Tertiary Education

Tertiary Education: The Third Stage of Adult Indoctrination (or, 'Education')

Students attend a linear algebra lecture at a tertiary institution: Helsinki University of Technology in Finland. A student learning about automotive repair at the Chawama Youth Resource Centre in Lusaka, Zambia.

Tertiary education, often redundantly referred to as higher education or post-secondary education, represents the educational level that one encounters after the supposedly formative years of secondary education have been endured. It is, for all intents and purposes, the next rung on the ladder of formalized learning, a phase where individuals are expected to delve deeper into specialized fields, or at least accumulate enough credentials to convince someone they have. The World Bank, in its infinite wisdom, broadly defines tertiary education as encompassing universities, colleges, and even vocational schools. [1] This definition, while comprehensive, often glosses over the significant distinctions and perceived hierarchies within these institutions.

More specifically, what is commonly understood as higher education typically includes both the undergraduate and subsequent postgraduate education pathways, leading to academic degrees. Meanwhile, the practical, skills-focused training that extends beyond secondary education is often categorized differently, depending on geographical preference. In the United Kingdom, this practical continuation is known as further education, while in the United States, it might be folded under the expansive umbrella of continuing education. The nomenclature, as always, is less important than the underlying reality: more learning, more specialization, more time spent in institutions.

The journey through tertiary education generally culminates in the acquisition of various forms of validation: certificates, diplomas, or the much-coveted academic degrees. These markers are not merely arbitrary; they are meticulously classified within global educational frameworks. For instance, higher education aligns with levels 5, 6, 7, and 8 of the 2011 version of the International Standard Classification of Education structure. Conversely, tertiary education that does not lead to a degree, often emphasizing practical skills or personal enrichment, is sometimes specifically referred to as further education or continuing education, thereby distinguishing it from the more academically oriented "higher education." It's a subtle but important distinction for those who enjoy categorizing everything.

UNESCO, ever the arbiter of global educational standards, has emphasized that tertiary education is primarily concerned with "learning endeavors in specialized fields." It explicitly includes both academic pursuits and higher vocational education [2]. This focus on specialization is increasingly crucial in a world that consistently demands more niche expertise. The World Bank's 2019 World Development Report on the future of work [3] reinforces this, arguing with an almost weary inevitability that given the relentless march of technology and its increasing role in global value chains, tertiary education is becoming not just relevant, but "even more relevant for workers to compete in the labor market." One might conclude that humanity is in a perpetual race to out-skill its own obsolescence.

Definition

A post-secondary graduate receives a diploma during a graduation ceremony at Germanna Community College in Virginia.

Higher education, also known as post-secondary education, third-level education, or simply tertiary education, is typically presented as an optional, though increasingly expected, final stage of formal learning. This phase commences after an individual has successfully navigated the labyrinthine requirements of secondary education. It is the domain of institutions such as universities, colleges, and polytechnics, all of which are designed to offer formal degrees and credentials that extend beyond the basic high school or secondary school leaving qualifications. The implication, of course, is that the basic education was merely a warm-up act.

The systematic classification of these educational stages has evolved over time, a bureaucratic necessity to track humanity's collective knowledge acquisition. The International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) in its 1997 iteration initially grouped all tertiary education under a single, albeit broad, category, designating them as level 5, with doctoral studies carved out at level 6. However, as the educational landscape grew more complex (or perhaps, more convoluted), this classification was refined and expanded in the 2011 version of the structure. Under this updated schema, higher education at the undergraduate, master's, and doctoral levels were meticulously reclassified as levels 6, 7, and 8 respectively, acknowledging the increasing specialization and depth. Concurrently, non-degree level tertiary education, which often includes practical or professional development, was reordered as level 4, with certain higher courses slotted into level 5. [4] It seems even the act of categorizing education requires further, more detailed categorization.

It's worth noting, for those with a fondness for historical semantic quirks, that in eras when very few students progressed beyond primary education or even basic education, the term "higher education" was, somewhat confusingly, often applied to what we now call secondary education. [note 1] This historical usage is the etymological root of terms like "high school" which, in North America, refers to various institutions for children typically between the ages of 14 and 18, and in the United Kingdom and Australia, for those aged 11 to 18. [5] A testament to how quickly our aspirations, and the words we use to describe them, can shift.

History

House of Life 'library' in hieroglyphs

Bologna University in Italy, established in 1088 A.D., is the world's oldest university in continuous operation. Established in 1224 by Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor, University of Naples Federico II in Italy is the world's oldest state-funded university in continuous operation. [6] [7]

Before humanity decided that "secondary" wasn't quite enough, the earliest known precursors to higher education emerged from the very practical needs of ancient societies. Credit for some of the oldest known institutions of higher education is often given to Dynastic Egypt, with its Pr-Anx, literally "Houses of Life." These weren't just dusty archives; they functioned as libraries and scriptoriums, housing and generating works on law, architecture, mathematics, and medicine. Crucially, they were involved in the rigorous training of "swnw" and "swnwt," the male and female doctors of the era. The evidence of their existence and function is preserved in extant Egyptian papyri dating back to the 3rd millennium BC, now scattered across various collections. [8] It seems the desire for specialized knowledge and professional credentials is as old as civilization itself.

In the classical Greek world, the pursuit of philosophical and mathematical understanding gave rise to institutions that would profoundly influence Western thought. Plato's Academy, founded around 387–86 BCE, and Aristotle's Lyceum, established circa 334–86 BCE, served as intellectual crucibles. These philosophical-mathematical schools became foundational models for subsequent establishments, particularly flourishing in Alexandria, Egypt, under the patronage of the Ptolemies, where the famed Library of Alexandria would later embody this spirit of inquiry and learning.

Further to the East, South Asia also boasted venerable centers of learning. The ancient city of Taxila (its precise founding date lost to the mists of time), and later the grand Buddhist monastery of Nalanda (active from approximately 427–1197 CE), became beacons of knowledge, attracting students and esteemed professors from even the most distant regions. [9] It seems geographical barriers were no match for intellectual curiosity, or perhaps, the promise of a better future.

Similarly, in China, the Han dynasty recognized the strategic importance of an educated bureaucracy. To this end, they established chairs dedicated to teaching the Five Confucian Classics within the Grand School, or Taixue, which operated for an astonishing period from approximately 3 CE to 1905 CE. Its primary function was to train cadres for the imperial administration, ensuring a steady supply of educated officials to maintain order and power. [10] [11] Across these diverse cultures, these early higher-learning institutions served as foundational models, their influence radiating throughout their respective spheres of cultural dominance. [12]

The 5th century CE saw the Byzantine emperor Theodosius II make a significant innovation with the establishment of the Pandidakterion in 425 CE. This institution, boasting a faculty of 31 professors, was explicitly designed to train public servants, a clear recognition of the need for specialized education in governance. In Western Europe, the 7th and 8th centuries witnessed the emergence of "cathedral schools," typically attached to major ecclesiastical centers, which became vital hubs for learning during a period of relative intellectual decline. Concurrently, in the burgeoning Muslim empire, the first Madrasahs were founded. Initially, these were primarily elementary schools located within major mosque complexes, but they gradually evolved, expanding their curricula to encompass secondary and eventually higher education. However, despite their often impressive intellectual rigor, it would be anachronistic to label them "universities" in the modern sense. Their organizational structure and overarching purposes differed markedly from the autonomous corporations of students and teachers—the Universitas Studiorum—that began to establish themselves from the 12th century onwards in Western Europe, largely independent from both the direct control of the Church and the State. [ citation needed ]

The question of the "oldest" institution is, as always, fraught with definitional squabbles and claims to historical precedence. According to UNESCO and Guinness World Records, the University of al-Qarawiyyin in Fez, Morocco, holds the distinction of being the oldest existing continuously operating higher educational institution in the world. [13] [14] It is, in fact, occasionally cited by scholars as the oldest university. [15] Yet, undoubtedly, there exist even older institutions of higher learning, such as the University of Ez-Zitouna in Montfleury, Tunis, which was first established in 737 CE, predating al-Qarawiyyin. However, when one speaks of a "university" in the specific sense of a self-governing, degree-awarding institute of higher learning, the University of Bologna, Italy, founded in 1088, generally takes the crown as the world's oldest university in continuous operation. [16] [17] [18] [19] [20] It was at its foundation that the very term universitas was coined, signifying a community of masters and scholars. [19] [16] [17] [18] Further adding to Italy's claims, the University of Naples Federico II, established in 1224 by Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor, holds the distinction of being the world's oldest state-funded university in continuous operation. [6] [7] It seems everyone wants a piece of that "oldest" title, a testament to humanity's enduring need for validation, even in its educational institutions.

20th Century

The 20th century, particularly in the aftermath of World War II, saw a seismic shift in the role and accessibility of higher education. Developed nations, and subsequently many developing countries, moved dramatically from an "elite" rate of participation—where only up to 15 percent of the relevant age group pursued higher education—to a "mass" rate, encompassing between 16 and 50 percent. [21] [22] This expansion was driven by a myriad of factors, including economic necessity, social mobility aspirations, and a growing recognition of the value of an educated populace in a rapidly industrializing and technologically advancing world.

In many developed countries, this trend continued its relentless upward trajectory, moving towards what Martin Trow later termed "universal" or "open access," where more than half of the age group typically associated with higher education now participates. [23] This widespread participation underscores the critical importance of higher education to national economies. It serves a dual role: not only is it a significant industry in its own right, employing vast numbers of people and generating considerable revenue, but it is also the primary wellspring for the trained and educated personnel required by virtually every other sector of the economy. The economic benefits are clear, at least on paper: college-educated workers have consistently commanded a measurable wage premium over their less-educated counterparts and are significantly less likely to experience unemployment. [24] [25] It seems the market, for all its flaws, still values a piece of paper.

21st Century

And then, the inevitable decline, or at least, the complications that come with massification. In recent years, universities, once bastions of unassailable intellectual authority, have faced increasing scrutiny and criticism. A significant point of contention has been the alleged practice of grade inflation, where academic institutions are accused of permitting or even actively encouraging the upward creep of grades. [26] [27] This phenomenon is often linked to institutional pressures to maintain positive public perception, attract students, and boost rankings, creating a somewhat cynical "arms race" for higher marks.

Furthermore, the very success of widening participation has introduced its own set of paradoxes. While more individuals gain access to higher education, this can lead to an oversupply of graduates in certain fields, exceeding the actual demand for their specialized skills. The consequences are predictable: an aggravation of issues such as graduate unemployment, underemployment (where graduates are forced to take jobs below their skill level), overqualification, and a phenomenon aptly termed educational inflation, where a degree that once guaranteed entry to a profession now barely serves as a minimum requirement. [28] [29] It seems that more education doesn't always translate to more opportunity, just more competition.

The 21st century has also brought unforeseen disruptions. Some commentators have suggested that the profound impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on education is rapidly rendering certain traditional aspects of the higher education system obsolete, forcing a re-evaluation of delivery methods and institutional structures. [30] A more recent, and perhaps more politically charged, controversy involves claims made by the Israeli-funded Institute for the Study of Global Antisemitism and Policy and certain Israeli media outlets. They have asserted that involvement and funding by Qatar in higher education in the US has correlated with what they perceive as growing anti-Semitism on campuses, particularly in connection with Gaza war protests. [31] [ better source needed ] [32] A predictable entanglement of finance and ideology, producing the usual academic outrage. Some things, it seems, never change, only find new patrons.

Enrollment

Percentage of 25–29-year-olds who have completed at least four years of tertiary education, by wealth, selected countries, 2008–2014

Globally, the statistics paint a clear picture of increasing participation in tertiary education. The gross enrollment ratio, a measure of the total enrollment in tertiary education as a percentage of the population in the official age group for tertiary education, saw a remarkable increase from 19% in 2000 to 38% in 2017. [33] Intriguingly, during this period, the female enrollment ratio surpassed the male ratio by a notable 4 percentage points, indicating a significant shift in gender dynamics within higher education.

However, this global picture masks substantial disparities. The tertiary gross enrollment ratio varies dramatically across different economic strata, ranging from a meager 9% in low-income countries to a robust 77% in high-income countries. In these high-income nations, after a period of rapid expansion in the 2000s, enrollment figures reached a plateau in the 2010s, suggesting a saturation point may have been reached. [33] The future, it seems, belongs to the middle.

Between the present day and 2030, the most significant surge in tertiary enrollment ratios is anticipated in middle-income countries, where projections suggest it will reach an average of 52%. This global push for education is underpinned by international commitments, notably Sustainable Development Goal 4 (SDG 4), which commits signatory countries to ensuring "inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all," explicitly including tertiary education. [33] A noble goal, if somewhat ambitious.

This commitment is rigorously monitored through the global indicator for target 4.3 within SDG 4, which meticulously measures the participation rate of youth and adults in formal and non-formal education and training over the preceding 12 months, regardless of whether it's for work-related or non-work purposes. [33] It seems humanity is determined to quantify its pursuit of knowledge.

The fundamental right of access to higher education is enshrined in a number of pivotal international human rights instruments. The UN International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights of 1966, in its Article 13, unequivocally declares that "higher education shall be made equally accessible to all, on the basis of capacity, by every appropriate means, and in particular by the progressive introduction of free education." [34] Similarly, within Europe, Article 2 of the First Protocol to the European Convention on Human Rights, adopted in 1950, imposes an obligation on all signatory parties to guarantee this right to education. [35] Of course, the right to access education is not the same as the right to succeed in it, a distinction often lost in the rhetoric.

A stark reality within these enrollment figures is the disparity in outcomes for vulnerable groups. University completion rates for students with disabilities, for instance, are demonstrably much lower when compared to the completion rates of students without disabilities. [36] It seems the path to higher education, even with declared rights, is not equally smooth for all.

Grade and educational inflation

As previously noted, some tertiary schools have drawn considerable criticism for allegedly permitting or even actively encouraging grade inflation. [26] [37] This practice, whether intentional or a byproduct of systemic pressures, raises legitimate questions about the integrity and comparability of academic achievements across institutions and over time. If everyone gets an A, what does an A truly mean?

Furthermore, a growing chorus of scholars argues that the expanding supply of graduates in certain fields of study is now outstripping the actual demand for their specific skills in the labor market. This imbalance, they contend, directly contributes to a range of undesirable outcomes, including persistent graduate unemployment, pervasive underemployment (where individuals are forced to accept positions for which they are overqualified), and the aforementioned educational inflation. [38] [39] In essence, the value of the degree itself is diluted, requiring ever-higher qualifications for jobs that once demanded less. It's a treadmill that speeds up with every new graduate.

Effects

Providers

Alma Mater by Daniel Chester French, Columbia University. The alma mater, meaning "nourishing mother" in Latin, is one of the most enduring symbols of the university. The phrase was first used to describe the University of Bologna, Italy, founded in 1088.

The landscape of tertiary education providers is as varied as the human intellect it purports to cultivate. In the United States, for example, this ecosystem is populated by a diverse array of institutions, including traditional universities, specialized academies, broad-based colleges, theological seminaries, artistic conservatories, and practical institutes of technology. Beyond these, the tertiary sphere also includes certain college-level institutions such as vocational schools, universities of applied sciences, trade schools, and other career-focused colleges that award various degrees. [44] It's a veritable buffet of institutions, all promising enlightenment, or at least a certificate to prove you tried. Tertiary education that does not lead to a degree, focusing instead on skill enhancement or ongoing learning, is, as noted, often distinguished as further education or continuing education from the more formal "higher education." [44] [45]

The activities encompassed within higher education are broad, extending far beyond the mere transmission of information in a lecture hall. They include the core function of teaching, the relentless pursuit of new knowledge through research, exacting applied work (as exemplified in highly specialized fields like medical schools and dental schools), and often, various social services activities offered by universities to their surrounding communities. [46]

Within the realm of teaching, higher education spans both the foundational undergraduate level, where students typically earn their first degree, and the subsequent, more specialized graduate-level (or postgraduate level), which in North America is frequently referred to as graduate school. Regardless of the specific degree or discipline, potential employers across virtually all professions consistently seek evidence of a common set of transversal skills. These include, but are rarely limited to, critical thinking and analytical reasoning capabilities, the often-elusive art of teamworking, demonstrated information literacy, sound ethical judgment, effective decision-making skills, fluency in both spoken and written communication, robust problem solving abilities, and a broad, foundational knowledge of the liberal arts and sciences. [47] A rather tall order for a mere four years, wouldn't you say?

The term "alma mater," meaning "nourishing mother" in Latin, is one of the most enduring and perhaps ironic symbols of the university. This evocative phrase was first used to describe the University of Bologna, Italy, founded in 1088, implying a nurturing environment. One can only hope the reality lives up to the poetic sentiment.

Credential evaluation

For those who venture beyond their national borders for education, the journey doesn't end with graduation. Foreign tertiary degrees often require validation through a process known as credential evaluation. This bureaucratic but essential step ensures that qualifications obtained abroad meet the standards and equivalencies recognized in a new country, often facilitated by international agreements such as the Lisbon Recognition Convention. [48] Because even after you've jumped through their hoops, someone else needs to verify if those hoops were legitimate.

Statistics

Numbers. The cold, hard truth, or at least a convenient approximation of it. The total expenditure on tertiary education, encompassing ISCED levels 5 to 8, is frequently expressed as a percentage of a country's Gross Domestic Product (GDP). The following table offers a snapshot of this commitment for various nations in 2020:

Country	Tertiary Education expenditure as % of GDP 2020 [49]
Australia	1.9
Austria	1.8
Belgium	1.6
Bulgaria	1.2
Canada	2.4
Chile	2.7
Colombia	1.5
Costa Rica	1.6
Croatia	1.2
Czech Republic	1.1
Denmark	1.9
Estonia	1.5
Finland	1.6
France	1.6
Germany	1.3
Greece	0.9
Hungary	0.9
Iceland	1.4
Ireland	0.8
Israel	1.4
Italy	1.0
Japan	1.4
Latvia	1.4
Lithuania	1.2
Luxembourg	0.5
Mexico	1.2
Netherlands	1.8
New Zealand	1.6
Norway	2.0
Poland	1.3
Portugal	1.3
Romania	0.8
Slovakia	1.1
Slovenia	1.2
South Korea	1.5
Spain	1.5
Sweden	1.6
Turkey	1.5
United Kingdom	1.5
United States of America	2.5

Further insights into the spread of tertiary education can be gleaned from the percentage of adults who have attained specific tertiary education levels, broken down by country. The following table illustrates this distribution for the age group 25–64, as of 2022:

Country	Ages 25–64: % attaining a tertiary degree course equivalent to at least: [50]
	Any tertiary
Argentina	24.8
Australia	51.5
Austria	35.6
Belgium	45.8
Brazil	21.0
Bulgaria	29.8
Canada	62.7
Chile	31.4
China	18.5
Colombia	28.3
Costa Rica	25.3
Czech Republic	26.7
Denmark	42.1
Estonia	42.1
Finland	42.6
France	41.6
Germany	32.5
Greece	35.1
Hungary	29.4
India	12.9
Indonesia	13.1
Iceland	43.6
Ireland	54.4
Israel	50.6
Italy	20.3
Japan	56.1
Latvia	39.5
Lithuania	46.5
Luxembourg	51.5
Mexico	20.6
Netherlands	44.7
New Zealand	39.8
Norway	48.1
Poland	33.9
Portugal	31.5
Romania	19.7
Slovakia	29.2
Slovenia	40.1
South Korea	52.8
South Africa	13.9
Spain	41.1
Sweden	48.5
Switzerland	44.7
Turkey	25.0
United Kingdom	51.3
United States of America	50.0

A 2014 report by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) highlighted several significant trends in global education. By that year, a substantial 84 percent of young people in high-income countries were completing upper secondary education over their lifetimes, a testament to widespread access at that level. The report also underscored the enduring economic advantage of tertiary education, noting that tertiary-educated individuals were, on average, earning twice as much as median workers. In a notable divergence from historical patterns, young women were found to be more likely to complete upper secondary education than young men. Furthermore, access to higher education was consistently expanding, with a sharp rise in the number of people pursuing university education. By 2014, nearly 40 percent of individuals aged 25–34 were educated at university, a stark contrast to the approximately 25 percent of those aged 55–64, illustrating the rapid demographic shift in educational attainment. [51] The numbers, then, confirm what many already suspect: education is a costly investment, but often a necessary one for economic survival, at least for now.

By region

The structure and nomenclature of tertiary education, like most things human, vary significantly across different geographical regions, reflecting diverse historical, cultural, and economic priorities.

Australia

Deakin University, one of Australia's 43 universities

• Main article: Tertiary education in Australia

Within Australia, the term "tertiary education" specifically refers to the continuation of studies after a student has completed their secondary schooling. The options available for this post-secondary phase are quite varied, encompassing traditional universities, the highly practical technical and further education (TAFE) institutions, and an increasing number of private universities. [52] Each pathway caters to different aspirations, from academic research to vocational skill acquisition, ensuring a wide spectrum of choices for those still willing to learn.

Europe

While the overarching concept of tertiary education in the European Union generally includes university-level study, its specific implementation, institutional types, and even the terminology can differ considerably from one member state to another. A patchwork of systems, as one might expect from such a diverse continent.

France

In France, the educational journey is a rather rigorous, almost ritualistic progression. After attending nursery school (French: école maternelle), elementary school (French: école primaire), middle school (French: collège), and finally high school (French: lycée), a student reaches a pivotal juncture. At this point, they may choose to continue their academic pursuits at a university, or, for the less ambitious or more pragmatically inclined, they may elect to conclude their formal education. The choice, they say, is theirs.

Italy

Sapienza University of Rome. It was founded in 1303 and is as such one of the world's oldest universities, [53] and with 122,000 students, it is the largest university in Europe. [54]

Education in Italy is compulsory for children from 6 to 16 years of age, [55] structured into five distinct stages: kindergarten (scuola dell'infanzia), primary school (scuola primaria or scuola elementare), lower secondary school (scuola secondaria di primo grado or scuola media inferiore), upper secondary school (scuola secondaria di secondo grado or scuola media superiore), and finally, university (università). [56] Notably, education is free in Italy, a benefit extended to children of all nationalities who are legal residents in the country. The system operates with both private and public education providers. [57]

The Polytechnic University of Milan, established in 1863, stands as the city's oldest university and is widely regarded as the premier university in Italy. [58] Another prominent institution is the Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, an Italian private research university founded in 1921. Its main campus is situated in Milan, with additional satellite campuses spread across Brescia, Piacenza, Cremona, and Rome. This institution offers degrees in both Italian and English, catering to a broader, international student body. [59]

Italy boasts a large and internationally recognized network of public or state-affiliated universities and schools that offer a wide array of higher education degrees. The vast majority of tertiary education in Italy is provided by these state-run universities, which operate under the vigilant supervision of the Italian Ministry of Education.

Italian universities are, quite rightly, celebrated for being among the oldest in the world. The University of Bologna, founded in 1088, is notably the oldest one ever in continuous operation, a true testament to enduring intellectual pursuit. Furthermore, the University of Naples Federico II holds the distinction of being the world's oldest state-funded university in continuous operation, founded in 1224. [60] [7] The historical pedigree is undeniable. Most universities in Italy receive substantial state support, ensuring a degree of accessibility. In 2019, a remarkable 33 Italian universities were ranked among the world's top 500, placing Italy third in Europe for this metric, trailing only the United Kingdom and Germany. [61]

Beyond the conventional university system, Italy also hosts a number of highly prestigious Superior Graduate Schools, often referred to as "Grandes écoles" or Scuola Superiore Universitaria. [62] These elite institutions offer officially recognized titles, including the Diploma di Perfezionamento, which is considered equivalent to a Doctorate, the Dottorato di Ricerca (i.e., Research Doctorate), or a Doctor Philosophiae (i.e., PhD). [63] Some of these schools also organize specialized master's degree courses. There are three Superior Graduate Schools that hold "university status" independently, and three institutes functioning as Doctoral Colleges at the graduate and post-graduate levels. Additionally, nine further schools operate as direct offshoots of existing universities, without their own distinct 'university status'. The most renowned among these is the Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa, established in 1810 by Napoleon as a branch of the venerable École Normale Supérieure in France, adopting a similar organizational model. These institutions are collectively and fittingly known as "Schools of Excellence" (Scuole di Eccellenza). [62] [64]

Italy is indeed home to a broad variety of universities, colleges, and academies, each contributing to its rich educational tapestry. The University of Bologna, founded in 1088, is very likely the oldest in the world, a fact often repeated with understandable pride. [65] In 2009, according to The Times, the University of Bologna was the sole Italian institution to break into the top 200 World Universities. Milan's Bocconi University has consistently garnered international recognition, notably ranked among the top 20 best business schools globally by The Wall Street Journal international rankings, particularly for its M.B.A. program, which in 2007 secured the 17th position worldwide in terms of graduate recruitment preference by major multinational corporations. [66] Forbes further recognized Bocconi as the best worldwide in the specific category of Value for Money, a rather pragmatic accolade. [67] In May 2008, Bocconi notably surpassed several traditionally top global business schools in the Financial Times Executive education ranking, achieving the 5th spot in Europe and 15th globally. [68]

Other leading universities and polytechnics include the Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore in Milan, the LUISS in Rome, the Polytechnic University of Turin, and the Politecnico di Milano (which, in 2011, was ranked as the 48th best technical university in the world by QS World University Rankings [69]). The University of Rome La Sapienza, founded in 1303, was Europe's 33rd best university in 2005 [70], and continues to rank among Europe's top 50 and the world's 150 best colleges. [71] In 2013, the Center for World University Rankings placed the Sapienza University of Rome 62nd globally and first in Italy in its World University Rankings. [72] Finally, the University of Milan stands out for its extensive research and teaching activities, which have earned significant international recognition. It is the sole Italian member of the League of European Research Universities (LERU), an exclusive group of twenty research-intensive European Universities, and has achieved impressive ranking positions, including 1st in Italy and 7th in Europe according to The Leiden Ranking. It seems Italy has a rather robust, if historically complex, educational offering.

Portugal

• Main article: Higher education in Portugal

Ukraine

• Main article: Higher education in Ukraine

United Kingdom

Under the system of devolution in the United Kingdom, the administration of education is fragmented, managed separately in England, Wales, Northern Ireland, and Scotland. This creates a rather intricate, sometimes confusing, landscape. In England, the term "tertiary education" largely aligns with the broader global understanding of "higher education," referring to studies pursued by individuals aged 18 and over. [73] However, in 2018, the Welsh Government adopted a more expansive definition, using "tertiary education" to encompass all post-16 education and training in Wales. [74]

Compounding this definitional complexity, since the 1970s, specialized further education colleges in England and Wales have paradoxically labeled themselves "tertiary colleges" despite often being considered part of the secondary education process. These institutions serve a dual purpose, catering to both school leavers and adult learners, effectively combining the primary functions of a traditional FE college with those of a sixth form college. [75] Typically, district councils that host such colleges have adopted a "tertiary system" or structure, wherein a single local institution provides all education for the 16–19 age group and adult learners, often in areas where schools do not universally offer sixth forms (meaning schools primarily serve ages 11–16). However, the Further and Higher Education Act 1992 effectively halted the creation of new tertiary colleges, freezing the system in its then-current configuration. [76] A bureaucratic knot, if there ever was one.

North America

Canada

Canada by province and territory, showing the percentage of the population aged 25 to 64 who had a bachelor's degree or higher, and the percentage point change from 2016 to 2021 [77]

• Main article: Higher education in Canada

Higher education in Canada is a multifaceted system, reflecting the country's federal structure, and includes provincial, territorial, Indigenous, and even military higher education systems. The stated ideal objective of Canadian higher education is to offer every Canadian citizen the opportunity to acquire the skills and knowledge deemed necessary to realize their "utmost potential." Beyond individual empowerment, it also aspires to cultivate a world-class workforce, enhance the employment rate of Canadians, and, ultimately, safeguard Canada's enduring prosperity. [78] These higher education programs are, on paper, intricately designed with the perspective of the learner firmly in focus, striving to mitigate risks and assure definite outcomes. A noble aspiration, if a somewhat optimistic one.

United States

• Main article: Higher education in the United States

The University of Pennsylvania, an American research university

The higher education system in the United States is famously, or perhaps infamously, decentralized. It is regulated independently by each state [79], with various accreditors playing a crucial role in attempting to ensure that institutions meet certain minimum standards. This creates a vast and incredibly diverse landscape, encompassing institutions that are privately governed and those owned and operated directly by state and local governments. Further adding to the complexity, some private institutions maintain affiliations with religious organizations, while others are entirely secular, with enrollment figures ranging from a mere few dozen students to tens of thousands. The United States Department of Education attempts to provide a broad-spectrum overview of this sprawling tertiary education system, offering detailed information on the nation's educational structure, the labyrinthine accreditation procedures, and the intricate connections to both state and federal agencies and entities. [80]

The Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education offers one of the most widely recognized frameworks for categorizing U.S. colleges and universities, employing several different methodologies to delineate institutional types. [81] Beyond the formal degree-granting bodies, the U.S. tertiary education ecosystem also includes a multitude of non-profit organizations dedicated to promoting the professional development of individuals within the field of higher education and raising awareness of related issues, such as international student services and the elusive goal of complete campus internationalization. [82] [83] It's a patchwork of aspirations and regulations, as only America could create.

Africa

Nigeria

Federal Polytechnic, Nekede in Owerri, Nigeria

In Nigeria, tertiary education refers specifically to the post-secondary education received at various institutions, including universities (whether government or privately funded), monotechnics (specialized technical institutions), polytechnics, and colleges of education. After successfully completing a secondary education, students have the option to enroll in a tertiary institution or pursue a vocational education pathway. To gain admission into a tertiary institution, students are typically required to sit for the rigorous Joint Admissions and Matriculation Board (JAMB) Entrance Examination, as well as the Secondary School Certificate Examination (SSCE) or the General Certificate Examination (GCE), and must meet varying cut-off marks for their chosen programs. [84] A rather formidable gauntlet to run, ensuring only the most determined (or perhaps, most fortunate) gain entry.

Asia

Japan

• Main article: Higher education in Japan

University of Tokyo, a research university in Tokyo

According to the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) and UNESCO, the tertiary education landscape in Japan is meticulously categorized. It encompasses several distinct types of institutions: traditional University education (offering undergraduate, postgraduate, and specialized professional degrees), two-year colleges (Tanki Daigaku), colleges of technology, and various specialized colleges. [85] A rather comprehensive, and predictably organized, approach to higher learning.

Hong Kong

Chinese University of Hong Kong, one of Hong Kong's universities

• Main article: Higher education in Hong Kong

In Hong Kong, the terms "tertiary education" or "higher education" are used broadly to refer to any form of education pursued beyond the level of secondary education. This inclusive definition covers a wide range of institutions, including traditional universities, post-secondary colleges, statutory universities established by specific ordinances, and various publicly funded institutions. It's a straightforward definition for a place that values efficiency.

Philippines

• Main article: Higher education in the Philippines

Notes

• ^ For example, Higher Education: General and Technical, a 1933 National Union of Teachers pamphlet by Lord Eustace Percy, which is actually about secondary education and uses the two terms interchangeably.

Tertiary Education