City-State

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A city-state, for those who appreciate precision, is an independent sovereign city that functions as the undeniable core of political, economic, and cultural life for itself and its contiguous territory. This stands in stark contrast to the more common state or country, which typically encompasses a sprawling capital city alongside numerous other cities, towns, and often vast stretches of countryside. Historically, these compact powerhouses have manifested across the globe, from the ancient titans like Rome, Carthage, Athens, and [Sparta) to the vibrant Italian city-states that flourished during the Middle Ages and Renaissance, such as the mercantile might of Florence, Venice, Genoa, and the strategic Milan.

In our current era, with the pervasive dominance of nation states, the question of how many modern city-states genuinely persist remains a subject of rather tiresome debate. Singapore, Monaco, and Vatican City are the usual suspects thrown into the discussion. Among these, Singapore unequivocally claims the title of the largest and most populous city-state on Earth. It boasts full and undeniable sovereignty, clearly defined international borders, its own distinct currency, a remarkably robust military, and a level of international influence that far exceeds its physical footprint. The Economist, with its characteristic gravitas, has even gone so far as to label it the "world's only fully functioning city-state," a designation that, frankly, few could convincingly argue against.

Beyond these truly sovereign entities, several non-sovereign urban centers enjoy such a high degree of autonomy that they are frequently, if somewhat inaccurately, referred to as city-states. Notable examples include Hong Kong and Macau, both of which operate under unique administrative arrangements. Cities within the United Arab Emirates—particularly Dubai—are also often cited in this category, though their internal dynamics within a larger federal structure add layers of complexity to the designation. Moreover, certain non-sosovereign overseas territories, such as Gibraltar, occasionally find themselves labeled as city-states, blurring the lines between true independence and significant self-governance.

Historical background

Ancient and medieval world

Further information: List of ancient Greek cities, List of Phoenician cities, Cities of the ancient Near East, Italian city-states, Maya city, Polis, and Altepetl

The Republic of Ragusa, a maritime city-state, was based in the walled city of Dubrovnik, a testament to the enduring human desire for self-governance within fortified walls.

The annals of history are replete with examples of city-states. Among the earliest known are the Sumerian cities, such as the ancient metropolises of Uruk and [Ur), whose ziggurats once dominated the Mesopotamian plains. Ancient Egyptian civilization, while often remembered for its unified empire, also saw periods where powerful urban centers like [Thebes,_Egypt) and [Memphis,_Egypt) functioned with considerable autonomy, governing their immediate territories. The Phoenician cities, including the formidable maritime powers of [Tyre,_Lebanon) and [Sidon), carved out their own empires through trade, acting as independent hubs. The five Philistine city-states, perpetual thorns in the side of ancient Israel, and the Berber city-states of the Garamantes in the Sahara, further illustrate this widespread phenomenon.

Perhaps the most celebrated examples are the legendary city-states of ancient Greece—the renowned poleis—such as the intellectual powerhouse Athens, the militaristic Sparta, the strategic [Thebes,_Greece), and the wealthy trading hub of Corinth. Even the mighty Roman Republic began its monumental ascent as a mere city-state, eventually expanding its influence to forge a colossal empire, a trajectory that few city-states could ever hope to replicate.

The Italian city-states of the Middle Ages and early modern period represent another golden age for this political form. Cities like Florence, Siena, Ferrara, and Milan began as independent urban centers, their power growing to eventually dominate vast swathes of neighboring territories. The maritime republics of Genoa and Venice evolved into formidable thalassocracies, their influence stretching across the Mediterranean and beyond, their navies and merchant fleets acting as instruments of both commerce and power.

Further afield, the Mayan and other sophisticated cultures of pre-Columbian Mesoamerica also developed complex city-states, with magnificent centers such as [Chichen_Itza), Tikal, Copán, and [Monte_Albán) serving as crucial political and religious hubs. The central Asian cities along the fabled [Silk_Road), thriving on trade, often functioned as de facto city-states, navigating the complex geopolitics of their routes. The vibrant [Swahili_coast) in East Africa saw the rise of prosperous city-states built on Indian Ocean trade. In Europe, the [Republic_of_Ragusa) (modern-day Dubrovnik) in Croatia and Tbilisi in [Georgia_(country)) were prominent examples. The medieval Russian city-states of [Novgorod_Republic) and [Pskov_Republic) carved out unique democratic traditions in a largely autocratic landscape. The [free_imperial_cities) of [German-speaking_Europe), the mueang of Indochina, and the [barangay_states) of [the_Philippines) all demonstrate the diverse manifestations of this urban-centric political structure. Danish historian Poul Holm has even classified the Viking colonial cities in medieval Ireland, particularly the [Kingdom_of_Dublin), as city-states, highlighting their distinct governance and economic power within a foreign land.

On Cyprus, the [Phoenicia)n settlement of Kition, located in what is now Larnaca, existed as a thriving city-state from approximately 800 BC until the late 4th century BC.

The ancient [Greek_city-states) and the merchant city-states of [Renaissance_Italy) are often considered the most iconic examples of city-state culture in human history. Their success lay in their ability to function as independent, self-organizing centers, often united by loose geographical and cultural ties, yet fiercely guarding their autonomy. This regional cohesion, however, frequently impeded their amalgamation into larger national units, a factor that both defined their character and, ultimately, often contributed to their demise. Such small political entities, while culturally rich and economically dynamic, frequently possessed insufficient resources to defend themselves against the relentless expansion of larger, more centralized states—a pattern vividly illustrated by the [Roman_conquest_of_Greece). Consequently, they often gave way, sometimes violently, to more expansive forms of societal organization, including the vast empire and the modern nation-state. It's a rather predictable arc, really; power, like water, always seeks the path of least resistance to consolidate.

Central Europe

The [Free_imperial_cities) as of 1792, a complex tapestry of urban autonomy within a fragmented empire.

Within the sprawling, often chaotic, [Holy_Roman_Empire) (which endured from 962 to a merciful 1806), over 80 [Free_Imperial_Cities) gradually acquired a considerable degree of autonomy during the [Middle_Ages) and early modern period. This self-governance was not merely customary but was legally reinforced by [international_law) following the [Peace_of_Westphalia) in 1648, which codified a new era of state sovereignty, ironically also solidifying the rights of these urban anomalies. Some of these cities, particularly three of the prominent early [Hanseatic_cities)—Bremen, Hamburg, and Lübeck—pooled their economic and diplomatic resources, allowing them to exert significant influence in international affairs. Individual cities frequently forged protective alliances, both with other urban centers and with neighboring regions. Examples include the formidable [Hanseatic_League) (which dominated Northern European trade from 1358 into the 17th century), the [Swabian_League_of_Cities) (1331–1389), the Décapole (1354–1679) in the Alsace region, and the resilient [Old_Swiss_Confederacy) (c. 1300–1798). Indeed, many of the modern [Swiss_cantons], such as Zürich, Bern, Lucerne, Fribourg, Solothurn, Basel, Schaffhausen, and Geneva, originated as distinct city-states before evolving into the federal structure we see today.

Following the rather overdue dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, a handful of these cities—now members of various evolving [confederacies)—were formally recognized as sovereign city-states. These included the Free_Hanseatic_City_of_Bremen (which enjoyed sovereignty from 1806–11 and again from 1813–71), the short-lived but significant Free_City_of_Frankfurt_upon_Main (1815–66), the Free_and_Hanseatic_City_of_Hamburg (1806–11 and again 1814–71), the Free_and_Hanseatic_City_of_Lübeck (1806–11 and again 1813–71), and the Free_City_of_Kraków (1815–1846). Under Habsburg rule, the city of Fiume (now Rijeka in Croatia) held the unique status of a corpus separatum (1779–1919), which, while not quite full independent sovereignty, granted it many of the practical attributes of a city-state, a convoluted arrangement typical of the era.

Italy

Main article: Italian city-states
See also: Medieval commune, Lombard League, Maritime republics, and Signoria

Italy in 1494, after the [Peace_of_Lodi), a fragmented landscape of independent and semi-independent entities, including numerous city-states.

In Northern and [Central_Italy) during the [medieval] and [Renaissance] periods, the city-state emerged as the predominant form of political organization, often with varying amounts of associated rural territory. It's almost as if the sheer density of human ambition and trade necessitated these smaller, more agile power structures. Many of these entities, despite functioning as de_facto independent states, maintained a nominal allegiance to the sprawling and often distant [Holy_Roman_Empire), a political fiction that allowed them a degree of protection while pursuing their own interests. The era of the Italian states, particularly from the 11th to the 15th centuries, was a period of extraordinary economic dynamism. It saw remarkable developments in trade, sophisticated manufacturing, and the pioneering of mercantile capitalism. This economic boom was inextricably linked to increasing urbanization, and the influence of these vibrant city-states radiated throughout much of the Mediterranean world and across Europe as a whole. During this golden age of urban autonomy, most of the Italian city-states found themselves under the rule of a single powerful individual or family, often through a form of governance known as the Signoria, or by established dynasties such as the formidable [House_of_Gonzaga) and the cunning [House_of_Sforza).

Examples of Italian city-states during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance include:

The influential [Republic_of_Florence), the strategically important [Duchy_of_Milan), the [Duchy_of_Ferrara), a small but vital city-state positioned between Venice and the Romagna, the resilient [San_Marino) (which, remarkably, endures to this day), the [Duchy_of_Modena_and_Reggio), the [Duchy_of_Urbino), the [Duchy_of_Mantua), and the long-lived [Republic_of_Lucca).
The supremely powerful [maritime_republics), whose wealth and influence were built on naval prowess and extensive trade routes: the opulent [Republic_of_Venice), the rivalrous [Republic_of_Genoa), the early trading hub of the [Republic_of_Amalfi), the naval power of the [Republic_of_Pisa), the often-overlooked but significant [Republic_of_Ancona), and the [Duchy_of_Gaeta). These maritime powers demonstrate how a city, with access to the sea, could project its influence far beyond its immediate land borders.

Southeast Asia

In the rich and complex history of [Mainland_Southeast_Asia), aristocratic factions, influential Buddhist leaders, and other powerful groups consistently organized settlements into autonomous or, more commonly, semi-autonomous city-states. These were locally known as mueang, and their political relationships were typically structured in a tributary system. This arrangement is often described using the term [mandala_(political_model)), which refers to a pattern of overlapping sovereignty rather than rigidly defined borders. In this system, smaller city-states would pay tribute to larger, more dominant ones, which in turn might pay tribute to even grander entities. This hierarchical structure culminated in apex cities such as [Ayutthaya_(city)), Bagan, and Bangkok, which served as the majestic centers of Southeast Asian royalty and power. This intricate system of interdependency persisted until the relentless wave of colonization by European powers in the 19th century. Siam, a significant regional power at the time, found itself compelled to precisely define its territorial boundaries in order to negotiate with the encroaching European empires. Consequently, the Siamese government established a more Western-style nation-state system, forcibly incorporating its traditional tributary cities, such as [Lan_Xang), Cambodia, and several Malay cities, into its defined territory, thereby abolishing the ancient mueang and the tributary system. It was a pragmatic, if brutal, adaptation to a new global order.

In the early history of the Philippines, the barangay represented a complex sociopolitical unit that scholars have historically recognized as the dominant organizational pattern among the diverse peoples inhabiting the [Philippine_archipelago). While sometimes loosely referred to as barangay states, these entities are more accurately described using the technical term polity, highlighting their sophisticated governance structures. Substantial evidence suggests a considerable degree of independence for these polities, often functioning as distinct city-states ruled by hereditary Datus, influential Rajahs, and powerful Sultans. Early chroniclers, those diligent observers of nascent societies, recorded that the term "barangay" itself evolved from balangay, which refers to a type of plank boat widely utilized by various cultures across the Philippine archipelago long before the arrival of European colonizers. This etymological link speaks volumes about the maritime nature and mobility of these early societies.

20th-century cities under international supervision

The 20th century, with its grand wars and even grander treaties, saw several attempts to create or manage city-states under international oversight, often as a means of resolving intractable territorial disputes. These experiments, predictably, were mostly short-lived and fraught with complications.

Danzig

Main article: Free City of Danzig

The [Free_City_of_Danzig) existed as a semi-autonomous city-state between 1920 and 1939. This rather artificial entity comprised the vital [Baltic_Sea) port of Danzig (now Gdańsk, Poland) and nearly 200 smaller towns and villages in its immediate vicinity. Its creation, on 15 November 1920, was a direct consequence of Article 100 (Section XI of Part III) of the 1919 [Treaty_of_Versailles), an attempt to provide Poland with access to the sea without fully ceding a German-majority city. It was a compromise that ultimately satisfied no one and contributed to the tensions leading to [World_War_I), proving that even well-intentioned international agreements can pave the way for future conflicts.

Fiume

Main article: Free State of Fiume

After a prolonged period during which the city of Fiume (modern-day Rijeka, Croatia) enjoyed considerable autonomy under Habsburg rule, a status known as [Corpus_separatum_(Fiume)] (1779–1919), the [Free_State_of_Fiume) was declared a fully independent sovereign state. This fleeting entity existed between 1920 and 1924. Its modest territory, approximately 28 square kilometers (11 square miles), encompassed the city itself and some rural areas to its north, critically including a narrow corridor to its west that connected it to Italy. This short-lived state was a product of post-World War I nationalist fervor and competing territorial claims, a testament to the messy aftermath of empires.

Jerusalem

Main article: Corpus separatum (Jerusalem)

Under the ambitious [United_Nations_Partition_Plan_for_Palestine) of 1947, which sought to untangle the complexities of [Mandatory_Palestine), a unique solution was proposed for Jerusalem. The plan envisioned the partition of the territory into three distinct entities: a Jewish state of Israel, an Arab state of Palestine, and a corpus separatum (Latin for "separated_body") specifically for Jerusalem. This corpus separatum was to function as a city-state under the direct control of the [United_Nations_Trusteeship_Council). While this proposal garnered some international support and remains the official stance of the UN, its implementation spectacularly failed. The outbreak of the [1948_Palestine_war), preceded by the [1947–48_Civil_War_in_Mandatory_Palestine), shattered any hope of peaceful partition, ultimately leading to Jerusalem being tragically divided into [West_Jerusalem) and [East_Jerusalem). Israel would later seize control of East Jerusalem during the [Six-Day_War) in 1967, further complicating a situation that was already beyond convoluted. The best laid plans, as they say, often go awry when confronted by human conflict.

Memel

Main article: Klaipėda Region

The [Klaipėda_Region) or Memel Territory was another creation of the [Treaty_of_Versailles) in 1920. It was placed under the administration of the [Council_of_Ambassadors) with the intent that it would remain under the control of the [League_of_Nations) until a future plebiscite could determine its fate—whether it would revert to Germany or not. This predominantly [ethnic_German) territory (though also home to [Prussian_Lithuanians) and Memellanders), situated between the river and the town of its namesake, was, however, forcibly occupied by Lithuania during the [Klaipėda_Revolt) of 1923. Another international 'solution' undone by local ambition.

Ottoman

Some proposals for the eventual [partition_of_the_Ottoman_Empire), following its collapse after World War I, included the creation of international zones at Istanbul/Constantinople or the broader [Turkish_straits), and potentially even at İzmir/Smyrna. Although the [allies_of_World_War_I) did occupy both cities after the 1918 [Armistice_of_Mudros), the British-led [occupation_of_Istanbul) formally recognized Turkey's de jure sovereignty over the city, while the Greek [occupation_of_Smyrna) was an explicit, albeit ultimately unsuccessful, attempt at annexation. The 1923 [Treaty_of_Lausanne) finally re-established definitive Turkish control over both areas, putting an end to these international city-state aspirations.

Shanghai

Main article: [Shanghai_International_Settlement)

The [Shanghai_International_Settlement) (1845–1943) functioned as a unique international zone within China. It was, in many ways, a city-state in miniature, possessing its own distinct legal system, its own postal service, and even its own currency. This extraterritorial enclave allowed foreign powers to maintain a significant presence and exert considerable influence in one of China's most important port cities, operating outside Chinese jurisdiction until its eventual dissolution during World War II.

Tangier

Main article: [Tangier_International_Zone)

Tangier, a city strategically located at the crossroads of the Atlantic and the Mediterranean, also experienced a period as an international zone. This territory, spanning approximately 373 square kilometers (144 square miles), was initially under the joint administration of France, Spain, and the United Kingdom, with Portugal, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands, Sweden, and the United States later joining the administrative council. This international zone, initially attached to Morocco, effectively became a French-Spanish protectorate from 1923 until 29 October 1956, when it was finally reintegrated into the newly independent state of Morocco. It was a complex and often contentious arrangement, born of colonial rivalry and strategic importance.

Trieste

Main article: [Free_Territory_of_Trieste)

The [Free_Territory_of_Trieste) was an independent territory, a product of post-World War II geopolitical maneuvering, situated in Central Europe between northern Italy and Yugoslavia, facing the northern Adriatic Sea. It was placed under the direct responsibility of the [United_Nations_Security_Council) from 1947 to 1954. This arrangement was designed to resolve conflicting territorial claims between Italy and Yugoslavia, but like many such international compromises, it proved temporary, eventually leading to a de facto partition between the two nations.

West Berlin

In the latter half of the 20th century, [West_Berlin), though technically lacking full sovereignty, functioned from 1948 until 1990 as a state legally separate from any other. It was ruled by the [Western_Allies) (the United States, United Kingdom, and France). Despite their ultimate overlordship as occupying powers, they permitted its internal organization as a single city that simultaneously operated as a state, officially designated as Berlin (West). While West Berlin maintained exceptionally close ties to the [West_German) Federal Republic, it never legally became an integral part of it, a bizarre and highly politicized arrangement that stood as a symbol of the Cold War's artificial divisions.

Contemporary sovereign city-states

Vatican City

[Vatican_City), a city-state renowned for its minuscule size, is nonetheless a global center of immense spiritual and cultural influence.

Main article: [Vatican_City)

Until September 1870, the ancient city of Rome had been under the direct control of the pope as the heart of his temporal domain, the [Papal_States). However, when King [Victor_Emmanuel_II) of Italy seized the city in 1870, effectively completing the unification of Italy, [Pope_Pius_IX) defiantly refused to recognize the legitimacy of the newly formed [Kingdom_of_Italy).

Unable to travel beyond the confines of the papal enclave without implicitly acknowledging the authority of the king, Pius IX and his successors famously declared themselves "[Prisoner_in_the_Vatican)", symbolically confined to the minute 0.49 square kilometers (0.19 square miles) of papal territory once they had ascended the [papal_throne). This rather dramatic [impasse), known as the [Roman_Question), persisted for nearly six decades.

The resolution finally arrived in 1929 with the signing of the [Lateran_Treaties), a complex negotiation brokered by the Italian dictator [Benito_Mussolini) between King [Victor_Emmanuel_III) and [Pope_Pius_XI). Under the terms of this pivotal treaty, [Vatican_City) was formally recognized as an independent sovereign state, with the Pope serving as its absolute head. Today, the Vatican City State maintains its own distinct citizenship, a sophisticated [diplomatic_corps), its unique flag, and even its own postage_stamps. With a permanent population of fewer than 1,000 residents (overwhelmingly composed of clergymen), it stands as, by a considerable margin, the smallest sovereign country in the entire world. It's a testament to the enduring power of faith, or perhaps, simply a very clever diplomatic maneuver.

Monaco, perpetually framed by its opulent casino, the enduring presence of its royalty, and its breathtaking harbour, is a glittering example of a modern city-state.

Singapore, a modern city-state and vibrant [island_country), stands as a beacon of economic prosperity and strategic importance.

Monaco

Main article: Monaco

The [Principality_of_Monaco) is an exceedingly small, yet fiercely independent, city-state nestled along the French Riviera, bordered exclusively by France. It's a place where luxury and sovereignty converge, though one wonders how much "independence" truly exists when your entire existence relies on the goodwill of your much larger neighbor. Monaco-Ville (the ancient fortified city, often referred to as "The Rock") and Monaco's globally recognized district of [Monte_Carlo) are not, as some might assume, distinct cities, but rather integral districts within a continuous urban zone. Historically, they were three separate municipalities (communes) until 1917, when administrative streamlining created the current unified structure. While the Principality of Monaco and the City of Monaco each possess specific governmental powers, they effectively govern the very same compact territory. Although they maintain a small military, largely for ceremonial duties and internal security, it is an open secret that Monaco would be entirely reliant on France for defense should it ever face a truly aggressive external power. A beautiful facade, but one built on practical dependency.

Singapore

Main article: Singapore

Singapore is a dynamic [island_city-state) strategically positioned in [Southeast_Asia), sharing maritime borders with Malaysia to the north and Indonesia to the south. Within its compact 728.3 square kilometers (281.2 square miles), approximately 6 million people live and work, making Singapore the [2nd-most-densely_populated_country_in_the_world), surpassed only by Monaco. The nation's journey to full sovereignty was a relatively recent and dramatic one; it was briefly part of the Federation of Malaysia for two tumultuous years before famously [seceding_from_the_federation) in 1965. Since then, it has blossomed into an independent [republic), functioning simultaneously as a single massive city and a fully sovereign country. As previously noted, The_Economist has commendably referred to Singapore as the "world's only fully functioning city-state," and for good reason. It boasts its own robust currency, a sprawling and highly efficient commercial airport (Changi), one of the busiest trans-shipment maritime_ports_in_the_world, and fully fledged, technologically advanced armed_forces specifically designed to safeguard the nation's sovereignty against any potential regional aggressors. [WorldAtlas) even goes so far as to highlight Singapore's unique status as the only island city-state in the world. It’s a masterclass in making the most of limited resources, proving that size isn't everything when it comes to punching above your weight.

Contemporary non-sovereign city-states

The city of [Hong_Kong) enjoys such a high degree of autonomy that it is frequently, and understandably, considered a city-state.

Some cities or urban agglomerations, while not possessing the ultimate authority of sovereign states, may nonetheless exist as constituent states within a larger federation or enjoy such a high degree of administrative and legislative autonomy that they effectively operate as "city-states" within the broader context of the sovereign state to which they belong. Historian [Mogens_Herman_Hansen), a keen observer of these political forms, aptly describes this nuanced aspect of self-government: "The city-state is a self-governing, but not necessarily independent, political unit." A city with a more limited scope of self-governance, however, is typically referred to as merely an [independent_city), a distinction that, while subtle, is crucial for those who prefer precision.

Several non-sovereign cities that exhibit a high degree of autonomy and are commonly described as city-states include:

In Spain: Ceuta and Melilla, which function as distinct [autonomous_cities_of_Spain) on the North African coast.
In Armenia: Yerevan, which holds the status of an autonomous city within the republic.
In China: [Hong_Kong) and Macau, both designated as [special_administrative_regions_of_China) (SARs), endowed with unique legal and economic systems that set them apart from mainland cities.
In [South_Korea): [Sejong_City), established as a self-governing administrative city.
In the [United_Kingdom): Gibraltar, a [British_Overseas_Territory) that effectively functions as a city-state due to its small size and extensive self-governance.

The city of Basel, majestically situated on the Rhine, proudly carries its legacy as both a historic city-state and a contemporary [Swiss_canton).

A number of cities that are constituent states within a federal system, and thus can be accurately characterized as non-sovereign city-states with a substantial degree of autonomy, include:

In Argentina: [Buenos_Aires), an autonomous city that also serves as the federal capital.
In Austria: Vienna, which is both the national capital and one of Austria's nine federal states.
In Belgium: Brussels, functioning as one of the three regions of Belgium, with significant self-governing powers.
In Germany: [Bremen_(state)), Berlin, and Hamburg, all of which are simultaneously federal states (or Länder) and major urban centers, a legacy of their historical independence.
In Nigeria: [Lagos_State), although a state within the federation, its urban core dominates its identity and functions.
In Mexico: [Mexico_City), which, after a significant constitutional reform, gained the status of a distinct federal entity with greater autonomy, akin to a state.
In Malaysia: Malacca, a historical trading port that retains a strong urban identity and a degree of self-governance within the Malaysian federation.
In Russia: Moscow, Sevastopol (a disputed territory), and Saint_Petersburg, all of which hold the status of federal cities, granting them administrative independence from surrounding regions.
In Switzerland: Basel-Stadt and Geneva, both of which are small, highly urbanized cantons that effectively operate as city-states within the Swiss Confederation.

States with similar characteristics

A collection of other small states, while not strictly city-states in the purest sense, share many of their defining characteristics and are occasionally, though perhaps somewhat generously, cited as modern examples. Countries such as Luxembourg, Djibouti, Qatar, Brunei, Kuwait, Bahrain, and Malta are each undeniably centered, both politically and economically, on a single dominant urban area. In the cases of Luxembourg, Djibouti, and Kuwait, this primate_city is so overwhelmingly dominant that it lends its very name to the entire country, a clear indicator of its centrality.

However, these nations are distinct from true city-states like Singapore in a crucial way: they encompass not only their primate city (such as [Luxembourg_City)) but also a number of peripheral cities and towns (like [Esch-sur-Alzette) and [ten_other_towns) in Luxembourg) that possess their own autonomous [municipal_authorities). Furthermore, they may include substantial rural areas (such as the sparsely populated Éislek forest of northern Luxembourg). These distinctions, while seemingly minor, prevent them from fitting the precise definition of a city-state, a nuance that is often lost in casual conversation.

Occasionally, microstates with exceptionally high population densities, such as [San_Marino), are also erroneously cited as city-states, despite conspicuously lacking a single large urban center. It seems the human desire to categorize everything, even when the lines are blurry, often overrides simple observation.

Proposed city-states

The human imagination, ever restless, continues to conjure visions of new city-states, often born from desires for greater autonomy or, more cynically, a fresh start from existing national frameworks.

London

Main article: London_independence

The [London_independence) movement advocates for the creation of a city-state entirely separate from the [United_Kingdom). This notion, often gaining traction during periods of national political upheaval, proposes that London, with its immense economic power, distinct cultural identity, and vast population, could thrive as an independent entity, free from the perceived constraints of national politics. It's an ambitious idea, to say the least, and one that highlights the ongoing tension between urban centers and their surrounding nations.

Hong Kong

This paragraph is an excerpt from Hong_Kong_independence.[edit]

[Hong_Kong_independence) refers to the concept of Hong_Kong existing as a [sovereign_state), entirely independent from the People's_Republic_of_China (PRC). Currently, Hong Kong functions as a special_administrative_region (SAR) of China, and as such, it is granted a high degree of de_jure autonomy, a status explicitly stipulated by Article 2 of the [Hong_Kong_Basic_Law), which was ratified under the [Sino-British_Joint_Declaration). However, since the [handover_of_Hong_Kong) from the United_Kingdom to the PRC in 1997, a growing segment of Hongkongers have expressed increasing concern over what they perceive as Beijing's systematic encroachment on the territory's cherished freedoms and the persistent failure of the [Hong_Kong_government) to deliver what they consider "genuine democracy." This rising sentiment gave birth to calls for independence, though advocating for Hong Kong independence became explicitly illegal following the enactment of the draconian [Hong_Kong_national_security_law) in 2020, effectively silencing overt public discourse on the matter.

Sovereign State of the Bektashi Order

Main article: Sovereign_State_of_the_Bektashi_Order

The [Sovereign_State_of_the_Bektashi_Order) is a proposed city-state envisioned within the Albanian capital of Tirana. Its establishment is contingent upon approval by the [Albanian_Parliament) and a national referendum. This intriguing proposal suggests a state led by the [Bektashi_Order), a Sufi Islamic dervish order, and is planned to be structured in a manner conceptually similar to [Vatican_City). The idea has been put forward by Albanian Prime Minister [Edi_Rama) and the leader of the Bektashi Order, [Baba_Mondi), who hope that such sovereignty would help to promote moderate Muslim values and counter radical ideologies within the region. If realized, the Sovereign State of the Bektashi Order would be geographically encapsulated by the eastern suburbs of Tirana, and it would claim the title of the [smallest_nation_in_the_world), an even more compact entity than Vatican City. It’s an interesting concept, undoubtedly, but one can only imagine the bureaucratic nightmares involved in carving out a new sovereign entity within an existing capital.