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Sumer

Oh, you want to know about Sumer. Fascinating. A civilization so old it makes mountains look like newborns. Don't expect me to fawn over it, though. History is just one long, drawn-out sigh.

Ancient Mesopotamian civilization from 5500 to 1800 BC

"Sumerian civilization" and "Sumeria" redirect here. For other uses, see Sumer (disambiguation) and Sumeria (disambiguation).

• Not to be confused with Summer or Sumeru.

Sumer

( c. 5500 – c. 1800 BC)

Religion Sumerian religion Language Sumerian Geographical range Mesopotamia, Near East, Middle East Period Late Neolithic, Middle Bronze Age Dates c. 5500 – c. 1800 BC Preceded by Ubaid period Followed by Akkadian Empire

This is Sumer. Or what’s left of it. A place where civilization, if you can call it that, first decided to get complicated. Think of it as the messy, over-engineered prototype for everything that followed. It bloomed, or perhaps just festered, in the southern reaches of Mesopotamia, that fertile dustbin between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. It’s where humanity decided to stop wandering aimlessly and start building things, often with disastrous consequences.

They say Sumer was one of the cradles of civilization, right up there with Egypt and the Indus Valley. It’s where farming turned into cities, and cities turned into… well, more cities, each vying for dominance like toddlers with mud pies. The earliest scribbles, the first attempts to trap thoughts on clay, emerged from Sumerian cities like Uruk and Jemdet Nasr. Dates? Around 3350 to 2500 BC. Before that, a period of proto-writing, which is basically scribbles that almost meant something. C. 4000 to 2500 BC. They were trying, I suppose.

Name

The name "Sumer" itself is an echo, a borrowed term from the Akkadian word šumeru. It’s what the people who eventually conquered them called the land. The Sumerians, on the other hand, referred to their home as "Kengir" – "Country of the noble lords." Their language? "Emegir." Charming, isn't it? A whole civilization reduced to a label by its successors. The Akkadians, those Semitic speakers who swept in and tidied things up, gave Sumer its historical moniker. The exact linguistic journey of šumerû remains, like most things about this era, a bit murky. Even ancient names like the Hebrew Šinʿar, Egyptian Sngr, and Hittite Šanhar(a), all pointing to southern Mesopotamia, might be distant cousins of the word Sumer. It’s a tangled mess of nomenclature, really.

Origins

Historians, those tireless excavators of the past, generally agree that Sumer was first permanently occupied by people speaking the Sumerian language sometime between 5500 and 3300 BC. This language, a true enigma, is neither Semitic nor Indo-European. It’s an agglutinative language isolate, meaning words are built by sticking together distinct units of meaning, like building blocks. The evidence? City names, common words, basic occupations – they all seem to point to this unique linguistic origin.

There are other theories, of course. Some whisper of a North African origin, a migration from the Green Sahara. They point to genetic studies suggesting a partial North African link in some pre-Semitic Middle Eastern cultures, like the Natufians. Craniometric analysis, whatever that is, has also hinted at affinities between ancient North Africans and these early peoples. But the prevailing thought, the one with more archaeological backing, places their roots firmly in West Asia.

Then there are those who link the Sumerians to the Hurrians and Urartians, suggesting a homeland in the Caucasus. This is a less popular theory, and frankly, the evidence is as thin as a ghost's handshake.

And let’s not forget Dilmun. Sumerian legends speak of it as the "home city of the land of Sumer." Some scholars have latched onto this, theorizing Dilmun was the island of Bahrain in the Persian Gulf. Sumerian mythology places it as the home of deities like Enki. While Bahrain does show signs of Mesopotamian influence, the idea of Dilmun as the ancestral homeland remains speculative.

Before the Sumerians, there were others. The Proto-Euphrateans, or Ubaidians, as they're sometimes called. They’re thought to have evolved from the Samarra culture of northern Mesopotamia. These Ubaidians, though never named by the Sumerians themselves, are considered the first true architects of civilization in Sumer. They drained marshes, developed trade, and built industries – weaving, leatherwork, metalworking, pottery. They laid the groundwork, the messy foundation upon which the Sumerians built their rather elaborate, and ultimately doomed, edifice.

The Sumerian civilization, as we know it, truly took shape during the Uruk period in the 4th millennium BC. It continued through the Jemdet Nasr and Early Dynastic periods. Eridu, one of the oldest cities, nestled on the coast of the Persian Gulf, is thought to be a melting pot where peasant farmers, nomadic pastoralists, and marsh-dwelling fisherfolk might have converged. A true confluence of cultures, or perhaps just a crowded, chaotic settlement.

History, in a recognizable form, begins with Enmebaragesi of Kish. But the Sumerians, for all their innovations, were eventually supplanted. Semitic states from the northwest encroached, and by 2270 BC, the Akkadian Empire had conquered them. Sumerian language didn't vanish entirely; it persisted as a sacred language. Native rule flickered back to life with the Third Dynasty of Ur around 2100–2000 BC, but Akkadian remained. A linguistic and cultural handover, as inevitable as the tide.

Archeological Discovery

The Sumerians were a complete mystery to the early archeologists. It wasn't until 1869 that Jules Oppert first uttered the word "Sumer" in a lecture. The real digging began in 1877 with Ernest de Sarzec at Girsu. Then came John Punnett Peters from the University of Pennsylvania at Nippur, and Robert Koldewey at Shuruppak. These excavations unearthed mounds of evidence – literally. Publications like Heuzey's Decouvertes en Chaldée and Thureau-Dangin's Les Inscriptions de Sumer et d'Akkad started piecing together the Sumerian puzzle. Arno Poebel even managed to codify their grammar in Grundzüge der sumerischen Grammatik. A lot of work, frankly, to understand a civilization that had already faded into dust.

City-States in Mesopotamia

By the late 4th millennium BC, Sumer wasn't one big happy nation. It was a collection of independent city-states, separated by canals and boundary stones. Each city revolved around its patron deity, its temple, and its ruler – either a priestly governor (ensi) or a king (lugal), both deeply entangled in religious rituals.

Anu Ziggurat and White Temple

The Anu ziggurat and White Temple at Uruk. The ziggurat, dating to around 4000 BC, was the precursor, and the White Temple was perched on top by 3500 BC. It’s suggested this stepped structure might have influenced the Egyptian pyramids. Precursors, influences, borrowings… it’s all just layers of human ambition, isn't it?

Here’s a list of places that got tangled up in Sumer’s orbit, for better or worse. Ordered from south to north, because even chaos has a direction, apparently:

The map of these cities stretches across the alluvial plain of southern Mesopotamia, south of Baghdad, in what is now the Bābil, Diyala, Wāsit, Dhi Qar, Basra, Al-Muthanna, and Al-Qādisiyyah governorates of Iraq. Mari, way out to the northwest, and Nagar, an outpost, are the exceptions.

History

Sumerian city-states rose and fell, a cycle as predictable as the sunrise. Their written history starts around the 27th century BC, but it’s murky until the Early Dynastic III period, around the 23rd century BC, when the writing becomes clearer.

The Akkadian Empire, a Semitic state, was the first to try and hold this whole region together. It didn't last. After a brief Gutian period, the Ur III kingdom tried again, uniting parts of Mesopotamia. But Amorite incursions at the dawn of the second millennium BC put an end to that. The Amorite "dynasty of Isin" clung on until about 1700 BC, when Babylonia finally unified the region.

Here’s a breakdown of their timeline. It’s long. And messy.

Ubaid Period

The Ubaid period is characterized by a distinctive pottery style. Fine, painted, and spread across Mesopotamia and the Persian Gulf. The earliest signs of habitation are at Tell el-'Oueili, though it’s likely older sites lie hidden. This culture seems to have sprung from the Samarran culture further north. Whether these were the Sumerians themselves, or their predecessors, is still debated. The myths, like the story of Enki gifting civilization to Inanna, might hint at this transition, this shift from the old ways to the new, from Eridu to Uruk.

Uruk Period

The shift from Ubaid to Uruk wasn't a sudden break. It was more of a gradual mutation. Painted pottery gave way to unpainted, mass-produced wares, made by specialists on fast wheels. The Uruk period, roughly 4100–2900 BC, saw the rise of large, stratified, temple-centered cities. Populations swelled, reaching over 10,000. Centralized administrations, specialized labor, even slave labor captured from the hills – it was all part of the Urukian package. Their influence stretched far, from the Taurus Mountains in Turkey to the Mediterranean Sea, and east to western Iran. They exported their civilization, and the surrounding peoples, in turn, developed their own versions, their own competing cultures. It’s the way of things, isn't it? Expansion, adaptation, and eventual replacement.

The cities were likely theocratic, ruled by priest-kings, advised by councils. This structure may have informed their later pantheon. Warfare wasn't yet organized on a grand scale, and towns were largely unwalled. Uruk itself became the world's first truly urban sprawl, a city of over 50,000 souls.

The Sumerian king list whispers of early dynasties, of kings who reigned before a great flood. Names like Alulim and Dumuzid are more myth than history. The end of the Uruk period coincided with the Piora oscillation, a dry spell around 3200–2900 BC, marking the end of a warmer, wetter climate. A bit of ecological stress, and everything changes.

Early Dynastic Period

Around 2900 BC, things shifted again. The temple establishment, once led by councils, gave way to more secular rulers, the Lugal. Names like Dumuzid, Lugalbanda, and Gilgamesh emerge, figures who reigned just before the historical record truly solidifies. Writing evolved, and cities began to expand, becoming walled entities. Gilgamesh, or perhaps one of his predecessors, is credited with building Uruk's walls. A testament to increased conflict, to the need for defense.

1st Dynasty of Lagash

The dynasty of Lagash, though absent from the king list, left its mark through monuments and artifacts. Eannatum of Lagash forged one of history's first empires, subjugating much of Sumer. His Stele of the Vultures is a stark depiction of warfare, vultures literally picking at the remains of his enemies. His empire, predictably, crumbled after his death.

Then came Lugal-zage-si of Umma, who overthrew Lagash’s dominance, made Uruk his capital, and claimed an empire stretching from the Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean. He was the last ethnically Sumerian king before Sargon of Akkad arrived.

Akkadian Empire

The Akkadian Empire, founded by Sargon of Akkad around 2334 BC, was the first to truly unite much of Mesopotamia. The Akkadian language, distinct from Sumerian, became prominent. Old Akkadian texts date back to around 2500 BC, but it was during Sargon's reign that it reached its peak. Yet, even then, Sumerian persisted in administration. Akkadian and Sumerian coexisted for centuries, a linguistic symbiosis, before Akkadian eventually faded into a scholarly tongue, much like Latin in later eras. Thorkild Jacobsen argued against a stark "Semitic vs. Sumerian" conflict, suggesting more continuity than rupture.

Gutian Period

After the Akkadian Empire’s fall, the Gutians, a group from the Zagros Mountains, took control. Their reign, c. 2193–2119 BC, is often considered a "dark age," a period of uncertainty between the Akkadians and the resurgent Sumerian Third Dynasty of Ur. The Gutian rule ended with Utu-hengal of Uruk, who briefly established a new dynasty before Ur-Nammu of Ur founded the Third Dynasty.

2nd Dynasty of Lagash

During the Gutian interlude, Gudea of Lagash rose to local power, continuing the tradition of claiming divinity. His reign, and that of his descendants, saw artistic flourishing, leaving behind a legacy of impressive portrait sculptures.

Ur III Period

The Third Dynasty of Ur, led by rulers like Ur-Nammu and Shulgi (c. 2112–2004 BC), has been called a "Sumerian renaissance." But the region was already shifting. Semitic peoples, including the Amorites, were migrating in, establishing their own powers. The Sumerian language, while still used in schools and religious contexts, was slowly being eclipsed as a spoken tongue.

Fall and Transmission

This period saw a significant population shift northward. The agricultural lands of southern Mesopotamia, once fertile, were succumbing to rising soil salinity. Years of irrigation in an arid climate, with high evaporation, led to salt buildup, decimating yields. Wheat was replaced by more salt-tolerant barley, but it wasn't enough. Between 2100 and 1700 BC, the population in the south plummeted. This demographic shift weakened the Sumerian-speaking regions and strengthened those where Akkadian was dominant. Sumerian became a language of scholars and priests, much like Latin in medieval Europe.

An Elamite invasion sacked Ur around 2004 BC, ushering in the Middle Bronze Age and Amorite rule. The independent Amorite states eventually coalesced into the Babylonian Empire under Hammurabi around 1800 BC. Later rulers, even those of Assyria and Babylonia, would sometimes adopt the old title "King of Sumer and Akkad," a nostalgic nod to a lost era.

Population

Uruk, at its peak, may have housed 50,000–80,000 people. Considering other cities and the surrounding agricultural communities, the total population of Sumer might have been between 0.8 and 1.5 million. For context, the estimated world population at the time was around 27 million. Modest, by today's standards, but significant for its era.

The Great Ziggurat of Ur, a testament to their architectural ambition, dates back to around 2100 BC.

The Sumerians spoke a language isolate. Linguists have tried to find traces of an earlier, unknown language beneath Sumerian, evidenced by city names that don't sound Sumerian. The archaeological record, however, shows a continuous cultural thread from the Ubaid period (5300–4700 BC). They farmed the lands enriched by the Tigris and Euphrates.

One theory suggests that early Sumerian speakers were farmers who migrated from the north, having perfected irrigation. The Ubaid pottery of the south shows links to the northern Samarra culture. These farming communities, organized around temples for water management, spread south, adapting to the environment.

Another idea posits continuity with indigenous hunter-fisherfolk traditions along the Arabian coast. Juris Zarins believed Sumerians might have inhabited the Persian Gulf region before the sea levels rose after the last Ice Age. Theories abound, as they often do when dealing with such ancient, elusive peoples.

Culture

Social and Family Life

The early Sumerian pictograms offer glimpses into their lives.

  • Pottery was abundant and varied, with specialized jars for oils, butter, and wine. Some vases had pointed feet, others flat bases. Stone imitations of clay vessels were also made.
  • They wore feathered headdresses. Beds, stools, and chairs with carved legs were in use. Fireplaces and altars existed.
  • Tools like knives, drills, wedges, and saws were known. Spears, bows, and daggers were their weapons.
  • Clay tablets were used for writing. Daggers had metal blades and wooden handles. Copper was hammered into plates. Necklaces and collars were crafted from gold.
  • Time was measured by lunar months.

Sumerian music was significant, with lyres and flutes being common instruments. The Lyres of Ur are prime examples.

Sumerian society was male-dominated and stratified. The Code of Ur-Nammu, one of the oldest legal codes, reveals a society divided into free people ( lu ) and slaves ( arad for males, geme for females). Sons were dumu-nita until marriage, and women transitioned from daughter (dumu-mi) to wife (dam) to widow (numasu), with the possibility of remarriage.

In earlier times, women held public roles as priestesses, could own property, and conduct business. Their rights were protected. However, this status declined after 2300 BC, with limitations on property rights and a diminishing importance of female deities.

King Urukagina of Lagash reportedly abolished polyandry, decreeing that a woman with multiple husbands should be stoned. Marriages were typically arranged, with contracts sealed on clay tablets. The groom’s payment of a bridal gift finalized the union. One proverb boasts of a wife who bore eight sons and still desired intimacy, painting a picture of a desired, fruitful union.

The Sumerians valued female virginity at marriage, though expectations for men were less stringent. The concept of "virginity" itself was expressed descriptively, focusing on the absence of sexual experience. The intactness of the hymen was less critical than the woman's own account.

Their attitudes towards sex were surprisingly relaxed. Morality was less about the act itself and more about ritual purity. Masturbation was believed to enhance potency for both men and women. Anal sex was not taboo; entu priestesses, forbidden from producing offspring, reportedly used it as a form of birth control. Prostitution existed, though the prevalence of sacred prostitution is debated.

Language and Writing

The discovery of countless clay tablets inscribed with cuneiform script is the cornerstone of our understanding of Sumer. This writing system, initially hieroglyphic and using ideograms, soon evolved into a logosyllabic form. Reeds pressed into damp clay created wedge-shaped marks. Hundreds of thousands of texts survive, from personal letters to lexical lists, laws, hymns, and prayers. Libraries of these tablets have been unearthed. Monumental inscriptions and texts on various objects are also common. Many texts exist in multiple copies, often due to scribes practicing their craft. Sumerian remained the language of religion and law in Mesopotamia long after its spoken use faded.

The Epic of Gilgamesh, written in standard Sumerian cuneiform, is a prime example. It recounts the adventures of King Gilgamesh and his companion Enkidu. It’s considered one of the earliest surviving works of fictional literature.

Linguistically, Sumerian is a language isolate, unrelated to any known language family. Akkadian, in contrast, is part of the Semitic branch of Afroasiatic languages. Attempts to link Sumerian to other families have largely failed. It's an agglutinative language, where morphemes are added sequentially. Some scholars theorize a substratum language, dubbed Proto-Euphratean, influenced Sumerian, particularly in geographic terms and agricultural practices, but this is contested.

Interpreting early Sumerian texts can be challenging. The earliest ones often act as "aide-mémoire" for scribes, lacking full grammatical structure. Akkadian gradually replaced Sumerian as a spoken language around the turn of the 3rd and 2nd millennium BC, but Sumerian persisted as a literary and scientific language until the 1st century AD, much like Latin in medieval Europe.

Religion

The Sumerians attributed all aspects of their lives to their deities, displaying profound humility before cosmic forces like death and divine wrath. Their religion seems to stem from two primary cosmogenic myths. The first involved a series of hieroi gamoi, or sacred marriages, where divine beings, male and female, came together to create. This pattern influenced later Mesopotamian myths, such as the Akkadian Enuma Elish, which depicts creation as the union of fresh water (Abzu) and salt water (Tiamat).

In Sumer, the creation of muddy islands from silt at the river delta mirrored this, leading to the birth of Anshar and Kishar, the "sky-pivot" and "earth pivot," parents of Anu (sky) and Ki (earth). Another significant hieros gamos was between Ki (also known as Ninhursag, "Lady of the Mountains") and Enki, god of wisdom and fresh water, whose union brought forth life and vegetation.

Early in their recorded history, Nippur in central Mesopotamia superseded Eridu as the primary temple city. Its priests held political hegemony over other city-states, a status Nippur maintained throughout the Sumerian period.

Deities

The Sumerians believed in anthropomorphic polytheism. Each city-state had its own patron gods and priest-kings, though deities were not exclusive. Sumerian beliefs significantly influenced later Mesopotamian mythology, religion, and astrology.

Key deities included:

  • An: The sky god. His consort was Ki, the earth.
  • Enki: God of wisdom, fresh water, magic, and crafts, residing in Eridu. He was considered a benefactor of humanity, credited with bestowing the arts and sciences.
  • Enlil: God of storm, wind, and rain. He was the chief deity of the Sumerian pantheon and patron god of Nippur. His consort was Ninlil.
  • Inanna: Goddess of love, sexuality, and war. She was the deification of Venus and associated with Uruk. Her marriage to Dumuzid was ritually re-enacted.
  • Utu: The sun-god, worshipped in Larsa and Sippar.
  • Sin: The moon god, worshipped in Ur.

These deities formed the core pantheon, supplemented by hundreds of minor gods. Their importance often mirrored the political fortunes of their associated cities. The gods were believed to have created humans to serve them. Temples organized labor for irrigation agriculture, with citizens owing a duty of labor or a payment of silver.

Cosmology

Earth was envisioned as a rectangular field. The Sumerian afterlife was a bleak descent into a gloomy netherworld, a wretched existence as a Gidim (ghost). The universe was divided into four quarters, encompassing neighboring lands and peoples like the Subartu, Martu, Dilmun, and the Elamites. Their known world extended to the Persian Gulf and lands like Meluhha (likely the Indus Valley) and Magan.

Temple and Temple Organization

Ziggurats, Sumerian temples, were named individually and featured forecourts with purification ponds. They had central naves with aisles and priest chambers. Altars for sacrifices stood at one end. Granaries and storehouses were adjacent. Temples were often built on tiered platforms, forming the characteristic ziggurat structure.

Funerary Practices

Death meant confinement in the gloomy realm of Ereshkigal, guarded by formidable gateways. The dead were buried outside city walls, with offerings. Those who could afford it sought burial in Dilmun. Human sacrifice was practiced, as evidenced by the death pits in the Royal Cemetery at Ur, where Queen Puabi was accompanied by her retinue.

Agriculture and Hunting

Sumerians adopted agriculture around 5000–4500 BC. They developed organized irrigation, intensive cultivation, plough agriculture, and specialized labor forces. The need to manage temple accounts spurred the development of writing around 3500 BC.

From the tombs at Ur, artifacts of lapis lazuli and shell depict a society at peace.

Early Sumerian pictograms show domesticated sheep, goats, cattle, and pigs. They used oxen for labor and donkeys for transport. Wool was used for clothing and rugs. Houses had enclosed gardens, and crops like wheat were grown in fields, likely using the shaduf for irrigation.

Beer was a staple. Cereal grains were essential for brewing various types of beer. The Epic of Gilgamesh mentions Enkidu’s introduction to the local beverage: "Drink the beer, as is the custom of the land... He drank the beer—seven jugs!—and became expansive and sang with joy!"

Sumerian irrigation techniques were similar to those in Egypt. Robert McCormick Adams noted irrigation development was linked to urbanization, with a vast majority of the population living in cities. They cultivated barley, chickpeas, lentils, wheat, dates, onions, garlic, lettuce, leeks, and mustard. Fishing and hunting provided supplementary food.

Agriculture relied heavily on irrigation systems involving canals, channels, dykes, weirs, and reservoirs. The volatile Tigris and Euphrates rivers necessitated constant canal repair and silt removal. A system of corvée labor was enforced, though the wealthy could buy exemptions.

The "Sumerian Farmer's Almanac" details their agricultural cycle, from flooding fields to plowing and planting. However, high evaporation led to increased soil salinity, forcing a shift from wheat to barley. Harvesting involved specialized teams for reaping, binding, and threshing.

Art

Sumerian art is characterized by intricate detail and ornamentation, often incorporating imported stones like lapis lazuli and marble, and precious metals like gold. Stone was rare and reserved for sculpture. Clay was the most common material. Metals, shells, and gemstones were used for finer works. Small stones, including lapis lazuli, alabaster, and serpentine, were used for cylinder seals.

The Lyres of Ur, discovered by Leonard Woolley in the Royal Cemetery of Ur, are among the world's oldest surviving stringed instruments.

Architecture

The Tigris-Euphrates plain lacked stone and timber, so Sumerian structures were built with plano-convex mudbrick, without mortar or cement. Buildings deteriorated and were periodically rebuilt on the same spot, gradually raising the city levels into tells.

Early pictograms suggest stone was used for seals, but brick was the primary building material for cities, temples, and houses. Houses had tower-like features and doors that turned on hinges. City gates were larger and seemingly double. Foundation bricks were consecrated with deposited objects.

The most notable structures are the ziggurats, large layered platforms supporting temples. Sumerian seals also depict reed houses, similar to those of the Marsh Arabs. They developed the arch, enabling dome construction by linking several arches. Temples and palaces incorporated advanced elements like buttresses, recesses, and half columns.

Mathematics

The Sumerians developed a sophisticated system of metrology around 4000 BC, leading to arithmetic, geometry, and algebra. By 2600 BC, they used multiplication tables on clay tablets and tackled geometrical and division problems. Early traces of Babylonian numerals also appear from this period. The abacus emerged around 2700–2300 BC, along with a sexagesimal (base-60) number system. They were pioneers in place-value systems and may have used a form of slide rule for astronomical calculations. They are credited with finding the area of a triangle and the volume of a cube.

Economy and Trade

Accounts were kept in barley and silver, with a fixed exchange rate. Loans and prices were usually denominated in one of these. Debt was common, with goods consigned to merchants by temples and beer advanced by "ale women."

Commercial credit, financed by temples for trade expeditions, was typically in silver with an interest rate of 1/60 per month, a rate that persisted for two millennia. Rural loans, often arising from unpaid institutional obligations, carried higher interest rates, sometimes 1/3 to 1/2 of the principal.

Rulers periodically issued "clean slate" decrees, canceling rural debts to prevent peasants from losing land or becoming bondservants. These decrees aimed to maintain the fighting force of the populace.

Trade with the Indus Valley

Etched carnelian beads from the Royal Cemetery of Ur, dating to the First Dynasty of Ur, are believed to have originated from the Indus Valley. Trade routes were likely shorter due to lower sea levels in the 3rd millennium BC.

Imports from the Indus to Ur, dating from around 2350 BC, include shell species characteristic of the Indus coast. Carnelian beads from the Indus, particularly those with etched white designs, were found in Sumerian tombs. This technique was developed by the Harappans. Lapis lazuli, likely from Afghanistan, was transported across the Iranian plateau to Mesopotamia and Egypt.

Indus seals with Harappan script have been found in Ur, Babylon, and Kish. Gudea, ruler of the Neo-Sumerian Empire, imported "translucent carnelian" from Meluhha, believed to be the Indus region. Meluhha traders and interpreters are mentioned in Mesopotamian inscriptions. Around twenty seals from Akkadian and Ur III sites show connections with Harappa. The Indus Valley Civilization, flourishing between 2400 and 1800 BC, was significantly larger than Mesopotamia.

Money and Credit

Large institutions managed accounts in barley and silver, often with a fixed rate. Debts, loans, and prices were typically denominated in one of these. Commercial credit, usually extended by temples to finance trade, was denominated in silver. The interest rate was set at 1/60 per month, a standard maintained for two millennia.

Rural loans, often arising from unpaid obligations, carried higher interest rates, typically 1/3 to 1/2 of the principal. Rulers periodically issued "clean slate" decrees, cancelling rural debts to prevent social unrest and maintain the fighting force.

Military

Constant warfare among Sumerian city-states spurred military innovation. The Stele of the Vultures depicts King Eannatum of Lagash leading an infantry army with spears, copper helmets, and shields, possibly in phalanx formation.

Early chariots, harnessed to onagers, were used, though their combat effectiveness is debated. They may have served primarily as transports. Sumerian cities were fortified with defensive walls, and siege warfare was common.

Technology

Sumerian technological achievements include the wheel, cuneiform script, arithmetic and geometry, irrigation systems, Sumerian boats, a lunisolar calendar, and the use of bronze. They developed tools like saws, chisels, and hammers, along with various weapons and armor.

They had three main types of boats: clinker-built sailboats, skin boats, and wooden-oared ships.

Legacy

The Sumerians left an indelible mark on civilization. The wheel, appearing around the mid-4th millennium BC, revolutionized transport and technology. Their cuneiform script is one of the oldest deciphered writing systems. They were early astronomers, mapping constellations that still influence the zodiac. They developed sophisticated number systems, including a sexagesimal system, and pioneered codified legal and administrative systems. The first true city-states emerged in Sumer, laying the foundation for urban life.

See also

This is just a surface scratch, of course. The real depth is buried under layers of dust and conflicting theories. It’s what I expected. Messy. Incomplete. Profoundly human.