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New Netherland

Ah, another historical footnote. You want me to dissect this… New Netherland. Fine. Don't expect me to feign enthusiasm. It’s a colony, a rather short-lived one, carved out by the Dutch on a coast that was already teeming with… well, people. And then, inevitably, the English showed up. Such predictable drama.

17th-Century Dutch Colony in North America

New Netherland

Nieuw Nederland. The very name drips with a certain, shall we say, ambition. It existed, officially, from 1614 to 1667, with a brief, almost pathetic, resurgence from 1673 to 1674. A blink in the grand, weary eye of history.

Flag (1614–1652)

They had a flag, of course. The Prince's Flag, they called it. Blue, white, and orange. The colors of a republic that was, at the time, quite adept at making money and, subsequently, losing it. It’s a rather bland design, if you ask me, lacking any real edge. Much like the colony itself, until things got messy.

Seal

And a seal. They always have a seal, don’t they? A symbol of authority, a promise of permanence. This one, nb 1, bore the image of a beaver, naturally. A symbol of their primary interest: the fur trade. Ingenious, really. Scratch an animal's hide, get rich. The extent to which this seal truly represented anything beyond avarice is debatable.

A map of New Netherland, published by Nicolaes Visscher II (a cartographer of some repute, I suppose, 1649–1702), depicts the vast, ambitious claims of the Dutch. It’s a testament to their reach, if not their staying power.

Status: Colony. A rather precarious one, nestled within the sprawling Dutch colonial empire.

Capital: New Amsterdam. Later, of course, it became something else entirely. A city that never sleeps, they say. Probably because it’s too busy trying to forget its origins.

Official Languages: Dutch, naturally. But the reality was far more… diverse. Low Saxon, French, English, and the languages of the indigenous Algonquian and Delaware peoples were all spoken, a cacophony of tongues in a land struggling to find its own voice.

Religion: Predominantly Dutch Reformed. They were, after all, a people of conviction. Or at least, a people who believed in the power of a unified doctrine to keep the masses in line.

Demonyms: New Netherlander was the term for the inhabitants. A rather bland descriptor for a people who were, in many ways, adrift between worlds.

Government:

  • Director: The chief executive, essentially. A title that suggests a certain control, though the reality was often far more chaotic.
  • List of Directors: A roll call of those who tried to manage this unruly outpost. Some, like Peter Stuyvesant, are more memorable than others. Most are footnotes.

Establishment:

  • The first settlers arrived, presumably with a mixture of hope and desperation, in 1614.
  • The eventual Capture of New Amsterdam by the English on August 27, 1664, marked a decisive end. Or so they thought.
  • The Treaty of Breda supposedly settled things, but history, as it often does, decided to have a little fun.
  • The Reconquest of New Netherland by the Dutch in 1673 was a brief, defiant flicker.
  • Finally, the Treaty of Westminster (1674) cemented its fate, returning it to English control. A final, definitive surrender.

Population:

  • A modest 350 in 1630. Small beginnings, for such grand aspirations.
  • A more substantial 4,301 by 1650. Growth, but not enough to truly solidify their hold.
  • By 1674, around 9,000. A respectable number, but one that ultimately proved insufficient against the encroaching tide.

Currency: The Dutch rijksdaalder and the leeuwendaalder. Coins that circulated, facilitating trade and, no doubt, a good deal of petty squabbling.

Preceded by: The lands were, of course, the domain of the indigenous Lenapehoking people. A fact often conveniently overlooked by the colonizers.

Succeeded by: A patchwork of English colonies: Province of New York, Province of New Jersey, Province of Pennsylvania, and Delaware Colony. The English, it seems, were much better at holding onto what they took. And Connecticut Colony and the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations also carved out their pieces.

Today part of: The modern-day United States, specifically Connecticut, Delaware, New Jersey, New York, and Pennsylvania. A geographical ghost, its borders now etched into the fabric of a nation that owes a surprising amount to its brief, tumultuous existence.

Origin

Ah, the origins. A tale as old as time, really. Europe, in the 17th century, was a cauldron of change. The Dutch Golden Age was in full swing, a period of unprecedented economic and cultural bloom. Nations were scrambling for dominance, for those lucrative trade routes, particularly to Asia. And, of course, there were the endless religious and philosophical squabbles, spilling over into actual conflict. The Dutch Republic itself was a refuge for thinkers, merchants, and those fleeing persecution. Meanwhile, across the Atlantic, the English had Jamestown, Virginia, the French were staking their claims at Port Royal and Quebec, and the Spanish were busy colonizing South America and the Caribbean. A crowded stage, indeed.

Then comes Henry Hudson, an Englishman hired by the Dutch East India Company (VOC, for those who appreciate the acronyms). His mission: find a Northeast Passage to Asia. The Arctic ice, however, had other plans. So, he turned west, seeking a Northwest Passage instead. His voyage aboard the flyboat Halve Maen took him along the northeast coast of North America. He saw Newfoundland, he saw Cape Cod. He believed the passage lay between the St. Lawrence River and Chesapeake Bay. He sailed south, then north, charting the waters. From Delaware Bay, he ventured up what would become the Hudson River, drawn by the promise of a continental waterway. He found the water too shallow, however, reaching Troy, New York before turning back.

Upon his return to the Netherlands, Hudson painted a picture of fertile land and receptive natives, eager to trade furs. His report, published in 1611 by Emanuel van Meteren, the Dutch Consul in London, ignited interest among Dutch merchants. Expeditions followed, funded by men like Arnout Vogels, eager to capitalize on this new trade.

In 1611–1612, the Admiralty of Amsterdam dispatched more ships, Craen and Vos, captained by Jan Cornelisz Mey and Symon Willemsz Cat, seeking that elusive passage. Adriaen Block, Hendrick Christiaensen, and Cornelius Jacobsen May explored, surveyed, and mapped the region between Maryland and Massachusetts between 1611 and 1614. Block’s map, a significant cartographical achievement, was the first to bear the name "New Netherland." It was also, on some maps, referred to as Nova Belgica. During this period, rudimentary trade with the Native Americans began.

And let's not forget Juan Rodriguez. Born in Santo Domingo, of Portuguese and African descent, he arrived in Manhattan during the winter of 1613–1614. He trapped for furs and traded with the indigenous people, representing Dutch interests. The very first recorded non-native inhabitant of New York City. A rather overlooked detail, wouldn't you agree?

Development

Chartered Trading Companies

The West India House in Amsterdam served as the headquarters for the Dutch West India Company from 1623 to 1647. Later, the company's storehouse, built in 1642, took over as the administrative center, a consequence of financial woes following the loss of Dutch Brazil.

The burgeoning trade in these new territories quickly led to fierce competition among Dutch trading companies. This rivalry caused significant disputes back in Amsterdam, prompting calls for regulation. The States General, the governing body of the Republic, responded on March 17, 1614, by decreeing an exclusive trading patent for the region between the 40th and 45th parallels. This monopoly was to last for four voyages, all to be completed within three years. The New Netherland Company, an alliance of these merchants, utilized Adrian Block's map to secure this patent, which expired on January 1, 1618.

The New Netherland Company didn't stop there. They also commissioned a survey of the Delaware Valley. Cornelis Hendricksz of Monnickendam explored the Zuyd Rivier (South River) in 1616, charting it from its bay to its uppermost navigable points. His findings were meticulously recorded on a map from that same year. Hendricksz sailed aboard the IJseren Vercken (Iron Hog), a vessel actually constructed in America. Despite this comprehensive survey, the company failed to secure an exclusive patent from the States General for the territory between the 38th and 40th parallels.

The States General, in 1614, did issue patents for the development of New Netherland, treating it as a private, commercial enterprise. Shortly thereafter, traders erected Fort Nassau on Castle Island, near present-day Albany, along the Hudson River. This fort was intended to guard river traffic from interlopers and to facilitate fur trading with the local indigenous populations. However, the fort's location proved problematic, frequently succumbing to summer floods. It was abandoned in 1618, coinciding with the expiration of the patent.

Then, on June 3, 1621, the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands granted a charter to the Dutch West India Company (GWC). This charter bestowed upon the company the exclusive rights to operate in West Africa, specifically between the Tropic of Cancer and the Cape of Good Hope, and throughout the Americas.

Willem Usselincx, one of the GWC's founders, had championed the idea that the company's primary objective should be the establishment of colonies in the New World. In 1620, Usselincx made a final plea to the States General, but his vision was largely dismissed. The legislators favored a model of trading posts, sparsely populated and militarily defended, similar to their successful ventures in the East Indies, rather than encouraging mass immigration and large-scale colonization. The company didn't seriously focus on colonization in America until 1654, a shift forced by the loss of Dutch Brazil, once the world's most profitable sugar-producing region.

Indigenous Population

The initial European settlers in New Netherland, the New Netherlanders, found their first trading partners among the Algonquins who inhabited the region. The Dutch relied heavily on these native nations for the capture, skinning, and delivery of furs, particularly beaver pelts. It's highly probable that Hudson's initial peaceful encounters with the Mahicans encouraged the Dutch to establish Fort Nassau in 1614, marking the beginning of a series of garrisoned trading stations. By 1628, however, the Mohawks, a powerful confederation within the Iroquois Confederacy, had conquered the Mahicans, who subsequently retreated to Connecticut. This shift in power granted the Mohawks a near-monopoly on the fur trade with the Dutch, as they controlled the upstate regions of the Adirondacks and the Mohawk Valley through central New York.

The Lenape population, an Algonquin group residing around New York Bay and along the lower Hudson River, were a seasonally migratory people. The Dutch collectively referred to various bands as the River Indians, [23] [24] and these groups, known by exonyms associated with place names such as the Wecquaesgeek, Hackensacks, Raritans, Canarsee, and Tappans, experienced the most frequent interactions with the New Netherlanders. The Munsee, another branch of the Lenape, inhabited the Highlands, the Hudson Valley, and northern New Jersey, [23] while the Susquehannocks resided west of the Delaware River, along the Susquehanna River, a territory the Dutch considered the boundary with Virginia.

Company policy mandated the purchase of land from the indigenous inhabitants. The Dutch West India Company would issue a land patent, and the recipient was then responsible for negotiating the acquisition with representatives of the local tribes, typically the sachem or high chief. The indigenous peoples referred to the Dutch colonists as Swannekins, or "salt water people." Their conceptions of land ownership and usage differed drastically from those of the colonists, inevitably leading to friction. [23]

The colonists interpreted the exchange of gifts, such as sewant (wampum) or manufactured goods, as a trade agreement and a defensive alliance, granting them exclusive rights to farm, hunt, and fish the land. However, the indigenous peoples often did not vacate the land or would reappear seasonally according to their migratory patterns. They were willing to share the land with the colonists, but had no intention of leaving or relinquishing their access. This fundamental misunderstanding, along with other cultural differences, would eventually ignite violent conflict. Yet, these very differences also laid the groundwork for a nascent multicultural society. [25]

Early Settlement

The Dutch, much like the French in the north, primarily focused their colonial ambitions on the lucrative fur trade. To secure greater access to the central regions where these furs originated, they cultivated alliances with the Five Nations of the Iroquois.

Over time, the Dutch implemented a system that encouraged a form of feudal aristocracy, hoping to attract settlers to the Hudson River region. This was formalized through the Charter of Freedoms and Exemptions. Further south, a Swedish trading company, with ties to the Dutch, attempted to establish its first settlement along the Delaware River three years later. Lacking the resources to solidify its position, New Sweden was gradually absorbed into New Holland, and later its territories became part of Pennsylvania and Delaware.

In 1613, a temporary camp, consisting of several small huts, was constructed by the crew of the Dutch ship Tijger (Tiger), commanded by Captain Adriaen Block. The ship had caught fire while navigating the Hudson River. [26] Soon after, the first of two Fort Nassaus was built at the confluence of the Hudson (North River) and Mohawk rivers. Small factorijen, or trading posts, also began to appear, facilitating commerce with the Algonquian and Iroquois populations, possibly at locations like Schenectady, New York, Esopus, New York, Quinnipiac, Communipaw, and other sites.

By 1624, New Netherland officially became a province of the Dutch Republic. The Dutch had adjusted the northern border of their North American dominion to 42 degrees latitude, acknowledging the English claims north of Cape Cod. nb 2 The Dutch designated the three major rivers of the province as the Zuyd Rivier (South River), the Noort Rivier (North River), and the Versche Rivier (Fresh River). To maintain their territorial claims, discovery, charting, and permanent settlement were crucial. In pursuit of this, in May 1624, the GWC disembarked 30 families at Fort Orange and Noten Eylant (present-day Governors Island) at the mouth of the North River. These settlers arrived aboard the ship Nieu Nederlandt, under the command of Cornelis Jacobsz May, who served as the first Director of New Netherland. He was succeeded the following year by Willem Verhulst.

In June 1625, an additional 45 colonists arrived on Noten Eylant from three ships: Horse, Cow, and Sheep. These vessels also carried 103 horses, steers, cows, pigs, and sheep. The majority of these settlers were dispersed to various garrisons established throughout the territory: upstream to Fort Orange, to Kievits Hoek on the Fresh River, and to Fort Wilhelmus on the South River. [27] [28] [29] Notably, many of these settlers were not Dutch. They included Walloons, French Huguenots, and Africans, with the latter group primarily serving as enslaved labor, though some later attained "half-free" status. [30] [31]

North River and Manhattan

Peter Minuit assumed the position of Director of New Netherland in 1626, making a decision that would profoundly impact the nascent colony. Initially, the province's capital was slated for the South River. [32] However, it soon became apparent that this location was prone to summer mosquito infestations and winter ice blockades. Minuit opted instead for the island of Manhattan, situated at the mouth of the river explored by Hudson, a waterway then known as the North River.

Minuit engaged in trade with the local indigenous population, acquiring the island and reporting the transaction as a purchase, in accordance with company policy. He then ordered the construction of Fort Amsterdam at the island's southern tip, around which the heart of the province, known at the time as The Manhattoes, began to flourish, rather than the broader designation of New Netherland. [33] [34] According to a letter penned by Pieter Janszoon Schagen, a representative of the Dutch Estates General and a member of the Dutch West India Company board, Peter Minuit and Walloon colonists of the West India Company acquired Manhattan Island on May 24, 1626, from unnamed indigenous individuals, believed to be Canarsee Indians of the Manhattoe. The exchange involved goods valued at 60 guilders, [35] a sum often cited as equivalent to US$24. This figure originates from Schagen's letter to the Estates General in November 1626. [36]

In 1846, New York historian John Romeyn Brodhead converted the 60 guilders into US$24, erroneously equating the US dollar with the Dutch rijksdaalder at a standard value of 2.5 guilders. [37] As authors Edwin G. Burrows and Mike Wallace wryly noted in their history of New York, "A variable-rate myth being a contradiction in terms, the purchase price remains forever frozen at twenty-four dollars." [38]

In 1626, 60 guilders represented approximately 1,000in2006and1,000 in 2006 and 963 in 2020, according to the Institute for Social History of Amsterdam. [39] Considering the price of silver, the newspaper column The Straight Dope calculated an equivalent of 72in1992.[40]HistoriansJamesandMichelleNeviusrevisitedthisin2014,suggestingthatbycomparingthepricesofbeerandbrandy,theequivalentpurchasingpowerofMinuit′spaymentcouldrangebetween72 in 1992. [40] Historians James and Michelle Nevius revisited this in 2014, suggesting that by comparing the prices of beer and brandy, the equivalent purchasing power of Minuit's payment could range between 2,600 and $15,600 in current dollars. [41] According to author Nathaniel Benchley, Minuit conducted the transaction with Seyseys, chief of the Canarsee, who were apparently willing to accept valuable merchandise for an island primarily controlled by the Weckquaesgeeks, a band of the Wappinger. [42]

The port city of New Amsterdam, developed outside the fort's walls, rapidly evolved into a crucial hub for trade connecting North America, the Caribbean, and Europe. It was the primary point for exporting raw materials like pelts, lumber, and tobacco. Sanctioned privateering also contributed significantly to its growth. New Amsterdam received its municipal charter in 1653, [43] at which point the Commonality of New Amsterdam encompassed Manhattan Island, Staaten Eylandt, Pavonia, and the towns on Lange Eylandt. [44]

In an effort to stimulate immigration, the Dutch West India Company introduced the Charter of Freedoms and Exemptions in 1629. This charter granted the company the authority to offer vast land grants and the title of patroon to its invested members. [45] These extensive landholdings were known as patroonships, and the title conferred significant manorial rights and privileges, including the power to establish civil and criminal courts and appoint local officials. In return, the charter stipulated that a patroon was obligated by the Company to establish a settlement of at least 50 families within four years, [46] who would then live as tenant farmers. Of the five original patents granted, only Rensselaerswyck proved to be a substantial and enduring success. [47] Situated at the highest navigable point on the North River, [48] it became the principal artery of the province. Beverwijck evolved from a mere trading post into a thriving, independent town within Rensselaerwyck, as did Wiltwyck, located south of the patroonship in the Esopus country.

Kieft's War

Willem Kieft served as Director of New Netherland from 1638 to 1647. The colony had experienced some growth prior to his arrival, reaching a population of 8,000 by 1635. However, it was not flourishing, and Kieft was under pressure to reduce costs. During this period, indigenous tribes who had previously signed mutual defense treaties with the Dutch began to congregate near the colony, driven by widespread warfare and displacement among tribes to the north. Initially, Kieft proposed collecting tribute from these tribes, [49] a common practice among dominant tribal groups. However, his demands were met with indifference by the Tappan and Wecquaesgeek. Subsequently, an act of revenge for killings that occurred years earlier resulted in the murder of a colonist. When the indigenous people refused to surrender the perpetrator, Kieft suggested a punitive raid on their villages. To garner public support, he established the Citizens Commission, known as the Council of Twelve Men.

The Council, however, did not simply endorse his plans as he had anticipated. Instead, they used the opportunity to voice their grievances regarding the company's mismanagement and its lack of responsiveness to their suggestions. Kieft, after thanking and disbanding the council, proceeded against their advice. He ordered attacks on groups of Tappan and Wecquaesgeek at Pavonia and Corlear's Hook, even though these groups had sought refuge from their more powerful Mohican enemies, relying on their treaty understandings with the Dutch. This massacre resulted in the deaths of 130 people. Within days, the surrounding tribes united and launched retaliatory raids across the province, forcing fleeing settlers to seek safety at Fort Amsterdam. This conflict, known as Kieft's War, raged for two years, concluding in 1645 with a treaty largely brokered by Oratam, the sagamore of the Hackensack. [23]

The colonists, deeply disillusioned with Kieft, his apparent ignorance of indigenous cultures, and the GWC's failure to address their rights and concerns, submitted the Remonstrance of New Netherland to the States General. [50] This document, authored by Adriaen van der Donck, a lawyer educated at Leiden University, condemned the GWC for its mismanagement and demanded full citizenship rights for the province's inhabitants. [25]

Director-General Stuyvesant

Peter Stuyvesant arrived in New Amsterdam in 1647, holding the unique title of Director-General, the sole governor of the colony to bear this designation.

Some years prior, land ownership policies had been liberalized, and trade had been somewhat deregulated. Consequently, many New Netherlanders perceived themselves as entrepreneurs operating within a free market. The population had grown to approximately 15,000, with around 500 residing on Manhattan Island. [25]

During Stuyvesant's governorship, the province experienced significant growth. [47] He faced demands from multiple directions: the GWC, the States General, and the inhabitants of New Netherland. The English were encroaching on Dutch territory from the north, while the Swedes posed a threat to the south. In the heart of the province, the Esopus people sought to resist further Dutch expansion. Discontent in New Amsterdam led some residents to dispatch Adriaen van der Donck back to the United Provinces to seek redress. After nearly three years of legal and political maneuvering, the Dutch government ruled against the GWC, granting the colony a measure of self-governance and recalling Stuyvesant in April 1652. However, these orders were rescinded a month later with the outbreak of the First Anglo-Dutch War. [25]

Military conflicts were occurring in the Caribbean and along the South Atlantic coast. In 1654, the Netherlands lost New Holland in Brazil to Portugal, prompting some of its residents to emigrate north. This influx made the North American colonies more attractive to certain investors. The Esopus Wars are named after a branch of the Lenape who lived in the vicinity of Wiltwijck, present-day Kingston, New York. This settlement was located on the west bank of the Hudson River, situated between Beverwyk and New Amsterdam. These conflicts generally arose from the settlement of land by New Netherlanders for which the contracts remained unclear, and were perceived by the indigenous peoples as an unwelcome encroachment on their territory. Previously, the Esopus, a clan of the Munsee Lenape, had had minimal contact with the River Indians and the Mohawks. [51]

According to historian Eleanor Bruchey:

Peter Stuyvesant was essentially a difficult man thrust into a difficult position. Quick tempered, self-confident, and authoritarian, he was determined...to rule firmly and to repair the fortunes of the company. The company, however, had run the colony solely for trade profits, with scant attention to encouraging immigration and developing local government. Stuyvesant's predecessors...had been dishonest or, at best, inept, so there was no tradition of respect and support for the governorship on which he could build. Furthermore, the colonists were vocal and quick to challenge authority....Throughout his administration there were constant complaints to the company of his tyrannical acts and pressure for more local self-government....His religious intolerance also exacerbated relations with the colonists, most of whom did not share his narrow outlook. [52]

Society

Historical population
Year Pop. ±%
1630 350 —
1640 2,030 +480.0%
1650 4,301 +111.9%
1660 5,476 +27.3%
Source: 1630–1660 [4]

The inhabitants of New Netherland, the New Netherlanders, were not exclusively Dutch, and the colony never developed into a homogeneous society. [2] Governor Peter Minuit, for instance, was a Walloon born in what is now Germany, who also spoke English and worked for a Dutch company. [53] The term New Netherland Dutch generally encompasses all Europeans who settled there, [1] but the population also included Africans, Indo-Caribbeans, South Americans, and even indigenous peoples who played an integral role in the society. While Dutch was the official language and likely the lingua franca of the province, a variety of other languages were also spoken. [2]

Algonquian languages were spoken by the indigenous inhabitants. Walloons and Huguenots typically spoke French, while Scandinavians and Germans brought their own tongues. It is probable that the Africans in Manhattan spoke their native languages but were taught Dutch from 1638 onwards by Adam Roelantsz van Dokkum. [54] The arrival of refugees from New Holland in Brazil may have introduced speakers of Portuguese, Spanish, and Ladino, with Hebrew used as a liturgical language. Commercial activities in the harbor were likely conducted simultaneously in any of these languages. [55]

Slavery was introduced by the Dutch West India Company in 1625 with the importation of 11 enslaved black individuals who worked as farmers, fur traders, and builders. These enslaved people possessed a few basic rights, and families were generally kept intact. They were permitted to attend the Dutch Reformed Church and could be married by its ministers, with their children eligible for baptism. Enslaved individuals could testify in court, sign legal documents, and initiate civil actions against white colonists. Some were allowed to work in their off-hours, earning wages comparable to those paid to white workers. When the colony fell to the English, the company freed the enslaved population, thereby establishing an early nucleus of free Black people. [56]

The Union of Utrecht, the foundational document of the Dutch Republic signed in 1579, proclaimed that "everyone shall remain free in religion and that no one may be persecuted or investigated because of religion." However, the Dutch West India Company designated the Reformed Church as the official religious institution of New Netherland. [3] Its successor church is the Reformed Church in America. The colonists were instructed to attract indigenous peoples and other non-believers to God's word "through attitude and by example," but not to "persecute someone by reason of his religion, and to leave everyone the freedom of his conscience." The laws and ordinances of the states of Holland were incorporated by reference into the initial instructions provided to the settlers on Governors Island in 1624. During Stuyvesant's governorship, two pivotal cases upheld this principle: the official granting of full residency rights to both Ashkenazi and Sephardi Jews in New Amsterdam in 1655, and the Flushing Remonstrance involving Quakers in 1657.

The territory claimed by New Netherland extended from areas in Canada down to Delaware. [57] [58]

Expansion and Incursion

South River and New Sweden

Aside from the second Fort Nassau and the small community that supported it, settlement along the Zuyd Rivier remained limited. The settlement established by the patroons Samuel Blommaert and [Samuel Godijn] at Zwaanendael was destroyed by the local indigenous population shortly after its founding in 1631, during the absence of their agent, [David Pietersen de Vries]. [59]

Peter Minuit, who had secured a deed for Manhattan from the Lenape and was subsequently dismissed as director, recognized that the Dutch lacked the capacity to defend the southern flank of their North American territory. Furthermore, they had not established treaties with or purchased land from the Lenape in that region. After securing support from the Queen of Sweden, Minuit chose the west bank of the Delaware River to establish a colony in 1638, which he named New Sweden. As anticipated, the government in New Amsterdam took no action beyond lodging a formal protest. Small settlements, centered around Fort Christina, gradually emerged as the colony expanded, primarily populated by Swedes, Finns, and Dutch. [60]

In 1651, the Dutch dismantled Fort Nassau and constructed Fort Casimir on the west bank, aiming to disrupt trade and reassert their control. Three years later, Fort Casimir was captured by the Swedes, who renamed it Fort Trinity. In 1655, Stuyvesant led a military expedition and successfully regained control of the region, renaming its principal settlement "New Amstel" (Nieuw-Amstel). [61] While Stuyvesant was engaged in the conquest of New Sweden, several villages and farms in the Manhattans area, specifically Pavonia and Staten Island, were attacked in an incident known as the Peach War. These raids are sometimes attributed to retaliation for the murder of a Munsee woman who was attempting to pick a peach, although it is also possible they were intended to disrupt the attack on New Sweden. [25] [62] [63]

In 1663, a new, experimental settlement was initiated on Delaware Bay, just before the British takeover in 1664. Franciscus van den Enden had drafted a charter for a utopian society that advocated for equal education for all social classes, communal ownership of property, and a democratically elected government. [25] Pieter Corneliszoon Plockhoy attempted to establish such a settlement near the site of Zwaanendael, but it was largely destroyed by the British in 1664. [64]

Fresh River and New England

A small number of Dutch settlers established homes in New Netherland at Fort Goede Hoop on the Fresh River. As early as 1637, English settlers from the Massachusetts Bay Colony began to colonize the riverbanks and Lange Eylandt, some with the explicit permission of the colonial government, while others proceeded with complete disregard for its authority. The English colonies experienced more rapid growth than New Netherland, largely driven by a desire to establish communities with strong religious foundations, rather than purely commercial interests. The wal, or rampart, in New Amsterdam (later Wall Street) was initially constructed out of fear of an impending English invasion. [59]

Initially, contact between New Englanders and New Netherlanders was limited. However, as the English population swelled and territorial disputes intensified, the two provinces engaged in direct diplomatic relations. The New England Confederation was formed in 1643 as a political and military alliance comprising the English colonies of Massachusetts, Plymouth, Connecticut, and New Haven. [65] Both Connecticut and New Haven occupied lands claimed by the United Provinces. Nevertheless, the Dutch lacked the population and military strength to effectively defend their territorial claims, leaving them with little recourse but to protest the increasing influx of English settlers. [59]

Through the Treaty of Hartford in 1650, Stuyvesant provisionally ceded the Connecticut River region to New England. This treaty established New Netherland's eastern border at a point 50 Dutch miles (approximately 250 km) west of the Connecticut River's mouth on the mainland and just west of Oyster Bay on Long Island. The Dutch West India Company refused to ratify the treaty, but failed to reach any alternative agreement with the English. Consequently, the Hartford Treaty effectively served as the de facto border. The territory of Connecticut was largely assimilated into New England. [59]

Capitulation, Restitution, and Concession

In March 1664, Charles II of England, Scotland, and Ireland resolved to annex New Netherland, with the stated aim "to bring all his Kingdoms under one form of government, both in church and state, and to install the Anglican government as in old England." The directors of the Dutch West India Company believed that the religious freedom offered in New Netherland would dissuade English colonists from actively seeking their removal. They wrote to Director-General Peter Stuyvesant:

"[W]e are in hopes that as the English at the north (in New Netherland) have removed mostly from old England for the causes aforesaid, they will not give us henceforth so much trouble, but prefer to live free under us at peace with their consciences than to risk getting rid of our authority and then falling again under a government from which they had formerly fled." [66]

On August 27, 1664, four English frigates, under the command of Richard Nicolls, sailed into New Amsterdam's harbor and demanded the surrender of New Netherland. [67] [68] The capture of New Amsterdam was met with no resistance. Prior requests for military support to protect the Dutch colonists from their English neighbors and Native Americans had been ignored, leaving New Amsterdam effectively defenseless. Stuyvesant, however, managed to negotiate favorable terms from his "too powerful enemies." [69]

Article VIII of these terms guaranteed that New Netherlanders "shall keep and enjoy the liberty of their consciences in religion" under English rule. While these Articles were largely upheld in New Amsterdam and the Hudson River Valley, they were violated in another sector of the conquest of New Netherland along the Delaware River. There, Colonel Sir Robert Carr appropriated property for his personal use and sold Dutch prisoners of war into slavery. Nicolls eventually compelled Carr to return some of the confiscated property. [70] [71] Furthermore, a Mennonite settlement led by Pieter Corneliszoon Plockhoy near Lewes, Delaware was destroyed. [72]

The Treaty of Breda, signed in 1667, brought an end to the Second Anglo-Dutch War. The Dutch did not press their claims on New Netherland, and the existing status quo was maintained, with the Dutch retaining control of Suriname and the nutmeg island of Run.

Within six years, the two nations found themselves at war once more. In August 1673, the Dutch recaptured New Netherland with a fleet of 21 ships, commanded by Vice Admiral Cornelis Evertsen the Youngest and Commodore Jacob Binckes. This was the largest naval force seen in America at that time. [73] They appointed Anthony Colve as governor and renamed the city New Orange, a tribute to the enthronement of William of Orange as Stadtholder of Holland in 1672. He would later become King William III of England in 1689. [74]

The Dutch Republic found itself in dire financial straits following the conclusion of the Third Anglo-Dutch War in 1672–1674, a period known as the "disaster years" when the republic faced simultaneous attacks from the French under Louis XIV, the English, the Prince-Bishop of Münster, and the Archbishop-Elector of Cologne. The States of Zeeland attempted to persuade the States of Holland to assume responsibility for the New Netherland province, but their efforts were unsuccessful. In February 1674, the Treaty of Westminster officially ended the war. It was not until November 10, 1674, that the new English governor, Edmund Andros, took possession from Governor Anthony Colve. [75]

Legacy

The original settlements of New Netherland in Brooklyn, Manhattan, and Jersey City have since evolved into the New York metropolitan area, now the largest metropolitan area in the United States.

New Netherland’s legacy is deeply ingrained in American cultural and political life, leaving its mark through a "secular broadmindedness and mercantile pragmatism." [17] This influence can be attributed to the social and political climate of the Dutch Republic at the time, as well as the diverse backgrounds of its immigrants. [77] It was during the early British colonial period that the New Netherlanders truly shaped the land and society, leaving an enduring impact on the Capital District, the Hudson Valley, North Jersey, western Long Island, New York City, Fairfield County, and ultimately, the United States. [17]

Political Culture

The principle of tolerance was a cornerstone of the province's Dutch mother country. The Dutch Republic served as a sanctuary for numerous religious and intellectual refugees fleeing persecution, and it also housed the world's leading ports in the nascent global economy. Concepts of religious freedom and free trade, including the establishment of a stock market, were indeed imports from the Netherlands. [78] In 1682, William Byrd of Virginia observed of New Amsterdam that "they have as many sects of religion there as at Amsterdam."

The Dutch Republic was among the earliest nation-states in Europe to extend citizenship and civil liberties to a significant portion of its population. While the framers of the U.S. Constitution were influenced by the Constitution of the Republic of the United Provinces, this influence often served more as a cautionary example of what to avoid rather than what to emulate. [79]

The United States Declaration of Independence (1776) bears a striking resemblance to the Act of Abjuration (1581), which effectively declared the independence of the United Provinces from the Spanish throne. [80] Although concrete evidence of direct influence is scarce, John Adams went as far as to state that "the origins of the two Republics are so much alike that the history of one seems but a transcript from that of the other." [81]

The Articles of Capitulation, outlining the terms of the transfer to English rule in 1664, [69] included provisions for the right to worship according to one's own conscience. These provisions were subsequently incorporated into the foundational city, state, and national constitutions of the United States, forming the legal and cultural bedrock of the New York Tri-State traditions. [82]

The Flushing Remonstrance, a petition submitted in 1657 to Director-General Peter Stuyvesant, saw some thirty residents of the small settlement at Flushing request an exemption from his prohibition on Quaker worship. It is widely regarded as a precursor to the United States Constitution's guarantee of freedom of religion in the Bill of Rights. [83] [84]

Numerous prominent American citizens trace their lineage directly to Dutch families of New Netherland. [85] The Roosevelt family, for instance, produced two Presidents of the United States and are descendants of Claes van Roosevelt, who emigrated around 1650. [86] The family of President Martin Van Buren, who famously spoke Dutch as his first language, also originated in New Netherland. [10] The Bush family, through Flora Sheldon, are descendants of the Schuyler family.

Lore

The blue, white, and orange colors found on the flags of New York City, Albany, and Jersey City, New Jersey are derived from the Prinsenvlag ("Prince's Flag"), introduced in the 17th century as the Statenvlag ("States Flag"), the naval ensign of the States General of the Netherlands. [Citation needed] The flag and seal of Nassau County feature the arms of the House of Nassau prominently. The seven arrows held in the claw of the lion in the Dutch Republic's coat of arms are considered a precedent for the thirteen arrows held in the eagle's claw in the Great Seal of the United States. [87]

Washington Irving's satirical work, A History of New York, and its fictional author Diedrich Knickerbocker, significantly shaped the popular perception of New Netherland's legacy. Irving's romanticized portrayal of a Dutch yeomanry captured the popular imagination regarding the colony since its publication in 1809. [88] The tradition of Santa Claus is believed to have originated from a gift-giving celebration of the feast of Saint Nicholas on December 5, observed annually by the settlers of New Netherland. [25] [89] The Dutch figure of Sinterklaas was eventually transformed into "Santa Claus," a name first appearing in the American press in 1773, [90] when Nicholas was used as a symbol of New York's non-British heritage. [91] However, it's important to note that many of the "traditions" associated with Santa Claus may have been fabrications by Irving himself in his 1809 Knickerbocker's History of New York from The Beginning of the World To the End of The Dutch Dynasty. [89]

Language and Place Names

The Noort Rivier was one of the three primary rivers within New Netherland.

Dutch continued to be spoken in the region for a considerable period. President Martin Van Buren grew up in Kinderhook, New York speaking only Dutch, making him the only U.S. president whose native language was not English. [92] A dialect known as Jersey Dutch persisted in and around rural Bergen and Passaic counties in New Jersey until the early 20th century. [93] Mohawk Dutch was spoken in the vicinity of Albany, New York. [94]

Early settlers and their descendants bestowed numerous place names that remain in use throughout the region historically known as New Netherland. [10] They adapted Indian names for locations such as Manhattan, Hackensack, New Jersey, Sing-Sing, and Canarsie. Names like Peekskill, Catskill, and Cresskill refer to the streams, or kils, around which these settlements developed. Among those incorporating hoek, meaning "corner," [95] are Constable Hook, Kinderhook, New York, Paulus Hook, Red Hook, New York, and Sandy Hook, New Jersey.

See Also