallis, at Yorktown in 1781, proved to be a pivotal moment, contributing to the Whigs securing a parliamentary majority and bringing an end to offensive British military operations in North America.

Structure and Recruitment

The British Army's reliance on impressment, a practice commonly known as "press-ganging," served as a favored method for recruitment. This method, however, was met with considerable public disapproval, leading many individuals to enlist in local militias as a means of avoiding regular army service. Attempts were made to conscript these militia levies, much to the consternation of their commanders. The rivalry between naval and army press gangs, and even between competing ships or regiments, frequently escalated into physical altercations as they vied to secure recruits for their respective units. Some men resorted to self-mutilation to evade the press gangs, while a significant number deserted at the earliest opportunity. Men acquired through impressment were often deemed militarily unreliable. Consequently, regiments with a high proportion of such men were frequently deployed to remote garrisons, such as Gibraltar or the West Indies, where desertion was significantly more difficult.

Following the devastating losses sustained at the Battles of Saratoga and the subsequent outbreak of hostilities with France and Spain, the existing voluntary enlistment measures were deemed insufficient. Between 1775 and 1781, the regular army's strength surged from 48,000 to 121,000 men. In 1778, the army adopted a series of unconventional recruiting measures to further augment its forces. A system of private subscription was implemented, whereby approximately twelve new regiments, totaling 15,000 men, were raised through the contributions of individual towns and noblemen.

In the same year, the government enacted the first of two recruiting acts, which authorized a limited form of impressment in specific regions of England and Scotland under strict regulations. Nevertheless, this measure proved unpopular, and both acts were repealed in May 1780, permanently discontinuing impressment within the army. The recruiting acts of 1778 and 1779 also offered enhanced incentives for voluntarily joining the regular army, including a bounty of £3 and the right to discharge after three years of service, provided the nation was not at war. Thousands of volunteer militia battalions were raised for home defense in Ireland and England, and some of the most capable among these were integrated into the regular army. The British government further expanded its recruitment pool by releasing criminals and debtors from prison on the condition that they enlist in the army. Three entire regiments were formed from this early release program.

By November 1778, the army's establishment was fixed at 121,000 men, including 24,000 foreigners and 40,000 embodied militia, bringing the total force to approximately 161,000 men. This figure was increased the following year to 104,000 men on the British establishment, 23,000 on the Irish establishment, 25,000 Hessians, and 42,000 embodied militia, resulting in a total force of about 194,000 men.

Leadership

The Commander-in-Chief, India nominally held command over Crown forces in the East Indies, while the Commander-in-Chief, North America was responsible for the command of Crown forces in the Americas. However, the British Army lacked a formalized command structure, which often led British commanders to act on their own initiative throughout the war. The position of Commander-in-Chief of the Forces remained vacant until 1778, when it was filled by Jeffery Amherst, 1st Baron Amherst, who held the post until the war's conclusion. Nevertheless, Amherst's influence on strategic decision-making was limited, as he was primarily occupied with organizing home defenses against a threatened invasion in 1779 and suppressing the severe anti-Catholic rioting in 1780.

The overall direction of the British war effort ultimately rested with the Secretary of State for the Colonies, George Germain. Despite holding no formal military rank, Germain was instrumental in appointing and dismissing generals, overseeing provisions and supplies, and shaping much of the strategic planning. While some historians contend that Germain performed his duties effectively, even brilliantly, others argue that he made critical miscalculations and struggled to exert genuine authority over his subordinates in the army.

The Officer Corps

Although a considerable portion of the rank and file originated from the lower classes, and officers were predominantly drawn from the upper echelons of society, the British Army of the mid-18th century recruited officers from a diverse range of social backgrounds. Officers in British service had the option to purchase commissions as a means of advancing through the ranks, a practice that was widespread within the Army. The value of these commissions varied, but they generally reflected the social standing and military prestige associated with the unit; for instance, regiments such as the Guards commanded the highest prices. Wealthy individuals, even those lacking formal military education or practical experience, often secured positions of significant responsibility, which could dilute a regiment's overall effectiveness. However, according to historian Reid, the Georgian army, out of necessity, drew its officers from a broader base than its later Victorian counterpart and was more open to promotions from the ranks. Officers were required to be literate, but there were no formal stipulations regarding their level of education or social standing. Most regimental officers were not from the landed gentry but rather from the middle class, seeking a professional career. The system of sale of commissions, which officially governed the selection and promotion of officers, was, in practice, considerably relaxed during wartime, with more stringent requirements imposed on promotions. Many British officers were professional soldiers rather than dilettantes, demonstrating a readiness to move beyond their drill manuals and adopt innovative tactics.

British officers were known for their heavy drinking. William Howe, for example, was reportedly accustomed to experiencing many "crapulous mornings" during his campaigns in New York. John Burgoyne was also said to have indulged heavily on a nightly basis towards the conclusion of the Saratoga campaign. Both generals were also reported to have sought solace with the wives of subordinate officers to alleviate the stressful burdens of command. During the Philadelphia campaign, British officers caused considerable offense to local Quakers by hosting their mistresses in the very houses where they were quartered.

British Commands in America

In 1776, there were 119 generals of varying ranks in the British Army. However, given that generals never retired, perhaps a third of this number were either too old or too infirm to command in the field. Others were opposed to the war against the colonists or were unwilling to serve for extended periods in North America. Britain faced considerable difficulty in appointing decisive senior military leadership in America. Thomas Gage, the Commander-in-Chief of North America at the war's outset, faced criticism for his perceived leniency towards the rebellious colonists. Jeffrey Amherst was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the Forces in 1778, but he declined a direct command in America, unwilling to take sides in the conflict. Admiral Augustus Keppel similarly expressed his opposition to a command, stating, "I cannot draw the sword in such a cause." The Earl of Effingham resigned his commission when his regiment was ordered to America, while William Howe and John Burgoyne were both apprehensive about military solutions to the crisis. Howe and Henry Clinton both indicated that they were unwilling participants, acting merely under orders.

Sir William Howe, who was selected to succeed Sir Thomas Gage as Commander in Chief in North America, held the 111th position in seniority. Gage and Howe had both served as light infantry commanders in America during the French and Indian War. However, Gage was criticized for underestimating the strength of republican sentiment and was relieved of his command in 1776. Howe benefited from substantial reinforcements and was the brother of Admiral Richard Howe, the Royal Navy's commander in chief in America. The Howe brothers achieved considerable success in 1776 but failed to decisively defeat Washington's Army. They also attempted to initiate peace talks, which ultimately proved fruitless.

In 1777, General John Burgoyne was authorized to undertake an ambitious campaign southward from present-day Canada. Despite initial successes, he pressed onward despite significant supply challenges and was ultimately surrounded and forced to capitulate at Saratoga. This event precipitated the intervention of Britain's European rivals. In contrast to his Philadelphia campaign of the same year, during which the British Army captured and occupied the revolutionary capital of Philadelphia, Howe failed to achieve decisive results in present-day New York state. He was recalled and replaced by Sir Henry Clinton.

Clinton was regarded as one of the most studious and well-read experts on tactics and strategy. However, even before assuming the role of commander in chief, he had expressed reluctance to succeed Howe. He took command at a critical juncture when the widening of the war necessitated the deployment of troops to other theaters of conflict. Clinton became embittered by the government's insistence that he achieve a successful conclusion to the war with fewer troops and resources than had been available to Howe. He repeatedly sought to resign and engaged in disputes with naval commanders and his own subordinates.

While Clinton maintained control of New York, Lord Cornwallis conducted a largely independent campaign in the southern states. Cornwallis was one of the most aristocratic of the British generals who served in America, but he had dedicated himself to a military career from an early age and insisted on sharing the hardships of his soldiers. After achieving early victories, he was unable to decisively defeat the American Continental armies opposing him or to garner substantial Loyalist support. Acting on Clinton's orders, Cornwallis attempted to establish a fortified enclave on the Chesapeake coast but was subsequently cut off by a French fleet and compelled to surrender at the Siege of Yorktown, an event that effectively signaled the end of major British efforts to regain control of America.

The final effective British commander in chief in America was Sir Guy Carleton. Carleton had successfully defended Quebec in 1775 but had been overlooked in favor of Burgoyne in 1777 due to his perceived excessive caution. As commander in chief, his primary objective was to ensure the safety of the numerous Loyalists and former slaves residing in the British enclave in New York.

Carleton skillfully managed the British withdrawal from the American seaboard. This process began with the evacuation from Savannah to Charleston in July 1782, followed by the subsequent evacuations of Charleston in December 1782 and New York City in November 1783. Under the terms of the 1783 Anglo-Spanish Treaty of Versailles, Britain returned Florida to Spain. The Royal Navy facilitated another large-scale migration of Loyalists to the Bahamas, Jamaica, and Great Britain.

Strength

The following figures represent the British Army's strength as reported by Lord North. These numbers exclude the Irish establishment, Hanoverian troops, militia, and the private armies of the East India Company. The totals specifically for North America are indicated in parentheses.

  • April 1775: 27,063 (6,991)
  • March 1776: 45,130 (14,374)
  • August 1777: 57,637 (23,694)
  • October 1778: 112,239 (52,561)
  • July 1779: 131,691 (47,624)
  • September 1780: 147,152 (44,554)
  • September 1781: 149,282 (47,301)
  • March 1782: 150,310 (47,223)

A detailed order of battle for British Army forces in North America around October 1778 reveals the following distribution of effective troops (approximately one-third of the total strength is discounted due to disease, desertion, and other causes):

  • New York Garrison (17,452 effectives):

    • 16th and 17th Light Dragoons (two regiments)
    • Guards (two battalions)
    • Light Infantry (two battalions)
    • Grenadiers (two battalions)
    • 7th, 17th, 23rd, 26th, 33rd, 37th, 42nd, 44th, 57th, 63rd, and 64th Foot regiments
    • Six provincial regiments/battalions
    • Queen's Rangers regiment
    • 13 Hessian regiments plus Jäger

  • Expedition for West Indies (5,147 effectives):

    • 4th, 5th, 15th, 27th, 28th, 35th, 40th, 46th, 49th, and 55th Foot regiments

  • Embarked for East Florida (3,657 effectives):

    • 71st Foot regiment
    • Five provincial regiments/battalions
    • Two Hessian regiments

  • Embarked for West Florida (1,102 effectives):

    • Two provincial regiments
    • Waldeck regiment

  • Embarked for Halifax (646 effectives):

    • One provincial regiment
    • One Hessian regiment

  • Rhode Island Garrison (5,740 effectives):

    • 22nd, 38th, 43rd, and 54th Foot regiments
    • Two provincial regiments
    • Four Hessian and two Anspach regiments

Infantry

Infantry constituted the core of the Crown forces throughout the war. Two of the most heavily engaged infantry regiments, the 23rd and the 33rd, earned lasting reputations for their proficiency and professionalism on the battlefield.

In the mid-18th century, the Army's uniforms were highly ornate, and military maneuvers were ponderous and slow, characterized by "innumerable words of command." The experiences gained in the North American environment during the French and Indian War necessitated adaptations in tactics and dress.

During engagements, the redcoats typically formed in two ranks rather than three, a formation designed to enhance mobility and firepower. The Army further refined this formation during the American Revolution by adopting looser ranks, a tactic colloquially known as the "loose files and American scramble." Soldiers were positioned at greater distances from one another, and three distinct "orders" were employed to adjust the spacing as needed: "order" (two intervals), "open order" (four intervals), and "extended order" (ten intervals). British infantry advanced at a 'trot' and engaged in fluid battles, often relying on the bayonet. While this modified formation improved the British army's mobility and tactical adaptability, the abandonment of linear formations was later cited by some British officers as a contributing factor to defeats in the latter stages of the war, such as the Battle of Cowpens, where British troops faced denser formations deployed in successive lines.

The hired German regiments, the Hessians, who joined Howe's army in 1776, also adopted the two-rank formation favored by the British army, but they maintained their traditional close-order fighting system throughout the war.

Light Infantry

In 1758, Thomas Gage, then a lieutenant colonel, established an experimental light infantry regiment known as the 80th Regiment of Light-Armed Foot, considered to be the first such unit to serve in the British Army. Other officers, notably George Howe, William Howe's elder brother, had independently adapted their regiments to function as light infantry. Upon assuming command as commander-in-chief in North America in 1758, General Jeffery Amherst directed every regiment to form light infantry companies drawn from their existing ranks. The 80th regiment was disbanded in 1764, and the other ad-hoc light infantry units were re-designated as "line" units. However, infantry regiments retained their light companies until the mid-19th century.

In 1771 and 1772, the British army began implementing a new training regimen for its light infantry companies. Much of this early training was found to be inadequate, with officers often uncertain about the effective deployment of light companies. Many of the most promising young officers serving in light companies sought commissions elsewhere, as being a "light-bob" officer carried little social prestige.

In 1772, General George Townshend, 1st Marquess Townshend authored "Instructions, and Training and Equipping of the new Light Companies," which was distributed to regiments on the Irish establishment. This manual provided practical guidance for training light companies and offered tactical advice for skirmishing in broken terrain, whether operating independently, in sections, or in larger groups. Townshend also introduced a novel communication method for light infantry officers commanding loosely deployed, scattered troops: whistle signals, rather than bugle calls or drums, were used to convey movements such as advancing, retreating, extending, or contracting formations.

In 1774, William Howe authored a manual for Light Infantry Drill and established an experimental Light Infantry battalion trained at Salisbury camp. This unit served as the model for all regular light infantry serving in North America. Howe's system differed in its emphasis on developing composite battalions of light infantry, better suited for large-scale campaigning in North America, rather than focusing solely on individual companies. Upon assuming command in America, Howe issued orders for every regiment that had not already done so to form a company of light infantry. These soldiers were typically selected from the fittest and most proficient members of the rank and file.

The light infantry companies from several regiments were commonly consolidated into composite light infantry battalions. Similar composite battalions were frequently formed from the grenadier companies of line regiments. Historically, grenadiers were chosen from the tallest soldiers, but, akin to light infantry companies, they were often selected from among the most capable soldiers within their parent units.

Tactics

At the Battle of Vigie Point in 1778, a contingent of British infantry, seasoned by colonial warfare, inflicted heavy casualties on a significantly larger French force that advanced in column formations. Clayton describes how "...the use of light infantry, well led by their officers and NCOs, was of key importance in advance as skirmishers fired on French columns from behind cover; when the French attempted to extend they were threatened with bayonet charge... and when the French advanced they fell back to prepare for further skirmishing and ambushes from all directions." Fortescue similarly recounts the engagement: "Advancing in skirmish order and keeping themselves always under cover, the light companies maintained at close range the most destructive fire on the Heavy French columns... At last one of the enemy's battalions fairly gave way and the light companies followed them to complete the rout with the bayonet."

Loyalists

A significant number of scouts and skirmishers were also drawn from the Loyalist population and Native American allies. The renowned Robert Rogers formed the Queen's Rangers, while his brother James Rogers led the King's Rangers. Loyalist pioneer John Butler raised the provincial regiment known as Butler's Rangers, who were heavily engaged in the Northern colonies and were accused of participating in Native American-led massacres at Wyoming and Cherry Valley.

The majority of Native American tribes sided with the British cause, and the Mohawk leader Joseph Brant commanded Iroquois and Loyalist forces in campaigns along the New York Frontier. Colonel Thomas Brown led another group of King's Rangers in the Southern colonies, defending East Florida from invasion, conducting raids on the southern frontier, and participating in the conquest of the southern colonies. Colonial Governor John Murray, 4th Earl of Dunmore raised a regiment composed entirely of freed slaves, known as the Ethiopian Regiment, which saw service in the early skirmishes of the war.

The Loyalist units proved vital to the British, primarily due to their intimate knowledge of the local terrain. One of the most successful of these units was formed by an escaped slave and veteran of the Ethiopian Regiment, known as Colonel Tye. He led the so-called Black Brigade in numerous raids across New York and New Jersey, disrupting supply lines, capturing rebel officers, and assassinating suspected leaders. He succumbed to wounds sustained in 1780.

Uniform and Equipment

The standard uniform for the British army comprised the traditional red coat, complemented by cocked hats, white breeches, and black gaiters with leather knee caps. Hair was typically kept short or tied in plaits atop the head. As the war progressed, many line regiments began to replace their cocked hats with slouch hats. The full "marching order," which a line infantryman was expected to carry on campaign, was extensive; however, British soldiers often discarded much of their equipment before battle. Soldiers were also issued with greatcoats for protection against adverse weather conditions, which were frequently repurposed as tents or blankets. Drummers typically wore colors in reverse of their regimental designation, carried the coat of arms of their colonel, and wore mitre caps. Most German regiments wore dark blue coats, while cavalry and Loyalists often wore green.

Grenadiers frequently wore bearskin headdresses and typically carried hangers, a type of curved sword, as a sidearm. Light infantry were issued with short coats, devoid of lace, and wore an ammunition pouch containing nine cartridges arranged in a row for easy access, positioned across the stomach rather than at the side. They did not employ bayonets but carried naval boarding axes.

The most common infantry weapon was the Brown Bess musket, used with a fixed bayonet. However, some light companies were equipped with short-barreled muskets or the Pattern 1776 rifle. The British army also conducted limited experimental trials with the breech-loading Ferguson rifle, but its complexity in mass production rendered it unsuitable for widespread use.

Major Patrick Ferguson formed a small experimental company of riflemen armed with this weapon, but it was disbanded in 1778. In many instances, British forces relied on Jägers from the German contingents to provide rifle-equipped skirmishers.

Colours

British infantry regiments carried two flags: the King's Colour, which was the Union flag, and their regimental colour, which displayed the color of the regiment's facings. In 18th and 19th-century warfare, 'the colours' often served as a rallying point during the most intense actions. Both the regimental standards were highly valued and a source of immense pride for each regiment. However, due to the tactical constraints of conducting the war and the adapted fighting methods, it is probable that British regiments used their colours primarily for ceremonial purposes in America, particularly under the command of Howe and Cornwallis.

In the early years of the war, however, the Hessians continued to carry their colours on campaign. Major-General Baron Friedrich Wilhelm von Lossberg noted, "They [the British] have their colours with them only when quartered, while we carry them with us wherever the regiments go... the country is bad for fighting. Nothing worries me more than the colours, for the regiments cannot stay together in an attack because of the many walls, swamps, and stone cliffs. The English cannot lose their colours, for they do not carry them with them." During the Saratoga campaign, Baroness Riedesel, wife of a German officer, saved the colours of the Brunswick regiments by burning the staffs and concealing the flags within her mattress.

Daily Life

The considerable distance separating the colonies from the British Isles placed immense strain on logistics, frequently resulting in the army facing shortages of food and supplies in the field, compelling them to forage for sustenance. Soldiers dedicated a significant amount of time to the meticulous cleaning and preparation of their clothing and equipment.

The harsh realities of army life necessitated severe discipline. Crimes such as theft or desertion could result in execution by hanging, and punishments like lashings were administered publicly. Discipline was notably stringent within the armed forces, and the lash was employed for even minor offenses, often with extreme severity. For instance, two redcoats received 1,000 lashes each for robbery during the Saratoga campaign, while another was given 800 lashes for striking a superior officer. Flogging was an even more prevalent punishment in the Royal Navy and became intrinsically associated with the stereotypical hardiness of sailors.

Despite the rigorous discipline, a marked lack of self-discipline permeated all ranks of the British forces. Soldiers exhibited an intense predilection for gambling, often to such an extent that they would wager their own uniforms. Many indulged heavily in alcohol, a habit not confined to the lower ranks. The army frequently suffered from poor discipline away from the battlefield, with gambling and excessive drinking being common among all ranks. However, reports from the American civilian population indicated that British troops generally treated non-combatants with scrupulousness. Soldiers' families were permitted to accompany them in the field. Wives often performed essential duties such as washing, cooking, mending uniforms, and serving as nurses during times of battle or sickness.

Training

The training regimen was rigorous, encompassing firing drills, bayonet practice, tactical movements, physical conditioning, marching, and formation exercises, all integral to preparing soldiers for military campaigns.

Throughout the war, the British army conducted large-scale mock battles at the camps of Warley and Coxheath in southern England. The primary motivation behind these exercises was to prepare for a potential invasion. By all accounts, these camps were massive in scale, involving upwards of 18,000 men.

One militia officer wrote to a friend in August 1778: "We are frequently marched out in considerable bodies to the heaths or commons adjacent, escorted by the artillery, where we go through various movements, maneuvers and firings of a field of battle. In these expeditions, let me assure you, there is much fatigue, and no little danger...the grandest and most beautiful imitations of action are daily presented to us, and believe me, the army, in general, are becoming greatly enamored by war." The maneuvers conducted at Warley camp were the subject of a painting by Philip James de Loutherbourg titled Warley Camp: The Mock Attack, 1779. He also created detailed illustrations of the uniforms worn by the light infantry and grenadiers present at the camp, which are considered among the most accurate surviving depictions of 18th-century British soldiers.

Cavalry

Cavalry played a less prominent role in British armies compared to other European armies of the era. Britain did not possess armored cuirassiers or heavy cavalry. British doctrine tended to favor the use of medium cavalry and dragoons. The cavalry establishment consisted of three regiments of Household Cavalry, seven regiments of Dragoon Guards, and six regiments of Light Dragoons. Several hundred officers and enlisted men from cavalry regiments stationed in Britain volunteered for service in America and were transferred to infantry regiments.

Due to the logistical challenges of campaigning in North America, cavalry played a limited role in the war. The transportation of horses by ship was exceedingly difficult, with many horses perishing during the long voyages and those that survived often requiring several weeks to recover upon arrival. The British Army primarily utilized small numbers of dragoons who served as scouts and were extensively employed in irregular operations. One of the most successful units of this type, the British Legion, combined light cavalry and light infantry, conducting raiding operations into enemy-held territory. The scarcity of cavalry had significant tactical implications for the conduct of the war. It meant that British forces could not fully capitalize on their victories when outmaneuvering continental armies in battles such as Long Island and Brandywine. Without a substantial cavalry force to pursue retreating American forces, these armies could often escape complete destruction.

Foreign Units in British Service

Due to manpower shortages at the war's commencement, the British government engaged a considerable number of German mercenaries, primarily recruited from Hesse-Cassel. Units were provided by Count William of Hesse-Hanau, Duke Charles I of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, Prince Frederick of Waldeck, Margrave Karl Alexander of Ansbach-Bayreuth, and Prince Frederick Augustus of Anhalt-Zerbst.

Approximately 9,000 Hessians arrived with Howe's army in 1776 and served with British forces throughout the campaigns in New York and New Jersey. In total, 25,000 auxiliary troops served with the British during the various campaigns of the war.

The German units exhibited tactical differences and approaches compared to regular British troops. Many British officers viewed the German regiments as slow-moving, leading British generals to employ them as heavy infantry. This was largely due to the German officers' reluctance to adopt looser formations. British Lieutenant William Hale commented on the tactical limitations of German methods: "I believe them steady, but their slowness is of the greatest disadvantage in a country almost covered with woods, and against an enemy whose chief qualification is agility in running from fence to fence keeping up an irregular, but galling fire on troops who advance with the same pace as at their exercise... At Brandywine, when the first line formed, the Hessian Grenadiers were close to our rear, and began beating their march at the same time as us. From that minute we saw them no more until the action was over, and only one man of them was wounded, by a random shot which came over us."

The Hessians participated in most of the war's major battles in some capacity. Duke Karl I provided Great Britain with nearly 4,000 infantry soldiers and 350 dragoons under General Friedrich Adolf Riedesel. These soldiers constituted the majority of the German regulars under General John Burgoyne during the Saratoga campaign of 1777 and were commonly referred to as "Brunswickers." The combined forces from Braunschweig and Hesse-Hanau accounted for nearly half of Burgoyne's army.

The Jägers were highly valued by British commanders for their proficiency in skirmishing and scouting, leading them to continue serving in the Southern campaigns under Cornwallis until the war's end. Soldiers from Hanover also formed part of the garrisons at Gibraltar and Minorca, and two regiments participated in the Siege of Cuddalore.

Beyond mercenary troops, the Company armies operating in India comprised regular British soldiers alongside indigenous Indian sepoys. Foreigners were also present among the regular British officer corps. The Swiss-born Major General Augustine Prévost commanded the successful defense of Savannah in 1779. The former Jacobite officer Allan Maclean of Torloisk, who had previously held a commission in Dutch service, served as second in command during the successful defense of Quebec in 1775. Another Swiss-born officer, Frederick Haldimand, served as Governor of Quebec in the later stages of the war. Huguenots and exiled Corsicans also served within the regular ranks and among the officers.

Campaigns

Boston, 1774–1775

British troops had been stationed in Boston since 1769 amidst escalating tensions between colonial subjects and the British Parliament. Fearing an impending insurrection, General Thomas Gage dispatched an expedition to seize gunpowder from the powder magazine in Massachusetts on September 1, 1774. The following year, on the night of April 18, 1775, Gage sent an additional 700 men to confiscate munitions stored by the colonial militia at Concord, Massachusetts, an action that precipitated the Battles of Lexington and Concord, marking the commencement of the American Revolutionary War.

The British troops stationed in Boston were largely inexperienced. By the time the redcoats began their return march to Boston, several thousand American militiamen had gathered along the road. A running battle ensued, and the British detachment suffered heavy losses before reaching Charlestown. The British army in Boston found itself besieged by thousands of colonial militia.

On June 17, British forces, now under the command of General William Howe, retaliated by seizing the Charlestown peninsula in the Battle of Bunker Hill. Despite achieving his objective, British forces sustained significant casualties in taking the position. Both sides remained in a stalemate until artillery was positioned on Dorchester Heights, at which point Howe's position became untenable, and the British evacuated Boston entirely. Howe wrote on March 5, 1776:

"The rebels have done more in one night than my whole army would have done in a month." —General Howe, March 5, 1776

Canada, 1775–1776

Following their capture of Fort Ticonderoga, American forces, led by General Richard Montgomery, launched an invasion of British-controlled Canada. They besieged and captured Fort Saint-Jean, while another contingent advanced on Montreal. However, they were ultimately defeated at the Battle of Quebec. British forces, under the command of General Guy Carleton, launched a counter-invasion, driving the colonial forces entirely out of the province and advancing as far as Lake Champlain. However, they fell short of recapturing Fort Ticonderoga.

New York and New Jersey, 1776

After withdrawing from Boston, Howe immediately commenced preparations to seize New York, a city considered the strategic "hinge" of the colonies. In late August, 22,000 men (including 9,000 Hessians) were rapidly landed on Long Island using flat-bottomed boats. This operation represented the largest amphibious landing undertaken by the British army until the Normandy landings nearly two centuries later.

In the subsequent Battle of Long Island on August 27, 1776, the British forces outflanked the American positions, forcing the Americans to retreat to the Brooklyn Heights, New York fortifications. Reluctant to risk heavy casualties in a direct frontal assault, Howe initiated siege operations. However, the navy failed to effectively blockade the East River, inadvertently providing an escape route for Washington's army. Washington exploited this opportunity, executing a nighttime retreat across the undefended Manhattan Island.

British forces then engaged in a series of actions to consolidate their control over Manhattan Island, culminating in the Battle of Fort Washington, which resulted in the capture of nearly 3,000 Continental troops. Following the conquest of Manhattan, Howe ordered Charles Cornwallis to "clear the rebel troops from New Jersey without a major engagement, and to do it quickly before the weather changed."

Cornwallis's force successfully drove Washington's army from present-day New Jersey. Washington and the Continental Army retreated across the Delaware River into present-day Pennsylvania, where Washington regrouped and began planning a counter-offensive. After considering various options, Washington opted for what would prove to be one of his most complex and unexpected military maneuvers: a covert crossing of the Delaware River. In the pre-dawn hours of December 26, Washington crossed back into New Jersey and captured a Hessian garrison at Trenton. Several days later, Washington outmaneuvered Cornwallis at Assunpink Creek and overwhelmed a British outpost at Princeton on January 3, 1777. Cornwallis rallied and pursued Washington once more, but these defeats demonstrated that the British army had become overextended, prompting Howe to abandon most of his outposts in New Jersey.

"I cannot too much commend Lord Cornwallis's good services during this campaign, and particularly the ability and conduct he displayed in the pursuit of the enemy from Fort Lee to Trenton, a distance exceding [sic] eighty miles, in which he was well supported by the ardour of his corps, who cheerfully quitted their tents and heavy baggage as impediments to their march." —General Howe, December 20, 1776

Saratoga, 1777

Following the failure of the New York and New Jersey campaign to achieve a decisive victory over the Americans, the British army adopted a significantly altered strategy. The plan involved two armies invading from the north to capture Albany, New York. One army, consisting of 8,000 men (British and German), was under the command of General John Burgoyne. The second army, numbering 1,000 men (British, German, Indian, Loyalist, and Canadian), was led by Brigadier General Barry St. Leger. A third army, commanded by General Howe, was intended to advance from New York in support. However, due to poor coordination and ambiguous orders, the plan faltered. Howe believed he could not provide support to the northern army until Washington's army was neutralized and instead advanced on Philadelphia. Burgoyne's campaign initially met with success, capturing Fort Crown Point, Ticonderoga, and Fort Anne. However, a portion of his army was destroyed at Bennington.

After achieving a hard-fought victory at Freeman's Farm, which came at a heavy cost in casualties, Burgoyne lamented the inexperience of his soldiers, describing them as too impetuous and uncertain in their aim, and noted that his troops remained in position to exchange volleys for too long rather than transitioning to bayonet charges. Following the battle, he ordered a retraining of his army. Burgoyne was reluctant to lose the initiative and prepared for a second assault the following morning to break through Gates's army. However, his subordinate, General Fraser, advised him of the fatigued state of the British light infantry and grenadiers, suggesting that a renewed assault after an additional night's rest would be carried out with greater vigor.

That night, Burgoyne received intelligence that Clinton was launching his own offensive. This news convinced Burgoyne to delay his attack, believing that the American General Gates would be compelled to divert some of his forces to counter Clinton. However, Gates continued to receive reinforcements. Burgoyne launched his second attempt to breach the American lines early the following month, but it failed at Bemis Heights, incurring losses that Burgoyne's force could not sustain.

Burgoyne was ultimately compelled to surrender, as it became apparent that he was surrounded. Burgoyne's campaign tactics were subjected to significant criticism. The composition of his force was disjointed, and his decision to overload his army with artillery, anticipating a lengthy siege, meant his army could not advance rapidly enough through the difficult terrain. This delay allowed the Americans sufficient time to muster an overwhelming force to oppose him. The defeat had far-reaching consequences, as France, which had already been providing covert support to the colonists, decided to openly back the rebellion and declared war on Britain in 1778.

"I fear it bears heavy on Burgoyne...If this campaign does not finish the war, I prophesy that there is an end of British dominion in America." —General Henry Clinton, July 1777

Philadelphia, 1777–1778

While Burgoyne was advancing from the north, Howe led an army of 15,000 men, including 3,500 Hessians, by sea to attack the revolutionary capital of Philadelphia. Despite rapidly outflanking Washington at the Battle of Brandywine, Howe was unable to achieve any significant military gains, and most of the Continental Army troops under Washington's command managed to escape. After inconclusive skirmishes with Washington and Continental Army troops in the Battle of the Clouds, a battalion of British light infantry executed a surprise assault at the Battle of Paoli, forgoing their muskets in favor of bayonets to minimize the sound of their approach. All remaining resistance to Howe was eliminated in this attack, and the rest of Howe's army marched into Philadelphia unopposed.

The capture of Philadelphia did not alter the war's trajectory in Britain's favor. Burgoyne's army found itself isolated with only limited support from Sir Henry Clinton, who was responsible for defending New York. Howe remained garrisoned in Philadelphia with 9,000 troops. He faced significant attacks from Continental Army troops under Washington's command, but Washington was repulsed at the Battle of Germantown.

Following an unsuccessful attempt to capture Fort Mifflin, Howe eventually secured the forts of Mifflin and Mercer. After probing Washington's defenses at the Battle of White Marsh, Howe withdrew to British winter quarters and resigned his command shortly thereafter, citing inadequate support. Command was subsequently transferred to Clinton, who, after France entered the war in support of American independence, carried out orders to evacuate the British army from Philadelphia overland to New York. This arduous march involved a significant engagement at the Battle of Monmouth in present-day New Jersey.

"...I do not think that there exists a more select corps than that which General Howe has assembled here. I am too young and have seen too few different corps, to ask others to take my word; but old Hessian and old English officers who have served a long time, say that they have never seen such a corps in respect to quality..." —Captain Muenchhausen, June, 1777

Raiding Operations, 1778–1779

In August 1778, a combined Franco-American effort to dislodge British forces from Rhode Island proved unsuccessful. A year later, an American expedition aimed at driving British forces from Penobscot Bay also failed. In the same year, Americans launched a successful expedition to remove Native Americans from the New York frontier and captured a British outpost in a daring nighttime raid. During this period, the British army conducted a series of successful raiding operations, targeting supplies, destroying military defenses, outposts, stores, munitions, barracks, shops, and houses.

Southern Colonies, 1780–1781

The initial major British operation in the Southern colonies occurred in 1776, when a force under General Henry Clinton unsuccessfully besieged the fort at Sullivan's Island.

In 1778, a British force of 3,000 troops, led by Lieutenant Colonel Archibald Campbell, successfully captured Savannah, initiating a campaign to bring the colony of Georgia under British control. A subsequent Franco-American attempt to retake Savannah in 1779 ended in failure.

In 1780, the primary strategic focus of the British shifted to the Southern Colonies. British strategists harbored the incorrect belief that a substantial Loyalist population resided in the southern colonies. Based on this flawed assumption, they anticipated that a large Loyalist army could be raised to occupy territories pacified by regular British troops.

In May 1780, an army of 11,000 men, commanded by Henry Clinton and Charles Cornwallis, captured Charleston, along with 5,000 soldiers of the Continental army. Shortly thereafter, Clinton returned to New York, leaving Cornwallis with a force of fewer than 4,000 men and instructions to secure control of the southern colonies. Initially, Cornwallis achieved success, securing a decisive victory at the Battle of Camden and largely suppressing resistance. However, dwindling supplies and escalating partisan activity gradually wore down his occupying troops. The destruction of a Loyalist force under Major Ferguson at King's Mountain effectively ended any hopes of widespread Loyalist support.

In January 1781, Tarleton's cavalry force was defeated at the Battle of Cowpens. Cornwallis then resolved to destroy the Continental army commanded by Nathanael Greene. Cornwallis invaded North Carolina and engaged in a pursuit spanning hundreds of miles, a campaign that became known as the "Race to the Dan." Cornwallis's depleted army met Greene's forces at the Battle of Guilford Court House. Although Cornwallis emerged victorious, he suffered heavy casualties. With little prospect of reinforcements from Clinton, Cornwallis decided to advance from North Carolina and invade Virginia. Meanwhile, Greene maneuvered back into South Carolina and began attacking British outposts there.

"Whenever the Rebel Army is said to have been cut to pieces it would be more consonant with truth to say that they have been dispersed, determined to join again... in the meantime they take oaths of allegiance, and live comfortably among us, to drain us of our monies, get acquainted with our numbers and learn our intentions." —Brigadier General [Charles O'Hara](/Charles_O%27 Hara), March 1781

Yorktown, 1781

In early 1781, the British army commenced raiding operations into Virginia. Benedict Arnold, a former Continental army officer who had defected to the British, led a force with William Phillips that raided and destroyed Continental Army supply bases. He later occupied Petersburg, Virginia and commanded a small engagement at Blandford.

Upon learning of British forces in Virginia and believing that North Carolina could not be subdued unless its supply lines in Virginia were severed, Cornwallis decided to join forces with Phillips and Arnold. Cornwallis's army engaged in a series of skirmishes against Continental Army troops under the command of Lafayette before fortifying their position with their backs to the sea, relying on the Royal Navy's perceived supremacy over the Chesapeake Bay. He then dispatched requests to Clinton for either resupply or evacuation.

The anticipated reinforcements arrived too late. In September, the French fleet successfully blockaded Cornwallis in Chesapeake Bay. Royal Navy Admiral Graves, prioritizing the perceived threat to New York, withdrew his fleet. Cornwallis then found himself surrounded by Continental Army forces commanded by Washington and French General Rochambeau. Outnumbered and with no possibility of relief or escape, Cornwallis was compelled to surrender his army.

"If you cannot relieve me very soon, you must prepare to hear the worst." — General Charles Cornwallis, September 17, 1781

West Indies, 1778–1783

In 1776, an American force captured the British island of Nassau. Following France's entry into the Revolutionary War, several poorly defended British islands quickly fell. In December 1778, a contingent of veteran British troops under the command of General James Grant landed on St. Lucia and successfully captured the island's elevated terrain. Three days later, 9,000 French reinforcements landed and attempted to assault the British position but were repulsed with heavy casualties. Despite this victory, several other British-controlled Caribbean islands were lost during the war.

On April 1, 1779, Lord Germain instructed Grant to establish small garrisons throughout the West Indies. Grant deemed this strategy unwise and instead concentrated defenses to protect the major naval bases. He stationed the 15th, 28th, and 55th Foot regiments, along with 1,500 gunners, at Saint Kitts. The 27th, 35th, and 49th Foot regiments and 1,600 gunners defended Saint Lucia. Meanwhile, the royal dockyard at Antigua was protected by an 800-man garrison comprising the 40th and 60th Foot regiments. Grant also reinforced the fleet with 925 soldiers. Although Britain lost other islands, his strategic dispositions formed the basis for British successes in the Caribbean during the war's final years, including the recapture of the Bahamas from the Spanish in 1783.

East Indies, 1778–1783

In 1778, British forces commenced operations against French enclaves in India, initially capturing the French port of Pondicherry and seizing the port of Mahé, India. Hyder Ali, the ruler of Mysore and a significant ally of France, declared war on Britain in 1780. Ali invaded the Carnatic region with 80,000 men, laying siege to British forts in Arcot. A British attempt to relieve the siege ended in disaster at the Battle of Pollilur (1780). Ali continued his sieges, capturing several fortresses, before another British force under General Eyre Coote defeated the Mysoreans at the Battle of Porto Novo. Hostilities persisted until 1783, when the British captured Mangalore, and the Treaty of Mangalore was signed, restoring both sides to their pre-war territorial positions (Status quo ante bellum).

Gulf Coast, 1779–1781

Beginning in 1779, the governor of Spanish Louisiana, Bernardo de Gálvez, led a successful offensive to conquer British West Florida, culminating in the Siege of Pensacola in 1781.

Spanish Central America, 1779–1780

Britain launched two attempts to capture Spanish territory in Central America: in 1779 at the Battle of San Fernando de Omoa and in 1780 during the San Juan Expedition. In both instances, initial British military successes were undermined by tropical diseases. The San Juan Expedition, with its 2,500 fatalities, resulted in the highest British death toll of the war.

The Spanish repeatedly attacked British settlements along the Caribbean coast but failed to dislodge them. However, the British, under Edward Despard, succeeded in retaking the Black River settlement in August 1782, forcing the surrender of the entire Spanish contingent.

Europe, 1779–1783

Europe served as the backdrop for three of the largest engagements of the entire war. A combined French and Spanish force first attempted to invade England in 1779 but was thwarted by misfortune and poor planning. They subsequently succeeded in the capture of Minorca in 1781. However, the most significant engagement was the unsuccessful attempt to capture Gibraltar, which took place in 1783 and involved over 100,000 men, along with hundreds of guns and ships.

In September 1782, the grand assault on the besieged Gibraltar garrison occurred, representing the largest single battle of the war, involving over 60,000 soldiers, sailors, and marines. France also made two unsuccessful attempts to capture the British Channel island of Jersey, in 1779 and again in 1781.

Post-Treaty of Paris (1783 to 1788)

Following the signing of the Treaty of Paris, the British army began its withdrawal from its remaining posts in the Thirteen Colonies. In mid-August 1783, General Guy Carleton initiated the evacuation of New York, informing the president of the Second Continental Congress in Philadelphia that he was proceeding with the withdrawal of refugees, freed slaves, and military personnel. More than 29,000 Loyalist refugees were evacuated from the city.

Many Loyalists from the North were relocated to Nova Scotia, British East Florida, the Caribbean, and London. The Loyalist refugees evacuated from New York City numbered 29,000, along with over 3,000 Black Loyalists. Many from the South initially migrated to British Florida, including 2,000 whites and 4,000 blacks from Georgia. Further resettlement of Black Loyalists from Nova Scotia and Canada, Jamaica, and the Black Poor of London formed the foundational population of the British colony of Sierra Leone in West Africa.

The British Army underwent another significant reduction during peacetime. Morale and discipline deteriorated considerably, and the number of troops at all levels declined. When the wars with France resumed in 1793, its total strength stood at 40,000 men. In this period of idleness, the army once again became plagued by corruption and inefficiency.

Many British officers returned from America with a conviction in the superiority of firearms and formations adapted for a broader frontage of firepower. However, officers who had not served in America questioned whether the irregular and loose fighting style that had become prevalent in America was suitable for future campaigns against European powers.

In 1788, the British army underwent reforms under General David Dundas, an officer who had not served in America. Dundas authored numerous training manuals that were subsequently adopted by the army, the first of which was Principles of Military Movements. He chose to disregard the light infantry and flank battalions that the British army had come to rely upon in North America. Instead, after observing Prussian Army maneuvers in Silesia in 1784, he advocated for drilled battalions of heavy infantry. He also promoted uniformity in training, eliminating the autonomy of colonels in developing their own regimental training systems.

Charles Cornwallis, an experienced officer from the American campaigns who had witnessed the same maneuvers in Prussia, wrote disparagingly, "their maneuvers were such as the worst general in England would be hooted at for practicing; two lines coming up within six yards of one another and firing until they had no ammunition left, nothing could be more ridiculous." The failure to formally incorporate the tactical lessons learned from the American War of Independence contributed to the early difficulties encountered by the British army during the French Revolutionary Wars.